Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TÄzxÜ|t
\Çwxå Éy VÉÇàxÇàá
A Brief Overview
Government
Kassaman
History
Aligiers
Geography
Politics
Provinces
Economy
Agriculture
Demographics
Ethnic Groups
Education
Culture
Languages
Gender roles and statuses
Marriage Family & Kinship
Socialisation
Etiquette
Religion
Health Care
Secular Celebtrations
Arts & Humanities
State of Physical & Social Sciences
A Rich Heritage in Arts & Crafts
Military
World Heritage Sites
Tipaza
Timgad
Maps Political and Geographical
Bibliography & Credits
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T UÜ|xy bäxÜä|xã
ةيبعشلا ةيطارقميدلا ةيرئازجلا ةيرومجلا
Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah
ad-Dīmuqrāṭīyah ash-Sha’bīyah
People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
Flag of Algeria
Coat of Arms
Motto
( بعشلل و بعشلا نمArabic)
"From the people and for the people"
Position in Africa
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Time Line
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Kassaman
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An extra verse
The following verse used to also be part of the anthem, but is no longer:
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The name Algeria is derived from the name of the city of Algiers (French
Alger), from the Arabic word al-jazā’ir, which translates as the islands,
referring to the four islands which lay off the city's coast until becoming
part of the mainland in 1525. Al-jazā’ir is itself a truncated form of the city's
older name jazā’ir banī mazghannā, "the jazeera of (the tribe) Bani
Mazghanna", used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and
Yaqut al-Hamawi.
History
Pre-Islamic period
Algeria has been inhabited by Berbers (or Imazighen) since at least 10,000
BCE. After 1000 BCE, the Carthaginians began establishing settlements
along the coast. The Berbers seized the opportunity offered by the Punic
Wars to become independent of Carthage, and Berber kingdoms began
to emerge, most notably Numidia. In 200 BCE, however, they were once
again taken over, this time by the Roman Republic. When the Western
Roman Empire collapsed, Berbers became independent again in many
areas, while the Vandals took control over other parts, where they
remained until expelled by the generals of the Byzantine Emperor,
Justinian I. The Byzantine Empire then retained a precarious grip on the
east of the country until the coming of the Arabs in the eighth century.
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Ottoman rule
Algeria was brought into the Ottoman Empire by Khair ad-Din and his
brother Aruj in 1517, and they established Algeria's modern boundaries in
the north and made its coast a base for the corsairs; their privateering
peaked in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the
Mediterranean resulted in the First (1801–1805) and Second Barbary War
(1815) with the United States. Those piracy acts forced people captured
on the boats into slavery; alternatively when the pirates attacked coastal
villages in southern and western Europe the inhabitants were forced into
slavery.
Raids by Barbary pirates on Western Europe did not cease until 1816,
when a Royal Navy raid, assisted by six Dutch vessels, destroyed the port
of Algiers and its fleet of Barbary ships.
French colonisation
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The French conquest of Algeria was slow due to intense resistance from
such Muslims as Emir Abdelkader, Ahmed Bey and Fatma N'Soumer.
Indeed the conquest was not technically complete until the early 1900s
when the last Tuareg were conquered.
Lost-independence
The neutrality of this article is disputed.
In 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) launched the Algerian War of
Independence which was a guerrilla campaign. By the end of the war,
newly elected President Charles de Gaulle, understanding that the age of
empire was ending, held a plebiscite, offering Algerians three choices,
resulting in an overwhelming vote for complete independence from the
French Colonial Empire. Over one million people, 10% of the population,
then fled the country for France in just a few months in mid-1962. These
included most of the 1,025,000 Pieds-Noirs, as well as 81,000 Harkis (pro-
French Algerians serving in the French Army).
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and their dependents were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria,
sometimes in circumstances of extreme cruelty.
Algeria's first president was the FLN leader Ahmed Ben Bella. He was
overthrown by his former ally and defence minister, Houari Boumédienne
in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become
increasingly socialist and dictatorial, and this trend continued throughout
Boumédienne's government. However, Boumédienne relied much more
heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely
symbolic role. Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization
drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized. This was
especially beneficial to the leadership after the 1973 oil crisis. However,
the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil which led
to hardship when the price collapsed in the 1980s.
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Within Algeria, dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over
the media and the outlawing of political parties, other than the FLN, was
cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976.
Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, Chadli Bendjedid,
was little more open. The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character
and corruption was widespread.
More than 160,000 people were killed between 17 January 1992 and June
2002. Many civilians were massacred. The question of who was responsible
for these deaths was controversial at the time amongst academic
observers; many were claimed by the Armed Islamic Group. There can be
no doubt however that the vast majority of this massacres were carried
out by the Islamic Terrorist rather than the security services, or security
services infiltration of the terrorist groups (see Algerian Civil War).
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Algiers
Elections resumed in 1995, and after 1998, the war waned. On 27 April
1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military,
Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the current president, was elected.[9]
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Geography
Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there
are a few natural harbours. The area just south of the coast, known as the
Tell Atlas, is fertile. Further south is the Atlas mountain range and the
Sahara desert. The Ahaggar Mountains (Arabic: )راق لابج, also known as
the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria.
They are located about 1,500 km (932 miles) south of the capital, Algiers
and just west of Tamanghasset.
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In Algeria, only a relatively small corner of the Maddie Sahara lies across
the Tropic of Cancer in the torrid zone. In this region even in winter,
midday desert temperatures can be very hot. After sunset, however, the
clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly.
Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.
Rainfall is fairly abundant along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging
from 400 to 670 mm annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from
west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern
Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1000 mm in some years. Farther
inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Prevailing winds that are easterly and
north-easterly in summer change to westerly and northerly in winter and
carry with them a general increase in precipitation from September
through December, a decrease in the late winter and spring months, and
a near absence of rainfall during the summer months.
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Politics
Under the 1976 constitution (as modified 1979, and amended in 1988,
1989, and 1996) Algeria is a multi-party state. All parties must be approved
by the Ministry of the Interior. To date, Algeria has had more than 40 legal
political parties. According to the constitution, no political association
may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race,
gender or region."
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Provinces
Algeria is currently divided into 48 wilayas (provinces), 553 dairas
(counties) and 1,541 baladiyahs (municipalities). The capital and the
largest city of each Algerian wilaya, daira, and baladiyah always has the
same name as the wilaya, the daira, or the baladiyah it is located in. The
same holds for the largest daira of the wilaya or the largest baladiyah of
the daira.
The APW has also a "president", who is elected by the members of the
APW.
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1 Adrar 25 Constantine
2 Chlef 26 Médéa
3 Laghouat 27 Mostaganem
4 Oum el-Bouaghi 28 M'Sila
5 Batna 29 Mascara
6 Béjaïa 30 Ouargla
7 Biskra 31 Oran
8 Béchar 32 El Bayadh
9 Blida 33 Illizi
10 Bouira 34 Bordj Bou Arréridj
11 Tamanghasset 35 Boumerdès
12 Tébessa 36 El Tarf
13 Tlemcen 37 Tindouf
14 Tiaret 38 Tissemsilt
15 Tizi Ouzou 39 El Oued
16 Algiers 40 Khenchela
17 Djelfa 41 Souk Ahras
18 Jijel 42 Tipasa
19 Sétif 43 Mila
20 Saida 44 Aïn Defla
21 Skikda 45 Naama
22 Sidi Bel Abbes 46 Aïn Témouchent
23 Annaba 47 Ghardaïa
24 Guelma 48 Relizane
Economy
The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of Algeria's economy,
accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over
95% of export earnings. The country ranks fourteenth in Petroleum reserves,
containing 11.8 billion barrels of proven oil reserves with estimates
suggesting that the actual amount is even more. The U.S. Energy
Information Administration reported that in 2005, Algeria had 160 trillion
cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves, the eighth largest in the
world.
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Algeria also decided in 2006 to pay off its full $8bn (£4.3bn) debt to the
Paris Club group of rich creditor nations before schedule. This will reduce
the Algerian foreign debt to less than $5bn in the end of 2006. The Paris
Club said the move reflected Algeria's economic recovery in recent
years.
Agriculture
Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil. 9.4% of
Algerians are employed in the agricultural sector.
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More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km²) are devoted to the cultivation of
cereal grains. The Tell is the grain-growing land. During the time of French
rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of artesian
wells in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the
crops raised, wheat, barley and oats are the principal cereals. A great
variety of vegetables and fruits, especially citrus products, are exported.
Algeria also exports figs, dates, esparto grass, and cork. It is the largest oat
market in Africa.
Algeria is known for Bertolli's olive oil spread, although the spread has an
Italian background.
Demographics
The current population of Algeria is 32,930,091 (July 2006 est.).[1] About 70%
of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the
Sahara are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million
remain nomadic or partly nomadic. Almost 30% of Algerians are under 15.
Algeria has the 4th lowest fertility rate in the Greater Middle East after
Cyprus, Tunisia, and Turkey.
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Ethnic groups
Most Algerians are Arab or Berber, by language or identity, but almost all
Algerians are Berber in origin[1]. Today, the Arab-Berber issue is often a
case of self-identification or identification through language and culture,
rather than a racial or ethnic distinction. The Berber people are divided
into several ethnic groups, notably Kabyle (the largest) in the mountainous
north-central area, Chaoui in the eastern Atlas Mountains, Mozabites in
the M'zab valley, and Tuareg in the far south.
Education
Out of the total population 70% of 15 year olds and above are literate.
The figure is higher for males standing at 78.8% whilst for females it is
61%.[17] The nine-year school system is compulsory, and is attended by
most children. It begins at age 6 and continues until age 15. 97% of boys
and 91% of girls attend school. Algeria has ten universities and a number
of technical colleges, with a population of approximately 350,000 students
attending college or university.
Basic
Ecole fondamentale
Length of program: 9 years
Age range: age 6 to 15 old
Certificate/diploma awarded: Brevet d'Enseignement fondamental
General Secondary
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Mosque in Algiers.
Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been
strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the
twentieth century include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, and Kateb
Yacine, while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Important novelists of the
1980s included Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty
International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for
his secularist views.[18] As early as Roman times, Apuleius, born in
Mdaourouch, was native to what would become Algeria.
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and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while
staying in Algeria. Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by Islam,
the main religion. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and
of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely
noted.
Languages
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French is still the most widely studied foreign language, and widely spoken
(distantly followed by English), but very rarely spoken as a native
language. Since independence, the government has pursued a policy of
linguistic Arabization of education and bureaucracy, with some success,
although many university courses continue to be taught in French. French
is also widely used in media and commerce.
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The Berbers have their own concepts and practices regarding gender,
which vary widely among the different groups. The role of Kabyle women
is most similar to the Arabic tradition; they are unable to inherit property or
to remarry without the consent of the husband who divorced them. The
Chaouia women, while still socially restricted, are thought to have special
magical powers, which gives them a slightly higher status. The M'zabites
advocate social equality and literacy for men and women within their
villages but do not allow the women to leave these confines. The Tuaregs
are an anomaly among Muslim cultures in that the society is dominated
more by women than by men. Whereas it is traditional in Islam for women
to wear veils, among the Tuaregs it is the men who are veiled. Women
control the economy and property, and education is provided equally to
boys and girls.
By a law passed in 1984, women gained the right to child custody and to
their own dowries. However, the law also considers women permanent
minors, needing the consent of their husbands or fathers for most
activities, including working outside the home. The decision to divorce
rests solely with the husband. It is still legally permissible, although rare, for
men to have up to four wives, a code that is laid out in the Qurán (Koran).
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Inheritance. Inheritance passes from father to the eldest son. If there are
no children, land and belongings are distributed among other relatives.
In the Berber tradition, loyalty breaks down along the lines of village
groupings, or sofs. These groups are political, and part of a democratic
process governing life in the village.
SOCIALISATION
Infant Care. As in many cultures, infant care is an exclusively female
domain. Most women almost never leave the home and thus are never
far from their infant children.
Child Rearing and Education. Children are highly valued in Arabic society
and are considered a wealth and a blessing to their parents. However,
child rearing standards differ significantly for male and female children:
Girls are taught to be obedient to all males, while boys learn that the
primary function of girls and women is to attend to the males' needs and
desires. Girls typically have more duties and chores than boys, who are
free to play and spend more time out of doors. Traditionally, only boys
were educated, although this has begun to change in recent times.
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Higher Education. During French rule, the sole university in the country, in
Algiers, was open only to French students. Today there are more than
thirty institutes of higher learning, with universities in a number of cities,
including Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Annaba, and Tlemcen. This also
includes state-funded institutes for technical, agricultural, vocational, and
teacher training. A number of Algerians study abroad as well, and the
government pays to send them to the United States, Eastern Europe, and
Russia.
ETIQUETTE
Greetings are lengthy and involved, including inquiries into health and
family. Social interactions are much more common among members of
the same gender than between men and women. Public displays of
affection—touching, hand-holding— between men and women are rare,
but not between members of the same sex.
RELIGION
Religious Beliefs. Ninety-nine percent of Algeria is Sunni Muslim. There also
is a tiny Jewish community, whose presence goes back centuries.
Christianity has existed in Algeria since the Roman era, but despite efforts
(particularly by the French colonizers) to convert, the number of Algerian
Christians is very small. Islam forms the basis not only of religious life in
Algeria but also is a unifying force (both within the country and with other
Arab nations), creating for all believers a common ground that is both
cultural and spiritual. There is a range of observance among Algerian
Muslims; rural people tend to hold more strictly to the traditional practices.
There also are remnants of the indigenous Berber religion, which has been
almost entirely subsumed by Islam. Despite opposition by both the French
colonizers and the Algerian government (who viewed this religion as a
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threat to the unity of the country), there are still some organizations, called
brotherhoods, that hold on to their magical practices and ceremonies.
In the indigenous Berber religion, the holy men, called marabouts, were
thought to be endowed by God with special powers.
Rituals and Holy Places. The most important observation in the Islamic
calendar is Ramadan. This month of fasting is followed by the joyous feast
of Eid al Fitr, during which families visit and exchange gifts. Eid al-Adha
commemorates the end of Muhammad's Hajj.
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The mosque is the Muslim house of worship. Outside the door there are
washing facilities, as cleanliness is a necessary prerequisite to prayer,
demonstrating humility before God. One also must remove one's shoes
before entering the mosque. According to Islamic tradition, women are
not allowed inside. The interior has no altar; it is simply an open carpeted
space. Because Muslims are supposed to pray facing Mecca, there is a
small niche carved into the wall pointing out in which direction the city
lies.
Death and the Afterlife. Death is marked by visiting the family of the
deceased. Family members dress in black. Death also is mourned in a
larger, more communal way as part of the Islamic New Year's celebration,
called Ashura. Muslims mark the passing of the old year by going to
cemeteries to commemorate the dead.
Virtually all health care facilities and providers are concentrated in the
more populous north; most people in rural areas have no access to
modern medical care. Overpopulation and housing shortages in the cities
have created their own health problems, due to poor sanitation and lack
of safe drinking water.
SECULAR CELEBRATIONS
New Year's Day, 1 January; Labor Day, 1 May; Commemoration Day
(anniversary of the overthrow of Ahmed Ben Bella), 19 June;
Independence Day, 5 July; Anniversary of the outbreak of the revolution,
1 November.
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Literature. Algeria counts among its literary stars both French writers who
lived and wrote in Algeria (e.g., Albert Camus and Emmanuel Robles) as
well as native Algerians, some of whom have chosen to write in the
colonial language (such as playwright Kateb Yacine), and some of whom
write in Arabic or Berber dialects. One advantage of writing in French is
that it allows books to be published in France, and then distributed in both
France and Algeria. The choice to write in Arabic or Berber, however, is
often an act of national pride, and creates a different audience for the
work. Many Algerian writers draw on both the influence of European
literature and the ancient Arabic tradition of storytelling.
Graphic Arts. Traditional crafts include knotted and woven carpets made
from wool or goat hair; basket-weaving; pottery, silver jewelry; intricate
embroidery; and brassware. Algerian films have recently won accolades,
both within the country and abroad. Many of them are dramas and
documentaries that deal with issues of colonialism, revolution, and social
issues. The director Mahmed Lakhdar Hamina won the Cannes Film
Festival award in 1982 for his film Desert Wind.
Performance Arts. Algerian music and dance follow in the Arabic tradition.
These forms of expression were suppressed during the French regime, but
are today experiencing a revival. Arabic music is tied to the storytelling
tradition and often recounts tales of love, honor, and family. Technically, it
is repetitive and subtle. It uses quarter notes and makes small jumps on the
scale. Traditional instruments are the oud, a stringed instrument similar to
the lute; small drums held in the lap; and the rhita, or reed flute.
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Algeria has a thriving handicrafts industry. Part of the charm of the country
is the richness of its production. From carpets to ceramics, from leather to
lute making, from pottery to glassworking to silverwork, the country has a
tremendous variety of skills that produce goods which are sold in many
other countries as well as to tourists.
Country produced carpets have strong deep colors, still used as blankets
during the cold nights, often made by the tribes in the Atlas. Haracta
carpets from Aures are difficult to tell apart from Nememcha work; they
come from more sedentary tribes but they have points in common with
Babar carpets.
The range of local cloth is vast as is the embroidery carried out with metal
threads on fabric or leather. Each region has its own costume and
weaving styles.
Sheet copperwork is another specialty and was passed down from the
Ottomans. Craftsmen produce items that are unequaled in the Arab
world in Algiers, Constantine, Ghardaia, Tindouf and Tlemcen. Attractive
decorative lamps with multicolor glasses can be found all over the
country.
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One of the popular products on sale here is the "rose des sables" sand
rose, which is a form of crystalline structure that grows below desert sands
and can reach quite huge dimensions.
Other handiwork includes ceramic tiles, and the making of cane and
raffia items.
There are all types of artisans, from the man on the street corner who will
engrave aluminum pots and pans for popular use, to weavers who pass
hours behind their looms producing high -quality work for export.
In the Northwest the wool is washed for several hours in the sea and then
weighed down by rocks and left under water. Afterwards it is laid out
under the sun to dry.
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Many tourists like to buy items made of coral from the reefs of the
country's coasts . Although the Italian divers who used to constitute the
main source have abandoned the trade because of security problems,
there are still many objects available.
Among the favorite objects are touareg swords, long and ornately
decorated, in leather, copper and often animal horn.
Military
The Armed forces of Algeria are comprised of:
Algeria is a leading military power in North Africa and has its force
oriented toward its western (Morocco) and eastern (Libya) borders. Its
primary military supplier has been the former Soviet Union, which has sold
various types of sophisticated equipment under military trade
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Recently, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49
MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated $1.5 Billion. They also agreed
to return old airplanes purchased from the Former USSR. Russia is also
building 2 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria.
Places of Interest
Tipaza (Tipasa)
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The basilicas are surrounded by cemeteries, which are full of coffins, all of
stone and covered with mosaics. The basilica of St. Salsa, which has been
excavated by Stéphane Gsell, consists of a nave and two aisles, and still
contains a mosaic. The Great Basilica served for centuries as a quarry, but
it is still possible to make out the plan of the building, which was divided
into seven aisles. Under the foundations of the church are tombs hewn out
of the solid rock. Of these one is circular, with a diameter of 18 m and
space for 24 coffins. Commercially it was of considerable importance, but
it was not distinguished in art or learning. Christianity was early introduced,
and in the third century Tipasa was a bishop's see. Most of the inhabitants
continued non-Christian until, according to the legend, Salsa, a Christian
maiden, threw the head of their serpent idol into the sea, whereupon the
enraged populace stoned her to death. The body, miraculously
recovered from the sea, was buried, on the hill above the harbour, in a
small chapel which gave place subsequently to the stately basilica.
Salsa's martyrdom took place in the 4th century. In 484 the Vandal king
Huneric (477-484) sent an Arian bishop to Tipasa; whereupon a large
number of the inhabitants fled to Spain, while many of the remainder
were cruelly persecuted. After this time the city disappears from history;
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and, whether or not its ruin was caused by the Arabs, they seem to have
made no settlement there.
Modern era
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The ruins of the town are located at about 35 km from the town of Batna.
The city was founded ex nihilo as a military colony, primarily as a bastion
against the Berbers in the nearby Aures Mountains. It was originally
populated largely by Parthian veterans of the Roman army who were
granted lands in return for years in service.
Located at the intersection of six roads, the city was walled but not
fortified. Originally designed for a population of around 15,000, the city
quickly outgrew its original specifications and spilled beyond the
orthogonal grid in a more loosely-organized fashion.
At the west end of the decumanus rises a 12 m high triumphal arch, called
Trajan's Arch, which was partially restored in 1900. The arch is principally of
sandstone, and is of Corinthian order with three arches, the central one
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being 11' wide. The arch is also known as the Timgad Arch. Don't get this
arch confused with Trajan's arch. Trajan built many other arches known as
Trajans arch.
The city enjoyed a peaceful existence for the first several hundred years
and became a center of Christian activity starting in the 3rd Century, and
a Donatist centre in the 4th Century.
In the 5th Century, the city was sacked by the Vandals before falling into
decline. In 535 Byzantine general Solomon found the city when he came
to occupy it. In the following century, the city was briefly re-peopled as a
primarily Christian city before being sacked by Berbers in the 7th Century
and being abandoned. The city disappeared from history until its
excavation in 1881.
At the time of its founding, the area surrounding the city was a fertile
agricultural area, about 1000 meters above sea level. The encroachment
of the Sahara on the ruins was ironically the principal reason why the town
is so well preserved. Because no new settlements were founded on the
site after the 7th Century, the town was partially preserved under sand up
to a depth of approximately one meter until it was excavated.
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All text & images obtained from www.wikipedia.org is available under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for
details.) Bibliography – credits & thanks
Laremont, Ricardo Rene. Islam and the Politics of Resistance in Algeria 1783–1992, 2000.
Malley, Robert. Call from Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam, 1996.
Morocco and Tunisia Handbook with Algeria, Libya, and Mauritania, 1995.
Web Sites
http://open-site.org/Kids/World_and_Countries/Africa/Algeria/
http://www.internationalspecialreports.com/archives/99/algeria/15-1.html
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