Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, 2Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois
During the Middle Horizon (A.D. 5001000), the Tiwanaku state dominated the south central Andes. The
production and circulation of goods were important components of statecraft. To date, studies of the
movement of pottery vessels across the Tiwanaku realm have relied on stylistic analyses. This paper
presents results of Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analyses
of ceramics from the largest Tiwanaku province in the Moquegua Valley, Peru. Comparison of the derived
compositional data with an existing chemical database of Moquegua Valley clays demonstrates that in
addition to local production, non-local ceramic vessels were being brought into the valley during the
height of Tiwanaku authority. A lower percentage of imported ceramics was identified in ceramic
assemblages dating to the wake of Tiwanaku state collapse (ca. A.D. 1000). Long-distance exchange
endured despite political breakdown but there were alterations in the particular networks in which
post-collapse communities participated.
Keywords: production, exchange, LA-ICP-MS, pottery, state collapse, Andes, Tiwanaku
Introduction
The development of widespread, complex exchange
networks is apparent in ancient states and empires
around the world (Brumfiel and Earle 1987;
DAltroy and Earle 1985; Earle and Ericson 1977;
Oka and Kusimba 2008). While exchange networks
are not necessarily dependent on imperial infrastructure and often thrive outside the auspices of state
authority (Nakassis et al. 2011; Parkinson 2010;
Parkinson and Galaty 2009), the movement of
goods across states and empires was an important
component of ancient political organizations, serving
as the basis for elaborate tribute systems, providing a
currency for rewarding loyal individuals, and acting
as a vehicle for materializing and spreading ideology
(DAltroy et al. 1994; DeMarrais et al. 1996).
Conversely, the breakdown of regional exchange
networks and the concomitant decline in the longdistance movement of goods are commonly cited as
consequences of state collapse (Renfrew 1979;
Schwartz and Nichols 2006; Tainter 1988; Yoffee
and Cowgill 1988).
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The Tiwanaku
Beginning around A.D. 500, the Tiwanaku emerged
as the dominant polity in the altiplano, a cold,
windy, high altitude region in the Lake Titicaca
Basin (Bauer and Stanish 2001; Janusek 2008;
Kolata 1993a; Stanish 2003). The nature and workings of the Tiwanaku state have been subject to considerable scholarly debate since the late 19th century
but increasingly researchers agree that the Tiwanaku
state was both powerful and hierarchical, and that
elites manipulated existing Andean concepts of reciprocity and social organization to draw together
local groups and assert authority over the region
(Albarracin-Jordan 1996; Goldstein 2005; Janusek
2004a, 2004b, 2013; Kolata 1993b, 2003; McAndrews
et al. 1997; Squier 1877; Stanish 2003, 2013).
The state capital, also called Tiwanaku, was
located near the shores of Lake Titicaca. By A.D.
800, in addition to monumental religious and elite
structures, the city of Tiwanaku was home to thousands of residents (Couture 2003; Couture and
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Tiwanaku Ceramics
Tiwanaku ceramic assemblages have been the subject
of considerable visual analysis, in both the state
heartland and the provinces (Anderson 2013; Burkholder 1997; Goldstein 1985; Isbell 2013; Janusek
1999, 2003b; Korpisaari and Parssinen 2011). These
studies have identified a Tiwanaku-wide style,
characterized by particular forms and decorative traditions. Heartland forms include keros, vase shaped
drinking vessels that held the chicha, or maize beer,
that was central to political and religious feasting;
escudillas (elaborate serving vessels); sahumadors
(ceremonial burners) and zoomorphic incensarios
used for burning; portrait vessels that depict male
individuals; tazones (flaring-sided bowls); onehandled pitchers, as well as cooking and storage
vessels (Janusek 2003b). Among common decorative
motifs are felines and camelids as well as geometric
imagery. The inclusion of images, in particular the
Staff God, also found on the monumental stone
architecture and sculptures that constituted the
built religious and political structures of the capital
Figure 4 Maps showing the location of Tiwanaku sites before (left) and after (right) state collapse ca. A.D. 1000.
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Study Samples
The present study was intended to compositionally
compare state period and post-collapse Tiwanaku
ceramics from Moquegua with locally available
clays in order to determine the presence of imported
pottery and to investigate changing patterns of
resource procurement in the valley. This necessitated
using the same methodology, LA-ICP-MS, as that
utilized in the earlier clay study (Sharratt et al.
2009), and therefore required exporting ceramic
sherds to the U.S.A. Other analytical methodologies,
particularly portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF),
have the advantage that they can be conducted at
the location of curation, meaning that large samples,
including entire vessels which would be impossible to
export from Peru, can be analyzed. P-XRF analyses
were undertaken of Tiwanaku pottery in Moquegua
from the sites of Chen Chen and Tumilaca la
Chimba (Schur 2011; Sharratt 2011a). In one
(Schur 2011), 229 vessels ascribed to the height of
state authority were analyzed with p-XRF. In the
other (Sharratt 2011a), 192 different state period
vessels and 78 post-collapse sherds were analyzed
using p-XRF. However, because p-XRF measures
fewer elements and has higher detection limits than
ICP-MS, it proved impossible to differentiate the
five locally available clay groups in the Moquegua
Valley using p-XRF. Given the importance of associating ceramics with the particular clay group used in
their production, the chemical compositions of ceramic materials from the same two Moquegua Valley
sites included in the p-XRF studies (Chen Chen and
Tumilaca la Chimba) were analyzed using LA-ICPMS (FIG. 4 ).
Chen Chen dates to the height of Tiwanaku state
authority in the Moquegua Valley with AMS dates
falling between A.D. 700 and 1030 (Goldstein 2005;
Sharratt 2011a). It was the largest Tiwanaku site in
the valley. As well as extensive residential sectors,
the site consists of agricultural fields and substantial
storage facilities (Goldstein 2005; Williams 1997,
2002). The site likely represents a major state installation that played a significant role in the production
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supporting the longstanding hypothesis that inhabitants of Tumilaca la Chimba were refugees and
their descendants, who abandoned state centers
when the Tiwanaku state began to collapse (Sutter
and Sharratt 2010).
Distinctions between state period and collapse
phase pottery in the Moquegua Valley are often
expressed as differences in quality (Bermann et al.
1989; Goldstein 1985, 2005) and comparison of the
Tumilaca la Chimba and Chen Chen assemblages
meets with these generalizations (Sharratt 2011a).
Ceramic material recovered from excavations in the
cemeteries and in domestic structures at Tumilaca
la Chimba is stylistically similar to that at
Chen Chen (FIG. 6 ). However, although state period
forms (such as keros and tazones) were produced
and used, there is a greater range in size and
volume and keros are on average larger than their
state period predecessors. Similar decorative repertories were utilized. Decorated pottery is typically
red-slipped, although reds tend to be darker than
those at Chen Chen. However, surface treatments
appear more hurried and fewer colors were used in
decoration than in the Chen Chen assemblage. Iconographic repertories at Tumilaca la Chimba include
both the maintenance and rejection of state period
motifs. Pottery from Tumilaca la Chimba displays
more geometric motifs relative to anthropomorphized imagery. Significantly although many motifs
were maintained in modified forms, other state
period images, most notably the Staff God, are
absent from post-collapse ceramic assemblages in
the Moquegua Valley.
The context of production for collapse phase ceramics remains uncertain. Although pigments have
been tentatively identified on the patio of one excavated residence at Tumilaca la Chimba, to date no
clear evidence for pottery production has been
found during fieldwork at the site, or during the
smaller excavations undertaken at other collapse
phase sites. However, the greater internal variation
in collapse phase assemblages with regard to form,
decoration, slip color and surface treatment, coupled
with imprecise execution have been taken as evidence
for a shift from workshop to domestic production
in the wake of state breakdown (Bawden 1989;
Bermann et al. 1989).
Methods
Forty-five ceramic sherds from Chen Chen and 49
from Tumilaca la Chimba were exported to the
U.S.A. for compositional analysis. All analyzed
material from Chen Chen was excavated during
rescue excavations at the sites cemeteries by Bruce
Owen in 1995 and by Romulo Pari Flores in 2002
(Owen 1997; Pari Flores et al. 2002). All ceramic
material from Tumilaca la Chimba analyzed during
this study was excavated from mortuary and residential contexts under the auspices of Proyecto Arqueologico Cerro Baul in 2006/2007 (Sharratt 2011a;
Sharratt et al. 2012; Williams 2008). At both sites,
ceramic sherds as well as complete vessels were
placed in graves (Sharratt 2011a). The samples analyzed in this study therefore included small fragments
that had already broken off entire vessels and sherds
unattributed to larger vessels from the cemeteries.
The samples from both sites also included decorated
and undecorated sherds.
Sherds were subjected to LA-ICP-MS at the
Elemental Analysis Facility (EAF) at the Field
Museum of Natural History in Chicago, the same
facility used to analyze clays from the Moquegua
Valley (Sharratt et al. 2009). Protocols established
for the Field Museums facility were used for the
LA-ICP-MS analysis (Dussubieux et al. 2007; Golitko
and Terrell 2012; Niziolek 2013; Vaughn et al. 2011).
A Varian ICP-MS instrument equivalent to the
Varian 810 instrument was used. The Varian is a quadropole mass spectrometer. Quadropole mass filters are
appropriate for trace element measurement because
they rapidly scan a wide mass range (Pollard et al.
2007). In the Field Museum machine, the ion beam
is bent 90uu by a series of lenses before it enters the
quadropole, increasing the sensitivity of the instrument 200 times (Elliot et al. 2004). The facility at the
Field Museum uses a New Wave UP213 (Helium carrier gas, 213 nm laser operated at 0.2 mJ and a pulse
frequency of 15 Hz) laser in conjunction with the
ICP-MS to introduce solid samples.
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Statistical Procedures
Prior to analysis, elements which are known to measure
poorly on the EAF ICP-MS instrument due to oxide
interferences or high ionization energies were removed
from consideration. These included Cl and As.
Additionally, several elements that measured close to
instrumental detection limits with poor precision
Ag, In, and Biwere also removed from the analysis.
Finally, Cu measurements displayed consistent differences across analyses, possibly due to memory effects
associated with other projects undertaken at the EAF
during the duration of analysis, and consequently, Cu
was also removed from consideration.
All remaining chemical measurements were first
converted to base-10 logarithms to normalize their
distribution and eliminate scaling differences between
high and low abundance elements. Initial pattern recognition was achieved by first performing an R-Q
mode factor analysis on the correlation matrix
(Baxter 1992; Neff 1994). Factor scores for all
samples were then subjected to a hierarchical cluster
analysis using the average linkage method on
squared Euclidean distances between ceramic sherds
(Shennan 1997). Both Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
(HCA) and visual inspection of Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) plots and bivariate elemental plots
resulted in the identification of two primary chemical
groups, here referred to as Groups 1 and 2, and three
distinct outlier chemical profiles, referred to as Outlier Types 13 (FIGS. 7, 8, 9 ). Relative to Group 1
sherds, Group 2 ceramics exhibit higher Al, Nb,
Ba, and light Rare Earth Elements (REE) concentrations. The single sherd included in Outlier Type
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MVC001
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MVC024
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MVC032
MVC033
MVC045
MVC039
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MVC046
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MVC034
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MVC044
MVC038
MVC050
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MVC015
MVC030
MVC031A
Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
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Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
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Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
Moquegua Valley
Otora Valley 1
Otora Valley 1
Otora Valley 1
Otora Valley 1
Otora Valley 2
Otora Valley 2
Otora Valley 2
Otora Valley 2
Torata Valley
Torata Valley
Torata Valley
Torata Valley
Torata Valley
Torata Valley
Tumilaca Valley
Tumilaca Valley
Tumilaca Valley
Tumilaca Valley
Unassigned
Unassigned
Unassigned
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.03
0.12
0.00
0.00
0.06
0.18
10.83
0.29
0.01
0.59
0.00
0.10
0.00
0.11
4.92
2.65
0.06
0.00
0.05
22.84
0.41
0.44
0.23
0.32
0.03
0.00
0.20
0.13
22.05
0.11
0.00
0.02
0.00
0.04
0.06
1.13
0.00
1.92
2.30
0.03
3.37
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.04
0.00
0.16
0.20
0.26
2.70
0.39
0.13
0.04
0.19
0.18
0.09
0.18
0.12
0.12
0.03
0.11
0.04
0.33
0.53
0.59
0.99
0.51
0.46
0.27
0.31
0.70
0.44
0.47
0.49
0.09
0.35
1.59
0.78
0.63
2.05
3.37
0.70
0.63
1.67
1.07
1.19
0.34
0.16
0.31
0.30
0.75
0.46
2.34
0.20
0.03
0.14
0.18
Results
Chen Chen
Earlier p-XRF analyses of large samples from
Chen Chen indicated that ceramics recovered from
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Tumilaca la Chimba
Despite up-rooting and settling some 15 km from
Chen Chen and other Tiwanaku towns, potters at
Tumilaca la Chimba largely continued to use clays
that are chemically indistinguishable from those
used by their state period predecessors. This is
notable because chemically distinct clays are found
within 5 km of Tumilaca la Chimba in the Tumilaca
drainage (Tumilaca Valley Group). However, given
that the site appears to be located on the very limit
of the Moquegua Valley Groups geographical
range, the continued use of clays from that group
may have been the result of access and availability,
rather than a cultural choice to continue using the
same materials as their ceramicist forerunners.
Although made from the same clay group as Chen
Chen ceramics, the Tumilaca la Chimba sherds are
more chemically diverse. This was noted also
during p-XRF analyses (Schur 2011; Sharratt
2011a). Although this larger diversity mirrors the
greater range seen in visual analyses of collapse
10
Human remains
M1-303011A
M1-303011E
M1-303037
Undetermined 2
Incensario?
3
Undetermined 2
30
30
M1-331007
Tazon
33
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Discussion
As in many other ancient polities, ceramic vessels fulfilled significant economic, political, and ritual functions in the Tiwanaku state. They were utilized
extensively in the feasts and conspicuous drinking
that were vital tools in Tiwanaku statecraft. They
were also important portable media for the spread
of heartland iconographic repertoires that materialized elite ideology. Visual analyses of ceramic
material have identified the presence of non-local
variants of Tiwanaku pottery in communities across
the south central Andes. Yet, to date, differences in
style have been the principal means of inferring the
movement of vessels around the states territory
(Goldstein 2005; Janusek 2004a; Kolata 1993a;
Korpisaari 2006).
The existing compositional data on clays found in
the Moquegua Valley provide the necessary basis for
determining the presence of ceramic imports in
assemblages from this major Tiwanaku province
and for examining patterns in provincial resource
procurement. The results presented in this study confirm that potters in the Moquegua Valley colony largely used locally available clays, those found in the
vicinity of the states administrative centers at Omo
and Chen Chen, to craft replicas of heartland
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Conclusions
In sum, the LA-ICP-MS study reported here demonstrates the relevance of compositional analyses to
understandings of social and economic networks in
the Prehispanic Andes. The data derived from ceramic sherds excavated at Chen Chen confirm that
during the height of Tiwanaku state authority in
Sharratt et al.
Pottery production, regional exchange, and state collapse during the Middle Horizon ( A.D. 500 1000)
Acknowledgments
LA-ICP-MS analyses were funded by the National
Science Foundation (DDIG 0937303). Fieldwork at
Tumilaca la Chimba was supported by Fulbright IIE,
Dumbarton Oaks, the Graduate College and Department of Anthropology at the University of Illinois of
Chicago as well as by the Womens Board and the
Department of Anthropology at the Field Museum.
Excavations at Tumilaca la Chimba were conducted
with permission from the Ministerio de Cultura del
Peru, Lima (RDN 1208/INC awarded to Patrick
Ryan Williams and Maria Elena Rojas Chavez in
2006/2007). Romulo Pari Flores and Bruce Owen facilitated study of the Chen Chen ceramic samples. Ceramic
sherds were exported from Peru to the U.S.A. with the
permission of the Ministerio de Cultura del Peru,
Lima (# 1659/792). Particular thanks are due Laure
Dussubieux for providing invaluable assistance in the
Elemental Analysis Facility at the Field Museum.
Nicola Sharratt (Ph.D. 2011, University of Illinois at
Chicago) is Assistant Professor of Anthropology, at
Georgia State University. Her interests include
Andean South America, state collapse, craft production, complex societies, and archaeometry.
Mark Golitko (Ph.D. 2010, University of Illinois at
Chicago) is Regenstein Research Scientist, at the
Field Museum of Natural History. His interests
include Prehistoric social networks, trade, archaeometry, the western Pacific, and Europe.
Patrick Ryan Williams (Ph.D. 1997, University of
Florida) is Associate Director of Research and Associate Curator of Archaeological Science, at the Field
Museum of Natural History. His interests include the
Anthropology of imperialism and colonialism, complex
societies, agricultural dynamics, landscape ecology,
geographic information systems and remote sensing
applications, geoarchaeology, archaeometry, and
Andean South America.
References
Adan-Bayewitz, D., and I. Perlman. 1985. Local Pottery Provenience Studies: A Role for Clay Analysis, Archaeometry 27(2):
203217.
Albarracin-Jordan, J. 1996. Tiwanaku Settlement System: The
Integration of Nested Hierarchies in the Lower Tiwanaku
Valley, Latin American Antiquity 7(3): 183210.
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