Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 (1995) 141-163
European traditions of Africa, Native America, and the Orient. These new spiritualities, like the
more traditional forms, are often inflected with the rhetoric and values of consumer capitalism,
but they tend, at the same time, to appeal to people dissatisfied with secular strategies of
fulfillment, and to challenge what Cornel West calls market or consumer values. Thus the manysided scandal of contemporary American spirituality: that it remains so vigorous, that it is so often
politically engaged and so often entangled with consumerism and sensationalism, and that it is
increasingly culturally eccentric in its inspiration and practices.
Some of the most celebrated contemporary American fiction captures and reflects this turbulent
situation of spiritual engagement, uncertainty, and experimentation. Don DeLillo's work, for
instance, repeatedly constructs contemporary Americans as a people driven by homeless spiritual
impulses and mezmerized by new religious movements. And his work, while less formally and
ontologically playful than [End Page 142] that of other postmoderns, insistently interrogates
secular conceptions of the real, both by focusing the reader's attention on events that remain
mysterious or even "miraculous," and by making all sorts of room for religious or spiritual
discourses and styles of seeing. Thomas Pynchon's novels, frequently cited by students of
postmodernism as exemplary texts, are a veritable index to the new spiritualities. Awash in
paranormal events, they represent the world in ways that reflect the disparate ontologies of
gnosticism, spiritualism, Native American and African religious traditions, the martial arts
traditions of the East, and American transcendentalism. The world of Ishmael Reed's postmodern
classic, Mumbo Jumbo, is similarly shaped in terms of marginalized sacred and occult ontologies,
as is that of Leslie Silko's Almanac of the Dead. And sacred ontologies and discourses are
powerfully represented in other artistic domains as well. Tony Kushner's "Angels in America"
resonates with Jewish symbols and ideas. Quentin Tarentino's flamboyantly postmodern
film, Pulp Fiction, features allusions to grace, election, and the miraculous, and ends with an
extraordinary moment of conversion and biblical hermeneutics which cannot, I would argue, be
either decisively affirmed or dismissed as an exercise in irony or pastiche. In order to understand
what is going on in American postmodern culture, then, we need to think in terms of something
like a religious revival: a resurgence (by no means unprecedented) of spiritual energies,
discourses, and commitments. And in order to understand postmodern fiction, we need to attend
to the ways in which it maintains and revises a modernist tradition of spiritually inflected
resistance to conventionally secular constructions of reality.
In suggesting that many postmodern texts are shot through with and even shaped by spiritual
concerns, I mean several things: that they make room in the worlds they project for magic,
miracle, metaphysical systems of retribution and restoration; that they explore fundamental issues
of conduct in ways that honor, interrogate, and revise religious categories and prescriptions; that
their political analyses and prescriptions are intermittently but powerfully framed in terms of
magical or religious conceptions of power. But I mean as well, that their assaults on realism, their
ontological playfulness, and their experiments in the sublime represent a complex and variously
inflected reaffirmation of premodern ontologies-constructions of reality that portray the quotidian
world as but one dimension of a multidimensional cosmos, or as hosting a world of [End Page
143] spirits. I am arguing, then, that some of the very features of fiction which secular theorists
have singled out as definitively postmodern must at least in some cases be understood in terms of
a post-secular project of resacralization. But at the same time, I will argue, this process of
resacralization can only be understood, in its historical specificity, with the help of the secular
theorists who have ignored it.
in which sacred and secular counter-discourses silenced by three centuries or more of Western
secular rationalism (and rationalized religion) stage an exuberant comeback. "All in all," writes
Bauman, "postmodernity can be seen as restoring to the world what modernity, presumptuously,
had taken away; as a re-enchantment of the world that modernity tried hard to dis-enchant." At
stake in this project of dis-enchantment, he continues, is "the right to pronounce on meanings, to
construe narratives." In order to win "the war against mystery and magic . . . the world had to
be de-spiritualized" (x). But the war was never fully won, and in contemporary culture "it is the
modern artifice that has been dismantled; the modern conceit of meaning-legislating reason that
has been exposed, condemned and put to shame" (x).
Bauman rehearses the history of dis-enchantment as a struggle of the modernizing West with its
own past, but this battle has of course a second dimension, that of the imperial West's struggle
with the Rest. More alert to this aspect of the struggle, non-westerners like Homi Bhabha and
Ashis Nandy offer definitions of this historical moment that resonate with Bauman's but
emphasize the role of non-western cultures and discourses in challenging the hegemony of
"meaning-legislating reason" and of realism, its narrative manifestation. Bhabha argues that "if
the interest in postmodernism is limited to a celebration of the fragmentation of the 'grand
narratives' of postenlightenment rationalism, then, for all its intellectual excitement, it remains a
profoundly parochial enterprise." This is so, he continues, because "the wider significance of the
postmodern condition" has to do with the "presencing" of "a range [End Page 147] of other
dissonant, even dissident histories and voices-women, the colonized, minority groups" brought
suddenly close by "the new internationalism" (4-5). Among these voices, as the scholars of the
subaltern studies school have often reminded us, are those of people who still speak the world in
magical and religious terms, people, who, as Ashis Nandy puts it, reject the terms of "the modern
knowledge systems" and even defy "the given formats of defiance" (273), yet "in their own way
and with the help of their own categories, resist domination and theorize about it" (268).
To rethink the postmodern moment as one in which such voices challenge the hegemony of
secular rational discourse with unprecedented power is to see it not simply as a moment of
disintegration but also as one in which certain long-discredited (or residual) ways of seeing and
saying-both Western and non-western-stage a complex kind of come-back. Such a perspective, I
will argue, enables us to generate "thicker," more fully culturally contextualized, readings of
canonical postmodern texts like Pynchon's, DeLillo's, and Ishmael Reed's. And it also enables us
to see as postmodern a range of contemporary texts generally excluded from the category (and
denied its prestige): the mostly Latin American works of "magical realism" and the novels of
Afro-American and Native American novelists such as Toni Morrison, Michele Cliff, Leslie
Marmon Silko, and Louise Erdrich. 4 For what we find in the work of these writers, as in that of
many canonical postmodernists, is the untidy resurgence of magical, sacred, pre-modern and nonwestern constructions of reality.
I don't mean to suggest, however, that we must choose between the two ways of seeing
postmodernism that I have sketched out. Both seem to me to possess considerable descriptive
utility, and neither does justice to all the texts that could arguably be designated postmodern. It
only makes sense that the postmodern moment, like that of modernism, should produce a number
of movements. Thus Norman Rush suggests, in a recent Nation essay, that at this moment the
choice (in the arts) is increasingly between some kind of spiritual seriousness and some kind of
decadence: "Things have been changing in the realm of the arts for some time," Rush writes, and
one might "anticipate an intensification of tendencies like these: more and more implicit religious
advocacy in serious fiction, more pastiche, more decor for decor's sake . . . the pursuit of [End
Page 148] 'liberation' through aesthetic explorations of sociopathy and brutality" (92).
But this is not to say there is a stark opposition between the impulse to spiritual advocacy and the
impulse to play. The postmodern works that most interest me (Pynchon's, Reed's, Denis Potter's,
Tarentino's) read, to borrow Italo Calvino's title, like "cosmic comics." Wild and defiantly
unrealistic exercises in irreverent citation, genre-splicing, excess, caricature, and the grotesque,
they run so against the grain of realistic or even modernist seriousness that it seems absurd, at
first, to treat them as taking any issues seriously. And yet if they seem cosmically irreverent, they
are also comically cosmic: they address sacred alternatives to secular constructions of reality in
ways that invest these alternatives with a certain authority and invite us to reflection. If we accept
this invitation, of course, the joke may be on us: there's always the suggestion, in these texts, that
any kind of faith, secular or spiritual, is folly. But if we refuse the invitation, the case is the same:
for the texts also suggest that secularism is a form of mystification and that those who accept its
definition of possibility are victims of a world historical ruse.
Postmodern Advocacy
How, then, do the texts of what might be called high postmodernism-texts such as Gravity's
Rainbow or Vineland-engineer this strange combination of cosmic irreverence and comic
advocacy? How do they manage at once to mock advocacy and practice it? The secular theories of
postmodernist rhetoric I want to complicate have quite understandably been preoccupied with
postmodern novelists' ontological playfulness, their refusal to abide by the rules of realism, their
inclination to juxtapose disparate worlds. These are indeed the distinguishing features of a whole
range of postmodern texts. But ontological juxtaposition can produce a number of effects besides
that of vertiginously undermining any stable notion of the real. It can also be used, for instance, to
deprivilege a reigning ontological paradigm and substitute an alternative, or to produce a richly
polyontological cosmology, or to locate us in a liminal space between worlds. And ontological
juxtaposition is only the most dramatically new of the many meaning-making strategies in
postmodern [End Page 149] texts, which also continue to employ a whole range of traditional
devices (comic, satirical, and realistic) for testing and dismissing, or testing and advocating,
particular styles of being and constructions of reality.
The ontologically plural and undecidable world of Gravity's Rainbow might for instance be seen,
paradoxically, as both the "foundation" for and the product of a specifically postmodern quest for
something like truth. That is, in any event, how it is described in one passage from the text itself.
"Those like Slothrop," the passage goes, "with the greatest interest in discovering the truth, were
thrown back on dreams, psychic flashes, omens, cryptographies, drug-epistemologies, all dancing
on a ground of terror, contradiction, absurdity" (582). Here the stabilizing concept "ground" is
invested oxymoronically with the destabilizing attributes of contradiction and absurdity, but the
concept survives, and far from putting an end to epistemological explorations, its redefinition
simply dictates a rejection of more systematic, rational-empirical modes of exploration (which,
Pynchon suggests here, have been rendered futile by the power and covert machinations of a
global elite) in favor of a range of alternative, visionary epistemologies identified with occultism,
divination, and paranormal phenomena. The utility of these (and hence the limitations of more
secular rational approaches) is affirmed again and again in the text, as characters achieve through
divination and dream new insights into the structure of the natural cosmos (Kekul's dream of the
Great Serpent with its tail in its mouth), the social order, and their own destinies, and as the
of cause and effect; "She didn't know," confirms the narrator, "all she was trying to do was reach"
(159). Don DeLillo's work is also full of characters who, dissatisfied with conventional
ontologies, reach in language towards more adequate articulations: "There is still the element of
shared culture," muses an American character in The Names who is trying to understand his
profound reaction to Greece. "Something beyond this is familiar as well," he continues, "some
mystery. Often I feel I'm on the edge of knowing what it is. It's just beyond reach. . . . I can't quite
get it and hold it" (26).
DeLillo's fictional reaching, unlike Pynchon's, is a reaching out from within the ontological and
narrative horizons of realism, but these horizons are experienced, as they are in Virginia Woolf's
work for instance, or E. M. Forster's, as impossibly confining, and they are relentlessly questioned
and subtlely violated. The questioning is handled by the many characters who speak some form of
non-secular discourse and by DeLillo's narrators, who almost always speak a creolized idiolect
that promiscuously blends secular and sacred terms. The violations entail both subtle departures
from realism's conventions and the eruption, within the worlds of the novels, of uncanny or
miraculous events. Thus one character in Players (McKechnie) turns up both in the novel's "real"
world and as the protagonist of a television drama watched by another character; and The
Names draws the reader up into the domain of language (its sounds, its history, the mysteries of
representation and self-referentiality) so emphatically that the text loses the transparency essential
to realism, begins to produce effects of unworlding on its readers. Meanwhile, back in the storyworlds themselves, DeLillo's characters dematerialize, or survive deadly bicycle rides across
crowded highways, or participate in "coincidences" so farfetched as to seem fated. These
events [End Page 152] constitute effects of ontological destabilization and resacralization more
tentative and less comic than Pynchon's, but equally urgent.
Yet it is inaccurate, I think, to cast Pynchon's fictions (or DeLillo's) as conventional accounts of
unfinished religious reachings or spiritual quests. For both novelists seem determined
simultaneously to reach and to resist grasping. In work after work, they sympathetically explore
certain non-secular constructions of reality while repudiating others as forms of repression and
control and insisting on the inevitable partiality of all. Pynchon is particularly insistent on the
necessarily and even redemptively unfinished nature of any ontological mapping, the ever-present
danger of confusing a particular representation of reality for being itself, which must always
exceed any formulation. His work seems designed, in other words, both to promote specific forms
of resacralization and to remind us that all formulation is rhetorical-a matter of probabilites and
partialities. Hence his splendidly comic (and chilling) deconstructions of secular/spiritual
binaries, his refusal, after all, to choose between "our stories, all false, about who we are"
(Gravity's Rainbow 135), his enactment of a creative exuberance that reminds us of Harold
Bloom's definition of "blessing" as "more life" (44) and that always outpaces the impulse to
containment. Pynchon returns us to the domain of sacred experiences and doctrines, then, but not
to set us down in some safe zone of putative certainty. This is why he remains, for me, the most
exciting religious novelist of our time.
Postmodern Spiritualities
To argue that Pynchon introduces his reader to a vertiginously decentered space of juxtaposed
non-secular discourses (or discursive fragments) is to argue that his spirituality is in one familiar
sense of the word "postmodern"-that it participates in that larger experience of discursive and
ontological decentering and fragmentation identified by Lyotard, Jameson, McHale, and others as
entangled with oppositional politics and with the quotidian impurities of consumer capitalism.
If contemporary fiction is seamed with references to pre-modern spiritual traditions, it is seamed,
as well, with fascinated portraits of the what might be called, after Robert Venturi, "the
commercial vernaculars" of contemporary spirituality. DeLillo's analysis of the master narratives
of tabloid spirituality in White Noise is a little masterpiece of cultural studies, but his assessment
of it and of other vernacular spiritualities tends to the sour. Pynchon, on the other hand, clearly
enjoys the vigor and impurity of the vernacular imagination: Vineland reads like a tabloid tour of
commercialized spiritual discourses. Nor is Pynchon fascinated merely with the impure
exuberance of the various New Age orientalisms-the whole industry of Esalen-like retreats,
healing hustles, and martial arts studios. He has been satirizing the New Age since its dawning in
the California of The Crying of Lot 49, but he also invites us to respect certain aspects of the new
spiritualites. In Vineland, for instance, D. L. Chastain, a rootless army brat without resources or
education, is saved by the ideas and discipline she acquires in a disreputable storefront dojo:
She was finally acknowledging her mother's soul, one more side benefit of life in the martial arts.
The discipline had steered her early enough away from the powerlessness and [End Page 155] the
sooner or later self-poisoning hatred that had been waiting for her. Somewhere further along,
she'd been given to understand, she would discover that all souls, human and otherwise, were
different disguises of the same greater being- God at play. (121)
Pynchon offers us, here, a class-specific map of the religious landscape of our culture and a
profoundly pragmatic argument for the value of a form of preterite spirituality that more often
gets celebrated in low-budget films and popular TV shows. (When the petty criminal Jules is born
again at the end of Pulp Fiction, he declares his intention to become Kane, the hero of "KungFu.") The passage epitomizes several aspects of Pynchon's spiritual imagination that may reflect
broader tendencies in the spiritual counter-culture with which he can be identified. There's the
fascination with forms of spiritual "discipline," for instance, and its complicating articulation with
the vision of a "God at play." There's the representation of spirituality as an enabling practice that
precedes and may or may not result in some coherent vision of things. And there's the dream of
social reconciliation, a healing of the breech that separates the children from the parents, the
counter-culture from the mainstream (D. L.'s mom is a born-again Christian).
Postmodern and postcolonial theory thus usefully illuminate significant features of contemporary
post-secular fiction. But to recognize and explore other aspects of these texts, one must turn to
less academically accredited sources. For the articulation of new spiritualities, the elaboration of
new sacred discourses, is taking place at some distance from the most academically fashionable
sites of cultural production, in the mostly marginalized work of feminist and ecospiritual
theologians, for instance, and Native American spiritual teachers, and the heretical proponents of
creation theology. It is in works like Carol Christ's Diving Deep and Surfacing, Charlene
Spretnak's States of Grace, Margot Adler's Drawing Down the Moon, and Rosemary
Reuther's Gaia and God, as well as in Native American works like Vine DeLoria's God is Red and
theological treatises like Matthew Fox's Original Blessing, that one finds this new spiritual
discourse, or family of discourses being elaborated and disseminated. These writers, working
from different traditions and reaching, one would guess, a mostly middle class, Euro-American
audience, all challenge not only the possessive individualism and commodity fetishism [End
Page 156] of consumer capitalism, but also reigning religious celebrations of a transcendental
divinity and home, a future free from death, and an ascetic, "earth-fleeing" (Ruether 139) ethic.
The key words of the spirituality they promote are immanence (the spirit in the world, not over it),
interconnectedness, and finitude. "I believe," writes Christ, "that women's spiritual quest and
feminist theology are drawing all of us, women and men, to accept finitude and change, to live in
and through it, [to] give up the quest to ally ourselves with a transcendent source or power which
is beyond change" (xiv). Enabling nonmaterial energies and sources of insight are thus to be
found, as they are in animism, pantheism, and panentheisim, but only intermittently in Judaism
and Christianity, within the world itself, rather than over it. And redemption consists not in a
program of escape and individual immortality, but in one of compassionate identification with a
creaturely community that suffers, enjoys, and endures. Thus DeLillo's privileged protagonistsPammy in Players, James Axton in The Names, even J. A. K. Gladney in White Noise-make their
ways down out of isolation, crippling anxiety, and illusion into concrete, communal spaces that
are simultaneously carnal, incomplete, and profoundly, if obscurely, consoling, while Pynchon'sSlothrop in Gravity's Rainbow, Zoyd and other post-sixties refugees in Vineland-find their ways
back into spiritually charged relationships with the natural cosmos, community, and time that
simultaneously sustain them and reconcile them to their mortality. The spirituality of these and
other contemporary texts represents itself, then, not as an alternative to worldliness but as a lifeaffirming and profoundly worldly alternative to the psychologically alienating and ecologically
destructive pseudo-worldliness of secular rationality. This emerging counter-spirituality, which
shapes the political imagination and practice of many people in contemporary communities of
opposition, has received little attention in literary and cultural studies, but versions of it are being
articulated everywhere in contemporary fiction, sometimes quite starkly, sometimes in ways that
reflect a characteristically postmodern suspicion of any totalizing narrative, any celebration of a
center.
But to limit discussion of these texts to accounts of their postmodern and ecospiritual elements
would be obscure much of what is difficult and disturbing about them and the cultural movement
of which they are a part. Criticism needs to explore, for instance, the relation of contemporary
literary spirituality to the spiritualites of literary modernism, [End Page 157] but also to reflect on
its relation to the exhaustion of modernism and existentialism in the early sixties. Pynchon's The
Crying of Lot 49, which traces the movement of Mucho and Oedipa Mas out of existentialist dead
ends (Oedipa lives in an "exitless" world of privilege, Mucho works under a sign that reads
"N.A.D.A.") into realms of "miracle," suggests that the new spiritualities represent a refusal of
modernist-existentialist pessimism. (Mircea Eliade has made a similar argument in an important
essay on the popularity of Teilhard de Chardin in the early sixties.) To write the intellectual
history of the last forty years in this way is of course to call attention to a glaring division of
interest between writers and readers of fiction on the one hand and academic critics on the other:
the one community turns away from existentialism to the new spiritualities, the other to
poststructuralism. But perhaps this split, if it occurred, is not as sharp as I have just suggested.
One could also write a more dialogic narrative of intellectual life in the last third of the century,
one in which the new spiritualities and poststructuralism would be seen as addressing some
similar issues and producing-in the work of some of our best writers-new and less dogmatic forms
of spirituality.
This is not to suggest, however, that all of the experiments in resacralization underway in
contemporary fiction can be comfortably accommodated under the signs of ecological sensitivity
or poststructural respect for difference. It is important to recognize that it is possible "to resist
domination and theorize about it" (Nandy 268) in the language of the new spiritualities. But it is
equally important to assess the risks and costs of the project. I am unpersuaded and deeply
troubled, for instance, by the discursive shift, most dramatically effected by Reed, Silko, and
Pynchon, that reconstrues all power as a form of "magic." Cultural theorists like George Bataille
and Michael Taussig have of course done fascinating work on this very terrain, attempting to blur
the distinction between magic and economic, magic and science. But the privileging of magic as a
master term for forms of power still strikes me as profoundly problematic. To represent Europe at
mid-century as a culture "in the last weary stages of its perversion of magic" (277), as Pynchon
does fairly consistently throughout Gravity's Rainbow, opens the way in that text for demonizing
dismissals, apocalyptic thinking, and programs of magical empowerment that reject any
movements for change that operate within the space of traditional politics and modes of
persuasion. [End Page 158] Thus Gravity's Rainbow ends, if I read the final episodes correctly,
with a terrifying representation of global nuclear war as a cleansing operation that will destroy the
perversely magical "order of Analysis and Death" (722) and make room for a wholesomely
magical reanimation of the world: "a face on ev'ry mountainside,/And a Soul in ev'ry stone"
(760). Pynchon is too critically reflective to let such a naive romance stand uncontested; but he is
sufficiently taken with it to invoke it in the crucial closing passage of his novel.
I find myself similarly unpersuaded by Silko's version of history (in Ceremony) as a struggle
between "the witchery"-which may have created the white race as its vehicle-and their benign
adversaries. And Reed's depiction of history in Mumbo Jumbo as a centuries long war between the
"Atonist conspiracy" and its earthier, more anarchistic adversaries is as sharply polarizing as
Pynchon's, which it may well have influenced. One is free, of course, to take all these magical
modelings as metaphorical and strategically perverse: as ways to frame the struggle between
modernizing Europe and its adversaries in a manner that does not assume the veracity of Europe's
secular knowledge system. But the modeling exerts its own power, whether strategically deployed
or not, and the power it exerts returns us to ways of thinking that have been plausibly challenged
by secularism.
I am drawn up short, as well, when I find Don DeLillo arguing that the forces behind Kennedy's
assassination may have originated beyond politics and history. Talking with an interviewer about
the historical events he treats in Libra, DeLillo asserts that Oswald's attempt to kill General
Walker was "a strictly political act." But, he continues, "Oswald's attempt on Kennedy was more
complicated. I think it was based on elements outside politics and, as someone in the novel says,
outside history-things like dreams and coincidences and even the movement or the configuration
of the stars, which is one reason the book is called Libra" (289 SAQ).
In 1988, when the interview occurred, a Gallup poll of Americans' religious beliefs found that
only 12% of adults, but 58% of teenagers, believed in astrology; this was also the year when the
role of astrology in the Reagan White House was revealed (Gallup 32-34). I shuddered then at the
thought of an administration run by horoscope, and I balk today at the thought of an historical
imagination that locates inexorable order and agency at such a distance. If the religious
imagination of one of [End Page 159] our finest novelists is taking such turns, we may all live to
regret what Richard Falk calls "the resurgence of religion as a political force" (83).
Falk, a highly respected Princeton political scientist, explores this resurgence in a recent essay. He
argues that secular modernism, its appeal eroded by modern warfare, the nuclear threat, ecological
depredations, and the perceived deterioration of the social fabric, is "losing its hold over the
cultural imagination." In reaction to its weakening, he writes, "a dynamic of cross-penetration is
underway between politics and religion, producing a series of developments that can be either
Notes
1. Pynchon criticism is rich in studies of the spiritual dimension of his work. See for instance
Mendelson, Hite, Weisenburger, Eddins, LeClair, and Porush. LeClair and Porush, particulalry,
recognize that Pynchon's engagement with spirituality is inflected by postmodern styles of
thought; other critics either ignore this aspect of his thought or try (Eddins) to capture Pynchon
for modernism.
2. Among the many scholars who mark, trace, and attempt to understand the religious resurgence
of the past thirty years are Robert Bellah, Harvey Cox, Robert J. Ellwood, Martin Green, Erling
Jorstad, and Wade Clark Roof. William F. McLoughlin draws the connection between the sixities
period and earlier periods of "awakening," as does Ellwood in his more recentThe Sixties
Spiritual Awakening. Cox studies the "oriental religious revival" (11) of the period in Turning
East. Roof, focusing on religious trends in the eighties, sees the continuation of earlier
developments: "Religious and spiritual themes," he writes, continue to "surface in a rich variety of
ways-in Eastern religions, in evangelical and fundamentalist teachings, in mysticism and New
Age movements, in Goddess worship and other ancient religious rituals, in the mainline churches
and synagogues" (4-5). Like the others, he sees growing interest both in fundamentalism and in
exploratory styles of spirituality that emphasize practice over doctrine, creative reinvention and
hybridity over traditionalism and purity.
3. Gallup polls taken in 1988 indicate that 94% of Americans believe in God or a universal spirit
(4), while some 80% believe in miracles (10). Almost 70% of the respondents to Wade Roof's
survey, also conducted in 1988, expressed a belief in "psychic powers" (85). Yet the Gallup poll
found no rise in the percentage of religiously preoccupied Americans between 1960 and 1988; the
resurgence of spirituality noted by many seems by this reckoning to be more a matter of growing
spiritual intensity and visibility than of growing numbers. Thus aNewsweek poll conducted in
November of 1994 found that "a majority of Americans (58%) say they feel the need to
experience spiritual growth" (54).
4. Native American scholars have recognized the similarities between Native American narrative
practices, traditional and contemporary, and certain postmodern practices. See Vizenor and Gunn
Allen.
5. See for instance Paula Gunn Allen's essay, "Special Problems in Teaching Leslie Marmon
Silko's Ceremony" and Ward Churchill's Fantasies of the Master Race.
Works Cited
Adler, Margot. Drawing Down the Moon. Boston: Beacon, 1979.
Allen, Paula Gunn. The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in Native American Traditions.
Boston: Beacon, 1989.
Bauman, Zygmunt. Intimations of Postmodernity. London: Routledge, 1992.
Bellah, Robert. Beyond Belief. New York: Harper and Row, 1970.
Bhabha, Homi. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994.
Bloom, Harold. The Book of J. New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1990.
Christ, Carol. Diving Deep and Surfacing. Boston: Beacon, 1980.
Churchill, Wade. Fantasies of the Master Race. Boston: South End P, 1992.
Clifford, James. The Predicament of Culture. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1988.
Cox, Harvey. Turning East: the Promise and Peril of the New Orientalism. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1977.
DeLillo, Don. "'An Outsider in this Society': An Interview with Don DeLillo." Introducing Don
DeLillo. Ed. Frank Lentricchia. Durham: Duke UP, 1991. 41-66.