Professional Documents
Culture Documents
● Reservoirs
R i include
i l d all ll the
th places
l
that water is stored in and on the
Earth.
● The
Th hydrologic
h d l i cycle
l
● precipitation
i it ti
● infiltration
i filt ti andd runoff
ff
● evaporation,
ti ttranspiration
i ti
● groundwater flow
The hydrologic cycle
cycle--
powered by solar energy
Hydrology
y gy and climate
● Key climatic factors
● relative humidity
● rainfall
● landscape
Windward slope
The hydrology of runoff
● porosity
p y and p
permeability
y
● groundwater
d t ttable
bl
Groundwater
porosity
porosit and
the amount
of open space
in various
materials
Groundwater
● saturated
t t d (phreatic)
( h ti ) zone
Groundwater:
the
water
table
Groundwater
Two major zones of groundwater:
•Vadose Zone: zone above the water table ((zone of aeration,
unsaturated).
•Zone of saturation: upper surface of saturation zone is
[Groundwater] Water Table
Table.
Water Table mimics the ground topography, the height of which fluctuates
with recharge/discharge.
Groundwater
● groundwater
d t di discharge
h ((effluent
ffl t
streams)
Groundwater:
effluent water
headed for a
stream
Groundwater
• Aquifer: any lithologic formation that
stores
sto es g
groundwater
ou d ate (gravel,
(g a e , sa
sand,
d,
limestone etc.). It not only stores but also
transmits water at faster rates
rates.
● Perched
Types of
Aquifer:
Unconfined
Aquifer
qu e
Confined Aquifer
● Complex
p g
geological
g environments
● perched
h d water
t ttables
bl
excess
e cess
discharge
g
and the
cone of
depression
What is the consequence of
over pumping (over draft)?
Q – KA(dh/
Q= KA(dh/dL
dL))
Q= – KA(dh/
Q KA(dh/dL
dL))
Volumetric flow rate (Q) (m3/s or ft3/s)
Sedimentary rocks
4 km
Valley Well 1
Well 2
1 km
Sedimentary rocks
● sinkholes
Erosion by
yggroundwater: karst
Satellite View
— Karst
K t
Topography
What are the Environmental
concerns in karst terranes?
¾sinkhole collapse
Carlsbad
Caverns,
New
Mexico
Erosion by
y
groundwater:
sinkhole
in
Winter Park,
Park
Florida
• Geologic characterization
(lithology structure)
(lithology,
• In 1994
1994, N
N. Russia
Russia, pipe line fracture resulted in about 4-80
million gallons of crude oil spill contaminating land & water.
• Sept 16, 2008. A crack in the diesel pipeline of the Indian Oil
C
Corporation ((IOC)
OC) has led to oil spillage in G
Ganga
• Aug 22, 2009 - oil spill across a 100-km swath on the south
Gujarat
Guja at coast, threatens
t eate s the
t e marine
a e bio-diversity
b o d e s ty in tthe
e National
at o a
Marine Park and Sanctuary. Two major oil refineries — Reliance
and Essar.
Toxic Substances
• Heavy Metals:
– Such as Pb, Hg, Zn, Cd, As are often deposited with natural sediments at
the bottom of stream channels. Become incorporated into plants, crops,
and thus animals and humans.
– Inorganic ions of such metals are toxic
– Hg (from volcanic emissions, natural deposits) contamination of aquatic
systems.
Methylation:- Change of inorganic Hg2+ to CH3Hg+ (methylmercury) due to
bacterial activity. CH3Hg+ is more toxic than Hg2+. The conc. of CH3Hg+
increases higher in the food chain.
Residence time of
Hg in ocean = 80,000
yrs
Source of Water Pollution
Surface water Pollution
• Point source pollution:
– readily identifiable localized and/or confined sources
such as industrial/municipal pipes, sewers that empty
into streams or rivers.
– These pollutants controlled by onon-site
site treatment/
disposal and are regulated by permit.
• Non
Non-point
point source pollution:
– Diffused and intermittent pollution
– Influenced byy factors such as climate,, hydrology,
y gy,
topography, vegetation, geology, urbanization etc.
– Includes all sorts of pollutants entering the water
system
t from
f any sources (e.g,
( i
insecticides
ti id from
f plant
l t
is washed away by rain and added to rivers)
Acid Mine Drainage – non
non--point source pollution
Oxidation of pyrite
FeS2 + 3
3.75 3 5 H2O ⇔ Fe(OH)3 + 2 H2SO4
75 O2 + 3.5
Remediation
● Reversing contamination
● in
in--ground water treatments
Groundwater Treatment
• Treatment processes:
– Extraction Wells: Pump out contaminated
water and treat it by filtration, oxidation,
reverse osmosis etc.
– Vapor Extraction: Using vapor extraction
well and treatment.
– Bioremediation: using microorganisms to
attenuate contamination.
– Permeable treatment bed: contact
treatment as contaminated water plume
moved through beds, which neutralizes
contaminants by chemical, physical and/or
bi l i l processes.
biological
Control System for
C t i t d Ground
Contaminated G d
Water
Extraction Wells
Water q
quality
y
Factors that determine the quality of drinking water:
• Acidity (pH) —should be around 7
• Salinity (TDS) —should be <500mg/L
• Dissolved
Di l d constituents
tit t
Organic
Inorganic
g
• Pathogens
• Taste
(bad taste due to too much of some dissolved constituents
such as Fe, Cu, S, Cl))
World-wide Hydrological Mapping and Assessment Programme (WHYMAP); United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) & German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR)
A map of aquifer zones in India (1,2, 3: aquifer zones
zones))
Source: groundwater resources of the world and their use; United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) report 2004.
Hydrological map of India and
Yield Potential
Central
C t l Ground
G d Water
W t
Board (Ministry of
Water Resources
Government of India)
India)-
http://cgwb.gov.in
Groundwater Resources of India-
India- Recharge
The map shows groundwater
changes in India during
2002-08, losses in red and
gains in blue, based on
GRACE satellite
observations.
Estimated rate of depletion
of groundwater in
northwestern India (Jaipur
and New Delhi) is 33 cm (1 ft)
of water per year over the
past decade. Increases in
groundwater in southern
India are due to recent
above-average rainfall,
whereas rain in
northwestern India was
close to normal during the
study period.