MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS

Microbial Physiology concerns the vital life processes of microorganisms.

Nutritional Requirements
All living protoplasm contains six major chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur. Other elements, usually in lesser amounts include sodium, potassium, chlorine,
magnesium, calcium, iron, iodine, and some trace elements. Combination of these elements make up the
vital macromolecules of life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
To build necessary cellular materials, every organism requires a source of energy, a source of carbon,
and other nutrients. Materials that organisms are unable to synthesize but are required for the building of
macromolecules and sustaining life are termed essential nutrients and must be supplied to an organism
for it to survive.
Categorizing Microorganisms According to Their Energy and Carbon Sources
Today there are microbes representing each of the four major nutritional categories: photoautotrophs,
photoheterotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs.

Terms Relating to an Organisms Energy Source:

1. Phototrophs use light as an energy source
Photosynthesis
2. Chemotrophs use either inorganic or organic chemicals as an energy source
Chemolithotrophs are organisms that use inorganic chemicals as an energy source
Chemoorganotrophs are organisms that use organic chemicals as an energy source.

Terms Relating to an Organisms Carbon Source:

1. Autotrophs use CO2 as their sole source of carbon
2. Heterotrophs are organisms that use organic compounds other than CO 2 as their carbon

Combination of Terms (Energy/Carbon Source)

1. Photoautotrophs are organisms that use light as an energy source and CO 2 as a carbon source
(plants, algae, cyanobacteria, purple and gree sulfur bacteria)
2. Photoheterotrophs use light as an energy source and organic compounds other than CO 2 as a carbon
source (purple nonsulfur and green nonsulfur bacteria)
3. Chemoautotrophs use chemicals as an energy source and CO 2 as a carbon source (nitrifying,
hydrogen, iron, and sulfur bacteria)
4. Chemoheterotrophs use chemicals as an energy source and organic compounds other than CO 2 as
carbon source. All animals, all protozoa, all fungi, and most bacteria, and all medically important
bacteria are chemoheterotrophs.

Bacterial Metabolism
Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions occurring within any cell, including the production of
energy and the synthesis of new molecules; such reactions are regulated by enzymes.
Catabolism refers to the breaking down of larger molecules into smaller molecules. Any time that
chemical bonds are broken, energy is released. Catabolic reactions are a cells major source of
energy.
Anabolism refers to the assembly of smaller molecules into larger molecules, requiring the
formation of bonds. Energy is required for bond formation. Once formed, bonds represent stored
energy.
Biochemical pathways that commonly catabolize glucose within cells
1. Aerobic Respiration a common pathway by which glucose is catabolized
a. Glycolysis (Glycolytic pathway or Embden-Meyerhof pathway)
b. Krebs Cycle
c. Electron Transport Chain produces much of the energy; one molecule of glucose by aerobic
respiration yields either 36 ATP molecules (prokaryotes) or 38 ATP molecules (eukaryotes)
2. Fermentation Reactionspathway anaerobes use to catabolize glucose; inefficient, yields only 2
ATP molecules from a molecule of glucose.

Bacterial Genetics

Genetics the study of heredity

Genotype an organisms complete collection of genes
Phenotype an organisms physical traits, attributes, or characteristics
Chromosome a double stranded DNA molecule
Gene a particular segment of a chromosome; the fundamental units of heredity. Genes direct all
functions of the cell, providing if with its own particular traits and individuality.
Mutations genetic alterations
1. Beneficial mutations
2. Harmful mutation
3. Lethal mutation
4. Silent mutation
Mutagen a physical or chemical agent that increases mutation rate
Ways in Which Bacteria Acquire New Genetic Information
1. Mutation
2. Lysogenic Conversion temperate phage injects its DNA into the bacterial cell, the phage DNA
integrates into the bacterial chromosome but does not cause the lytic cycle to occur.
Only Corynebacteriumdiptheriae that contain a prophage can produce diphtheria toxin
(Streptococcus pyogenes, Clostridium botulinum, Vibrio cholerae)
3. Transformation a bacterial cell becomes genetically transformed after the uptake of DNA
fragments (naked DNA) from the environment.
Avery et. al. experiment:
a. DNA extract from encapsulated, pathogenic Streptococcus pneumonia (S strain) was added
to broth culture of nonencapsulated, nonpathogenic Streptococcus pneumonia (R strain)
b. After incubation, live S strain bacteria was recovered from the culture
Griffiths experiment
a. Smooth strain (virulent) injected to mice mice died
b. Rough strain (avirulent) injected to mice mice lived
c. Heat killed smooth strain injected to mice mice lived
d. Heat killed smooth strain + rough strain injected to mice mice died
There was something in the smooth strain that transformed rough strain to become virulent.
They call it the transforming principle which was later found out to be DNA
4. Transduction some bacterial genetic material may be carried across from one bacterial cell to
another by a bacterial virus.
- more effective than transformation because the transferred DNA is protected from destruction
during transfer by a phage
5. Conjugation transfer of genetic material from a donor cell to a recipient cell through a hollow sex
pilus.
- Sex pili- projection rom the donors cell surface that contact the recipient & help to bring the 2
cells into direct contact
Frequently noted genes transferred by conjugation: genes that code for antibiotic resistance,
colicin, and fertility factors F+(fertility) and Hfr+ (high frequency recombination)
6. Transposon DNA segments that have the ability to move within the chromosome and in and out of
plasmids. May carry genes for antibiotic resistance & virulence factors

Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology an array of techniques developed to transfer
eukaryotic genes into other easily cultured cells to facilitate the large-scale production of important gene
products.
Bacteria, yeasts, human leukocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts have been used as genetically
engineered manufacturing plants for proteins such as human growth hormone, somatostatin,
plasminogen-activating factor, insulin, and interferon.
Plasmids are frequently used as vectors or vehicles for inserting genes into cells.
A particular gene of interest is first inserted into the vector DNA, forming a molecule of recombinant DNA.
The recombinant DNA is then inserted into or taken up by a bacterial cell.

The cell is next allowed to multiply, creating many genetically identical bacteria (clones), each of which is
capable of producing the gene product. From the clone culture, a genetic engineer may then remove
(harvest) the gene product.

Gene Therapy
Gene therapy of human diseases involves the insertion of a normal gene into cells to correct a specific
genetic or acquired disorder that is being caused by a defective gene.
Viral delivery is currently the most common method for inserting genes into cells, in which specific viruses
are selected to target the DNA of specific cells. Ex. virus capable of infecting liver cells would be used to
insert a therapeutic gene/s into the DNA of liver cells.