Chapter 2 - Theories of Development. Lifespan Development - A Chronological Approach (Hoffnung Et. Al

12/7/2015
Chapter2:Theoriesofdevelopment.Lifespandevelopment:Achronologicalapproach(Hoffnunget.al.)flashcards|Quizlet
Chapter 2: Theories of development.

Lifespan development: A chronological
approach (Hoffnung et. al.)
92 terms by esyred
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Contextual developmental theories
View development as a process of

reciprocal, patterned interactions
between individual and environment.
Brofenbrenner's ecological systems
theory and Vygotsky's sociocultural
theory.
Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky)
Higher mental functions grow out of

the social interactions and diologues
that take place between child,
parents, teachers, and other
representatives of culture.
Developmental tasks occur in the
zone of proximal development, with
scaffording.
Zone of proximal development
The range of tasks that a child cannot

do without active assistance from
people (adults and peers) with greater
knowledge.
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Scaffolding
The framework of support and

assistance that a child receives. It
facilitates learning within the
individual's current level. As
competence develops, support
withdraws.
Microsystem definition
Situations in which the person has

face-to-face contact with influential
others
Microsystem example
Family, school, peer group, church,

workplace
Microsystem question
Is the person regarded positively?

Is the person accepted?
Is the person given an active role in
relationships?
Mesosystem definition
Relationshups between microsystems;

the connections between situations
Mesosystem example
Home-school, workplace-family,
school-neighbourhood
Mesosystem question
Do the settings respect each other?

Do they present basic consistency in
values?
Exosystem definition
Settings in which the person does not

participate but in which significant
decisions are made affecting the
individuals who do inperact directly
with the person
Exosystem example
Spouse's place of employment, local

school board, local government
Exosystem question
Are decisions made with the interests

of the person in mind?
How well do social supports for
families balance stresses for parents?
Macrosystem definition
'Blueprints' for defining and

organising the institutional life of the
society
Macrosystem example
Ideology, social policy, shared

assumptions about human nature,
the 'social contract'
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Macrosystem question
Are some groups valued at the

expense of others (e.g. sexism,
racism)?
Is there an individualistic or
collectivistic orientation?
Psychodynamic theories
Psychodynamic and psychosexual,

and psychosocial.
Psychodynamic theory (and

phsychoanalysis)
Have three key beliefs:

1. People are driven by unconscious
drives/motives (biological, social, and
emotional),
2. Many of these motives often
compete with one another,
3. The person reaches compromise
between competing motives.
Three-part structure of personality
Psychodynamic view (Sigmund Freud).

The id, superego, and ego
Id
Inborn and unconscious. Impulsively

tries to satisfy needs, gain pleasure,
and avoid discomfort. Follows the
"pleasure principle".
Superego
Develops at the end of childhood.

Includes conscience (right-wrong), and
ego-ideal (an idealised sense of how a
person should behave). Acts as an
internalised, all-knowing parent.
Rewards "goodness" with self-esteem
and punishes "badness" with guilt.
Ego
Conscious, rational, problem-solving.

Closely related to sense of self.
Sometimes considered the
compromise between the id and the
superego. An infant learns to delay
instant satisfaction and redirect to
more realistic ways to meet needs.
Follows the "reality principle". Can
protect itself with defense
mechanisms.
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Psychosexual stages of development
Freud believed that a series of stages

is crucial for healthy personality
development. Each stage focuses on
part of the body that gives excitement
or pleasure. Development changes
result from conflicts among the id,
ego, and superego.
Oral -> Anal -> Phallic -> Latency ->
Genital
Oral
From birth to one year. The mouth is

the key area of interaction, and way to
learn about the world. Sucking,
chewing, feeding, and weaning are
crucial.
Issues in this period lead to thumb
sucking, nail biting, pencil chewing,
smoking, and overeating. (apparently)
Anal
From 1 - 3 years. The anus is the

focus. Elimination and toilet training
are central. Toddlers and
preschoolers hold and release #1s
and #2s.
Phallic
From 3 - 6 years. The genitals, and

gender roles, are focus. Oedipus and
Electra complex emerge. Attraction to
poopsite-gender parent and hostility
toward same-sex parent occurs, but is
supressed. Children adopt
characteristics of same-sex parent.
Superego emerges, and children
begin to feel guilt.
Latency
From 6 - 12 years. Sexual activity is

suspended (temporarily absent).
Energy and focus shift to physical,
social, and intellectual activities.
Superego further develops. Social
values from adults and same-sex
peers are acquired.
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Genital
From 12 onwards. The genitals are the

focus of stimulation, with the onset of
puberty. Sexual impulses of the
phallic stage reemerge. Mature sexual
relationships develop and extend
through adulthood.
Criticisms of Freud (and ideas such as

psychosexual stages)
It was good that he emphasised the

importance of parent-child
relationships.
However, he overemphasised the
influence that sexual feelings have on
development. His ideas were based
on late-Victorian society, and are not
generalisable to over cultures. He did
not directly study children, so has no
empirical validity. Ideas such as
feelings, instincts, and emotions are
difficult to scientifically test.
Psychosocial theory
Within the psychdymanic perspective.

Eric Erikson. Development occurs in
eight stages, characterised by a
particular challenge ("crisis"), which
must be positively resolved.
Development is influenced by:
An individual's biological and physical
strengths and weaknesses,
The person's unique life
circumstances and development
history, including early family
experiences and degree of success
resolving earlier crises, and
The particular social, cultural, and
historical forces at work during the
individual's lifetime (e.g. racial
prejudice, poverty, technological
change, war).
Eight psychosocial crises
Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.

shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs.
inferiority, identity vs. role confusion,
intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs.
stagnation, ego integrity vs. despair.
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Trust vs. mistrust
Psychosocial crisis #1. Birth to 18

months. Oral-sensory.
Trust occurs with self-trust,
confidence, and a positive
relationship with caregivers.
Mistrust occurs with harsh handling,
and waiting too long for needs to be
met.
Virtue attained: hope (self-trust).
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Psychosocial crisis #2. One to two

years. Muscular-anal.
Autonomy occurs with control over
bodily functions and activities, and
parents giving reasonable free choice.
Shame occurs if parents force or
shame a child, which causes a child to
doubt themselves.
Virtue attained: will (control over
oneself).
Initiative vs. guilt
Psychosocial crisis #3. Three to six

years. Locomotor-genital.
Initiative occurs when children can
explore and experiment with the sort
of person they can become,
developing responsibility and
purpose.
Guilt occurs when parents demand
too much self-control and overcontrol.
Virtue attained: purpose (selfassertion and importance).
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Industry vs. inferiority
Psychosocial crisis #4. Seven to eleven

years. Latency period.
Industry occurs when children can
focus on mastery, competence, and
productivity. They can work with
others, and cooperate in cognitive,
physical, and emotional ways.
Inferiority occurs when children
encounter negative experiences at
school and home with siblings and
peers, and begin to feel incompetent.
Virtue attained: competence.
Identity vs. role confusion
Psychosocial crisis #5. Teenage years

(adolescence).
Focus on formation of identity and
coherent self-concept. Questions such
as 'Who am I?', 'Where am I going' and
'Where do I fit in?' challenge the
adolescent. Through searching for
meaning and exploring vocational
goals and self-values, the adolescent
forms a personal identity. Confusion
about identity, roles, responsibilities
and adult values mark this
psychosocial stage.
Virtue attained: fidelity (in terms of
identity).
Intimacy vs. isolation
Psychosocial crisis #6. Early adulthood

(20s and 30s).
Intimacy is achieved alongside
achievement, so individuals seek
career direction as well as an intimate
relationship.
Isolation occurs when an individual
experiences difficulty forming close
relationships, often due to earlier
disappointments.
Virtue attained: love.
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Generativity vs. stagnation
Psychosocial crisis #7. Middle

adulthood (40s to 60s).
Generativity occurs with fulfillment
through creative, productive activities
that contribute to future generations
(care).
Stagnation is the absence of
meaningful accomplishment.
Virtue attained: care (in terms of
future).
Ego integrity vs. despair
Psychosocial crisis #8. "Old age" - late

adulthood (60s onwards).
Focus on belief in integrity of life,
including successes and failures
(wisdom). Individuals reflect on the
kind of person they have been, if life
has been worth living and if they have
accomplished their goals.
Dissatisfaction with life results in a
fear of death.
Virtue attained: wisdom.
Behavioural learning theories
Classical conditioning, operant

conditioning, and social cognitive.
Learning
Relatively permanent changes in the

capacity to perform certain
behaviours, that results from
experience.
Classical conditioning
Pavlov.
UCS -> UCR.
Pair CS with UCS -> UCR.
Eventually, CS -> CR.
It's best to look at a picture for this
concept, like the one in our textbook
or the billion on google, and then to
apply your own ideas (e.g., a song that
makes you angry, or the sight of a
particular food making you
nauseous).
The Watson, Albert, white rat
experiment.
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Operant conditioning
Skinner.
A person "operates" on their
environment, for reinforcement. On a
basic level: a cat pushes (operates) a
lever, and food arrives. A mouse
pushes a button, and electric shocks
stop.
Positive reinforcement
After a particular response, a

rewarding stimulus is given.
This strengthens the response and
increases the likelihood that it will
recur.
A child is asked to "come here", and
when s/he complies, is given a
chocolate.
Negative reinforcement
Is still "good"!
After a particular response, an
unpleasant stimulus is removed.
This strengthens the response and
increases the likelihood that it will
recur.
A hungry child is asked to "come
here", and when s/he complies, she is
given a piece of bread, which removes
the unpleasant feelings of hunger.
Punishment
Weakens or suppresses a behavioural

response, by adding an unpleasant
stimulus or removing a pleasurable
stimulus.
E.g., A child must clean up the toys
s/he threw, or has desert taken away.
Extinction
Refers to the disappearance of a

response when the reinforcer that
was maintaining it is removed.
At first, a mother comforts and
cuddles Sally when she cries while
being dropped off at kindy. When
Sally's mother stops cuddling her, she
starts to cry less often, because it
achieves nothing.
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Shaping
A child learns to perform new

responses not in their repertoire of
skills. Modify existing responses.
E.g. teaching a baby to talk:
At first, parents encourage babbling.
Then, as distinct sounds begin to
appear, babbling is ignored or slightly
reinforced, while sounds are strongly
reinforced.
Then, babbling is ignored, sounds are
slightly reinforced, and words are very
strongly reinforced.
and sound -> "m" -> "mama"
Social cognitive learning theory
Developmental change occurs

through observational learning learning by observing others.
Modelling and imitation are key.
Learning is reciprocally determined,
meaning it is a result or interaction
between individual and environment.
Imitation
A child is reinforced for repeating the

actions of others.
E.g. "Say 'mama'" -> "mama"
Modelling
A child learns the behaviours and

personality traits or a parent or model
through indirect reinforcement.
Factors in social cognitive learning
Characteristics of the model,

characteristics of the observer,
consequences of the behaviour.
Four step model of observational

learning
Attend - pay attention to a behaviour.

Remember the characteristics of the
behaviour.
Reproduce the memory of behaviour
of the model that was observed.
Reinforcement - receive
reinforcement for accurate
performance.
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Behaviour modification
A specific set of techniques, based on

operant conditioning and social
cognitive learning, used to eliminate
undesired behaviours and increase
desirable responses. ADHD, eating
disorders, etc.
Cognitive developmental theories
Piaget's cognitive theory, neopiagetian approaches, informationprocessing theory.
Piaget (Jean Piaget)
Believed thinking develops in a series

of increasingly complex stages, or
periods, each of which incorporates
and revises the stages that precede it.
Sensorimotor -> preoperational ->
concrete operational -> formal
operational.
Sensorimotor
Birth to two years. Coordination of

sensory and motor activity. Act on the
world with eyes, hands, ears, mouth.
Achieve object permanence.
Preoperational
Two to seven years. Use of language

and symbolic representation.
Egocentric view of the world! Makebelieve play. Thinking lacks logic.
Concrete operational
Seven to 11 years. Solution of

concrete problems through logical
operations. Things are organised in
hierarchies, classes, and subclasses,
however thinking is not yet absract.
Achieve "conservation" of mass,
volume, and quantity.
Formal operational
From eleven onwards. Systematic

solution of actual and hypothetical
problems using abstract symbols.
Capacity for abstract, systematic
thinking. Can deduce testable
inferences.
Processes (Piaget's cognitive

development)
Direct learning, social transmission,

maturation.
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Direct learning
Piaget's processes of learning.

A person actively responds to and
interprets new problems and
experiences, based on patterns
(schemes) of thought and action they
already know.
Assimilation and accommodation.
Scheme (or schemata)
A systematic pattern of thoughts,

actions, and problem-solving
strategies that helps the individual
deal with a particular intellectual
challenge or situation.
A way of making sense of our world
and experiences.
Assimilation
An infant interprets and responds to a

new experience in terms of an
existing scheme.
A child who sees a truck may say
"car".
Way to remember: it is similar
(asSIMILAtion) to what they already
know.
Accommodation
A child changes existing schemes

when faced with new ideas, in which
the old schemes no longer work.
A child realises a truck looks different
to a car, and learns that it is called a
"truck".
Way to remember: a child changes
their scheme to accommodate new
knowledge.
Adaption
The interplay between assimilation

and accommodation.
Piaget's theory of how development
occurs.
Social transmission

One's thinking is influenced by
learning from social contact with, and
observation of, others.
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Maturation (physical)

Biologically determined changes in
physical and neurological
development, that occur relatively
independently of specific experiences.
Problems with Piaget's theory
How do we explain why, in many

instances, children master tasks that
are logically equivalent at two very
different points of development?
Why do children perform so
differently on two logically similar
tasks?
Also, too much emphasis on
predetermined"logical" askects of
children's thinking - which do not
appera to match the thought
processes that children actually use.
Mental space
Case's neo-Piagetian view.

The maximum number of schemes
the child can apply simultaneously at
any given time.
As basic concrete structures become
coordinated with one another,
efficient higher-level cognitive
structures allow children to think
more abstractly.
Skills
Kurt Fischer's neo-Piagetian view.

Instead of the word "scheme".
The breadth of a skill is determined by
both the level of maturation of the
child's central nervous system, and
the range of learning environments to
which the child has been exposed.
Information-processing theory
Focuses on the precise, detailed

features involved in mental activies.
The mind is like a computer, wich
distinct parts that make unique
contributions to thinking. It is not
viewed as distinctive "stages".
Sensory register -> Short Term
Memory (STM) -> Long Term Memory
(LTM)
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Sensory register
Information is coded, transformed,

and organised. It is held briefly in the
________, where it is recorded. Either
the information of further processed
by the individual, or it fades and
disappears within a fraction of a
second.
Attention and perception are both
critical.
Selective attention
A person responds attentively,

depending on their interests and
needs.
You may be more likely to notice
gelato stands at a fair if you love
gelato, or feel extremely hungry.
Attention span
The length of a time a person can

focus their attention on a particular
object or task.
A toddler could watch a 20 minute
Thomas the Tank engine episode, but
be unable to sit at a dinner table for
more than a few minutes after
finishing their meal.
Perception
Sensory input and interpretation

given by the mind. It is how people
develop meaningful experiences.
STM
Second memory store. Information to

which a person pays special attention
is transferred here. It holds limited
amounts of information - about seven
pieces at one time. After about 20
seconds, information is either
forgotten, interfered with, lost, or
USED. Most people mentally rehearse
the information to keep it.
Sometimes called "working memory".
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LTM
Third memory store. Time and effort

is required to store information here.
For all practical purposes, the capacity
is unlimited. Once information is
stored here, it is stored here
permanently. It may, however,
become lost or unavailable.
Developmental changes in
information processing
Cognitive changes allow children to

process information more efficiently
and comprehensively. Most important
is acquisition of control processes.
Also, development metacognition and
acquisition of a strong knowledge
base.
Control processes
Direct attention towards a particular

input from the sensory register, and
guide the response to new
information once it enters the STM.
Also relate information in the STM to
previously learnt knowledge in the
LTM.
Metacognition
As children develop, they begin to

have an understanding of how
thinking and learning work. It assists
by allowing a person to assess how
difficult a problem will be, and to play
appropriate ways to approach it.
Involves the knowledge of self, task
variables, and which informationprocessing strategies are effective in
different situations.
Knowledge base
A child's current "bank" or repertoire

of knowlege or skills, in various areas.
A strong knowledge base in one area,
such as basketball, will aid in forming
new skills, such as cricket or
basketball. This is because a child can
relate new information to prior
information more meaningfully.
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Crystallised intelligence
Learned cognitive processes and

abilities, such as vocabulary,
mathematics, general knowledge, and
word fluency.
Fluid intellignece
The ability to process new information

in novel situations.
Social trajectory
Pathways that guide individual

development, such as education,
work, family.
Ethological theory
Studies how differences in

temperament that are observable at
birth contribute to development
through childhood and adolescence.
Also studies the role attachment plays
in the development of relationships
from early infancy through the life
course.
Imprinting
Studied within the ethological

approach, one of many behaviour
patterns that promote survival.
Babies stay close to their mother, to
be fed and protected. If a mother is
absent, babies may imprint on
another similar object.
Timing-of-events model
Views life events as markers of

developmental change. May be
normative (chronological and
historical), or non-normative.
Social clock
Individuals internalise this, and it tells

them whether they are "on time"
following their life schedule.
Normative life event
Events that occur to most people at a

similar time. May be age-graded, such
as puberty or retirement. May be
history-graded, that occurs to an
entire cohort, such as famine, war,
technological advances.
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Non-normative life event
Occurs at any point in a person's life.

Can be very random (head injury,
broken leg, sudden death of a loved
one), or when events occur "out of
time" (teenage parenthood, marrying
late, attending university in old age).
Dynamic systems approach
Children's development is both

consistent and variable.
A child's mind and body, and physical
and social worlds, form a system
which guides development and
mastery of skills.
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12/7/2015

Chapter 2: Theories of development.

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Contextual developmental theories

View development as a process of

Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky)

Higher mental functions grow out of

Zone of proximal development

The range of tasks that a child cannot

The framework of support and

Situations in which the person has

Family, school, peer group, church,

Is the person regarded positively?

Relationshups between microsystems;

Do the settings respect each other?

Settings in which the person does not

Spouse's place of employment, local

Are decisions made with the interests

'Blueprints' for defining and

Ideology, social policy, shared

Are some groups valued at the

Psychodynamic and psychosexual,

Psychodynamic theory (and

Have three key beliefs:

Three-part structure of personality

Psychodynamic view (Sigmund Freud).

Inborn and unconscious. Impulsively

Develops at the end of childhood.

Conscious, rational, problem-solving.

Psychosexual stages of development

Freud believed that a series of stages

From birth to one year. The mouth is

From 1 - 3 years. The anus is the

From 3 - 6 years. The genitals, and

From 6 - 12 years. Sexual activity is

From 12 onwards. The genitals are the

Criticisms of Freud (and ideas such as

It was good that he emphasised the

Within the psychdymanic perspective.

Eight psychosocial crises

Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.

Trust vs. mistrust

Psychosocial crisis #1. Birth to 18

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Psychosocial crisis #2. One to two

Initiative vs. guilt

Psychosocial crisis #3. Three to six

Industry vs. inferiority

Psychosocial crisis #4. Seven to eleven

Identity vs. role confusion

Psychosocial crisis #5. Teenage years

Intimacy vs. isolation

Psychosocial crisis #6. Early adulthood

Generativity vs. stagnation

Psychosocial crisis #7. Middle

Ego integrity vs. despair

Psychosocial crisis #8. "Old age" - late

Behavioural learning theories

Classical conditioning, operant

Relatively permanent changes in the

After a particular response, a

Weakens or suppresses a behavioural