Learning styles and strategies

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One of the factors that determine the success in learning is the learning style that the
learner uses in approaching the tasks and processing information. Learning styles,
according to Keefe (1979) are characteristic cognitive, affective, and psychological
behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact
with, and respond to the learning environment. Dunn and Griggs (1988: 3) define the
learning style as the biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics
that make the same teaching method wonderful for some and terrible for others.
Research has shown that students have different preferences and use different
methods in learning. Some students prefer to work with facts and figures and need
concrete examples in order to grasp the new material, while others are more
comfortable with theoretical explanations and abstractions; some prefer to interact
with others and retain the information better if they are involved in pair and group
activities, others prefer to work alone and have time for thinking and reflection; some
like to see visual presentation of the information in the form of pictures, graphs,
diagrams, video presentations, etc., while others prefer verbal explanations.
Skehan (1998: 237) points out that the style someone adopts may partly reflect
personal preference rather than innate endowment. This implies that students may not
be aware of their different abilities, and by adopting a style they feel most comfortable
with they ignore other possible ways that may help them improve their learning
experience and miss the opportunity to discover other ways of learning and
approaching tasks which can be useful for them. Furthermore, the aim of education is
to equip students with the skills and abilities that will enable them to function
effectively as professionals, so that if they learn only in their preferred style, they will
not develop the variety of skills they need in order to be successful as students and
professionals. On the other hand, if the teacher teaches in a way that is not compatible
with the students learning style, the student may feel frustrated and develop negative
attitude towards learning. Thus, teachers should strive to satisfy the needs of the
learners by using their preferred style of teaching and learning, and at the same time
expand their preferences by utilizing different teaching and learning styles, so that
part of the time students feel comfortable with their learning style, but they are also
given opportunities to experience and discover other learning styles and approaches
that will enable them to develop versatile skills and abilities and reach their potential
both as students and professionals.

Learning style models

Several learning style models have been developed in order to describe and explain
the different learning styles. Teachers need to be aware of the different learning styles

in order to provide a variety of teaching methods and select classroom activities to

match the learning styles of their students. Felder and Brent (2005: 58-59) remark that
the concept of learning styles is not universally accepted and that learning style
models have been criticised for having no sound theoretical basis. However, studies in
this area show a clear and consistent picture of learning style differences and their
effects on student performance and attitudes. Moreover, the use of a broad range of
learning styles has consistently proved more successful than the use of a limited
number of learning styles.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
This model is based on Carl Jung's theory of psychological types and has been used to
classify learning styles in many disciplines. Students profiles are identified along four
dimensions:
orientation
to
life
(extroverted/introverted),
perception
(sensing/intuitive), decision making (thinking/feeling), and attitudes to the outside
world (judgment/perception):
Extroverts (try things out, focus on the outer world of people) or introverts
(think things through, focus on the inner world of ideas);
sensors (practical, detail-oriented, focus on facts and procedures) or intuitors
(imaginative, concept-oriented, focus on meanings and possibilities);
thinkers (sceptical, tend to make decisions based on logic and rules) or feelers
(appreciative, tend to make decisions based on personal and humanistic
considerations);
judgers (set and follow agendas, seek closure even with incomplete data) or
perceivers (adapt to changing circumstances, resist closure to obtain more data).
(Felder and Brent, 2005; Montgomery and Groat, 1998)
Students can be said to belong to one of the 16 MBTI categories based on their
preferences, strengths and weaknesses. Thus, a student who is introverted, sensing,
feeling and judging would be categorized as having an ISFJ personality (Montgomery
and Groat, 1998: 2).
Kolb's Learning Style Model
This model is based on the assumption that all learning entails a cycle of learning
modes, but each individual is likely to feel most comfortable in one of the four modes
of the cycle based on her/his preference along two dimensions: perception
(abstract/concrete) and processing (active/reflective):
Type 1 (concrete, reflective). A characteristic question of this learning type is
"Why?" Type 1 learners respond well to explanations of how course material
relates to their experience, their interests, and their future careers. To be
effective with Type 1 students, the instructor should function as a motivator.
Type 2 (abstract, reflective). A characteristic question of this learning type is
"What?" Type 2 learners respond to information presented in an organized,

logical fashion and benefit if they have time for reflection. To be effective, the
instructor should function as an expert.
Type 3 (abstract, active). A characteristic question of this learning type is
"How?" Type 3 learners respond to having opportunities to work actively on
well-defined tasks and to learn by trial-and-error in an environment that allows
them to fail safely. To be effective, the instructor should function as a coach,
providing guided practice and feedback.
Type 4 (concrete, active). A characteristic question of this learning type is "What
if?" Type 4 learners like applying course material in new situations to solve real
problems. To be effective, the instructor should stay out of the way, maximizing
opportunities for the students to discover things for themselves.
(Felder, 1996)
According to this model, each academic field can be matched with different learning
styles. Thus, the concrete/reflective style is predominant in the social sciences and
humanities, the abstract/reflective style is characteristic for the physical sciences, the
abstract/active style is mostly used in science-based professions such as engineering,
and the concrete/active style reflects the more social professions such as education
(Montgomery and Groat, 1998: 3).
Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model
The Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model consists of five dimensions, two of
which correspond to some of the dimensions in the two previous models:
sensing learners (concrete, practical, oriented toward facts and procedures) or
intuitive learners (conceptual, innovative, oriented toward theories and
meanings);
visual learners (prefer visual representations of presented material--pictures,
diagrams, flow charts) or verbal learners (prefer written and spoken
explanations);
inductive learners (prefer presentations that proceed from the specific to the
general) or deductive learners (prefer presentations that go from the general to
the specific);
active learners (learn by trying things out, working with others) or reflective
learners (learn by thinking things through, working alone);
sequential learners (linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps) or global
learners (holistic, systems thinkers, learn in large leaps).
Felder (1996) offers some strategies for teachers to ensure that the way the
information is presented would appeal to a range of learning styles: teaching
theoretical material by first presenting phenomena and problems that relate to the
theory (sensing, inductive, global); balancing conceptual information (intuitive) with
concrete information (sensing); making extensive use of sketches, plots, schematics,
vector diagrams, computer graphics, and physical demonstrations (visual) in addition
to oral and written explanations and derivations (verbal) in lectures and readings;
giving some experimental observations before presenting the general principle, and
have the students (preferably working in groups) see how far they can get toward

inferring the latter (inductive); providing class time for students to think about the
material being presented (reflective) and for active student participation (active);
demonstrating the logical flow of individual course topics (sequential), but also
pointing out connections between the current material and other relevant material in
the same course, in other courses in the same discipline, in other disciplines, and in
everyday experience (global).
OConnor (2011) states that despite the wide range of models, the concept of learning
styles is very useful for teachers because it provides a stable-enough characterization
to plan pedagogical strategies. He offers some general conclusions for teachers that
seem to cut across the various models:
Students will learn better when using preferences in which they're successful.
Students will be better learners when they can expand their preferences.
When teaching accommodates various preferences, more students will be
successful.
Teachers can construct activities that include specific (& multiple) learning
preferences.
This can be done by adding alternatives or, completing learning cycles that
incorporate all styles or, by utilizing holistic, complex tasks.

Different kinds of intelligence

The theory of different kinds of intelligence of Howard Gardner (Gardner, 1983)
whereby people have many kinds of intelligence had a major impact on students and
teachers. He lists seven types of intelligence: musical/rhythmic, verbal/linguistic,
visual/spatial, physical/kinesthetic, logical/mathematical, interpersonal and
intrapersonal. Later he added two more types of intelligence: the existential and
naturalistic (Gardner, 2003: 7). He explains these types of intelligences as follows:
l. Linguistic intelligence the intelligence of a writer, orator, journalist.
2. Logical
mathematical intelligence the intelligence of a logician,
mathematician, scientist.
3. Musical intelligence - the capacity to create, perform, and appreciate music.
4. Spatial intelligence - the capacity to form mental imagery of the world the
large world of the aviator or navigator, or the more local world of the chess
player or the surgeon and to manipulate those mental images.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence - the capacity to solve problems or fashion
products using your whole body, or parts of your body, like your hands or
mouth. This intelligence is exhibited by athletes, dancers, actors, craftspersons,
and, again, surgeons.
6. Interpersonal intelligence involves the understanding of other personshow to
interact with them, how to motivate them, how to understand their personalities,
etc. This skill is obviously important for people in business, teachers, clinicians,
and those involved in politics or religion.

7. Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneselfones strengths,

weaknesses, desires, fears. Access to ones emotional life is important for
intrapersonal intelligence.
8. Naturalist intelligence involves the capacity to make consequential distinctions
in naturebetween one plant and another, among animals, clouds, mountains,
and the like.
9. Existential intelligence is the intelligence of big questions. When children ask
about the size of the universe, when adults ponder death, love, conflict, the
future of the planet, they are engaging in existential issues.
(Gardner, 2005)
Murray Loom, a teacher in primary school in Australia, has made the following table
to show what meaning the first seven types of intelligence have for students:
Type

Likes to

Is good at

Learns best
by

Language activities

Linguistic
Learner
The word
player

Read, write,
tell stories

Memorising
names, places,
dates and trivia

Saying, hearing
and seeing
words

Logical/
Mathematical
Learner
The
questioner

Do
experiments,
figure things
out, work
things out,
work with
numbers, ask
questions,
explore
patterns and
relationships
Draw, build,
design and
create things,
daydream,
look at
pictures, watch
movies play
with machines

Maths, reasoning,
logic and problem
solving

Categorising,
classifying,
working with
abstract patterns
/ relationships

Word games
Reading games
Writing games
Storytelling
Show and tell
Role-play
Using puppets
Tongue twisters
Crosswords/anagrams
Word puzzles
Reading puzzles
Writing puzzles
Logical problem solving
Computer games
Number puzzles
Classifying
Ranking
Sequencing/Ordering

Imagining things,
sensing changes,
mazes,
puzzles, reading
maps, charts

Visualising,
dreaming, using
the minds eye,
working with
colours and
pictures

Musical
Learner
The music
lover

Sing, hum
tunes,
listen to music,
play an
instrument,
respond to
music

Picking up
sounds,
remembering
melodies,
noticing pitches
and rhythms,
keeping time

Rhythm,
melody, music

Bodily/
Kinaesthetic

Move around,
touch and talk,

Physical activities
(sport/dancing/

Touching,
moving,

Spatial Learner
The visualiser

Shape puzzles
Mind Maps
Drawing
Visualisations
Diagrams
Constructing models
Maps and coordinates
Drawing
Learning from videos
and CD-ROM-s
Songs
Action rhymes
Chants

TPR
Craftwork

Learner

use body
language

acting)

interacting with
space,
processing
knowledge
through bodily
sensations

Dancing
Physical activities
Action rhymes, songs
and games

Interpersonal
Learner The
socialiser

Have lots of
friends, talk to
people, join
groups

Sharing,
comparing,
relating,
cooperating,
interviewing

Pair work
Group work
Brainstorming
Peer Teaching
Dialogues
Interviews

Intrapersonal
Learner

Work alone,
pursue own
interests

Understanding
people, leading
others,
organising,
communicating,
manipulating,
mediating
conflicts
Understanding
self, focusing
inward on
feelings/dreams,
following
instincts, pursuing
interests/goals,
being original

Working alone,
individualised
projects, selfpaced
instruction,
having own
space

Learning Diaries
Reflection
Creative writing
Project work
Personal goal-setting

http://www.longman.pl/files/materialy_dodatkowe/teachers_club/TC_sample4-6.pdf
Gardner (Gardner, 1983) thinks that there are no two people with the same profile of
intelligence, because all people have all intelligences, but to varying degrees, so that
all the combinations are different. It suggests that the same approaches and activities
are not suitable for all students. For example, unlike students in whom the
logical/mathematical intelligence is dominant and who can benefit from complex
explanations, for students who have more developed visual/spatial intelligence, the
use of diagrams and physical demonstrations would be more beneficial (Harmer,
2001: 47). Davis (1991) believes that educational systems have traditionally turned to
the linguistic, logical-mathematical and intrapersonal intelligence, while the dominant
intelligences for most students are spatial, musical, physical-kinesthetic and
interpersonal intelligence. Although teachers cannot meet the needs of every student
at every moment, bearing in mind the different abilities, learning styles and different
types of intelligence possessed by students, teachers can direct students to activities
and ways of learning that are most suitable for them and that will help them to acquire
the language more easily.

Learning strategies
The term "strategy" refers to planned actions to achieve a particular goal. The main
goal of students who study a foreign language is to acquire linguistic competence to
be able to use language in different situations. However, this objective cannot be
achieved at once, so students need to plan, to organize and monitor their learning
using different strategies for different aspects and stages of learning the language.
Oxford defines strategies as "steps taken by students to enhance their own learning"
(Oxford, 1990: 1), i.e. as "specific actions taken by the learner to make learning

easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more
transferable to new situations "(ibid.: 8). Proper use of strategies helps students to be
aware of the learning process and be active participants in that process, not just
passive recipients of teacher input.
Oxford (ibid.: 10) emphasizes that in many cultures and educational systems, students
are passive and expect to be guided by the teacher, so the use of strategies will help
them become more independent and more active in the learning process. Chamot
(2004: 15) found that students who use strategies successfully possess metacognitive
knowledge about their way of thinking and their approach to learning, understand the
goals of the task and have the ability to use those strategies that are important for the
given task and that correspond to their style of learning. On the other hand, students
without metacognitive approach have no direction and ability to plan their learning, to
monitor their progress and to assess their achievement that will help them to set future
goals (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990: 8). The selection and effectiveness of learning
strategies depend on several factors such as the degree of students awareness, their
level of linguistic competence, the requirements of the task, the type and context of
learning, teachers' expectations, students individual characteristics, their age, gender,
learning styles, motivation and purpose of learning the language, etc. (Oxford, 1990:
13).
Joan Rubin (quoted in O'Malley & Chamot, 1990:3) proposed a classification scheme
of learning strategies, which contains two main groups and several subgroups. The
first group consists of strategies that directly affect learning, such as clarification,
verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing, inductive reasoning and practice.
The other group consists of strategies that indirectly affect learning, such as creating
opportunities for practicing the language. O'Malley and Chamot identify three groups
of strategies: metacognitive strategies which include thinking about the process of
learning, planning, monitoring and evaluating the achieved results, cognitive
strategies that involve interaction and manipulation of the material, as well as the use
of specific techniques for a particular task; social and affective strategies that involve
interaction with others or using mental techniques and self-reward for successfully
completed tasks (ibid.: 137-139).
Oxford (Oxford, 1990) has made one of the most comprehensive classification of
strategies for language learning. She divides the strategies into direct strategies which
include memory, cognitive and compensation strategies, and indirect strategies which
include metacognitive, affective and social strategies. She explains that all these
strategies help the development of communicative competence in general and specific
ways:
1. Memory strategies reflect very simple principles such as arranging things in
order, making associations or reviewing. For the purpose of learning a new
language, all these activities must be meaningful to the learners, and the
material to be reviewed must have significance. Although many teachers believe
that learning vocabulary is easy, students have a serious problem to acquire the
vocabulary required for fluid communication. Memory strategies will help
students remember verbal material easily, and then retrieve it when needed for
communication. (ibid.: 39). Memory strategies fall into four sets: creating

mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing
action. Some of the specific strategies are grouping, using imagery, using
keywords, structured reviewing, using physical response or sensation, etc.
2. Cognitive strategies are essential in learning the language and are characterized
by a common function: the manipulation and transformation of the target
language by the learner. There are four sets of cognitive strategies: practicing,
receiving and sending messages, analysing and reasoning, and creating
structures for input and output, which include the following strategies:
repeating, recognising and using formulas and patters, reasoning deductively,
analysing expressions, taking notes, summarizing, etc. Oxford stated that these
strategies are generally popular among students (ibid.: 43).
3. Compensation strategies enable learners to use the target language for
comprehension or production despite limitations in knowledge. They are
intended to make up for the gaps in students grammar and especially
vocabulary knowledge. There are two sets of compensation strategies: guessing
intelligently in listening and reading, and overcoming limitations in speaking
and writing. Some of the compensation strategies are the following: using
linguistic clues, switching to the mother tongue, using mime or gesture,
selecting the topic, using synonyms, etc.
4. Metacognitive strategies help students to coordinate their learning process.
They include three strategy sets: centering your learning, arranging and
planning your learning, and evaluating your learning. Some of the
metacognitive strategies are the following: overviewing and linking with
already known material, paying attention, organizing, setting goals and
objectives, seeking practice opportunities, etc. However, although they are
very important, research shows that students do not attach great importance to
them and use them sporadically and without much sense if their importance
(ibid.: 137-8).
5. Affective strategies Since the term affective refers to emotions, attitudes,
motivations and values, it indicates the importance of affective learning
strategies. Negative emotions interfere with learning, while positive emotions
can make learning more effective and more fun. Hence, successful students are
usually those who know how to control their emotions and attitudes toward
learning (ibid.: 140). Moreover, affective strategies develop the self-confidence
and perseverance needed for learners to participate actively in the process of
learning the language, which is a requirement for the development of
communicative competence (ibid.: 8). There are three sets of affective
strategies: lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself, and taking your
emotional temperature, which include the following strategies: using meditation,
music and laughter, taking risks, rewarding yourself, discussing your feeling s
with someone else, etc.
6. Social strategies. Since learning a language involves communication with
others, appropriate social strategies are very important in this process (ibid.:
144). There are three sets of social strategies: asking questions, cooperating with
others, and empathizing with others. Each set consists of two specific strategies:
asking for clarification or verification, asking for correction, cooperating with
peers, cooperating with proficient users of the new language, developing

cultural understanding and becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings.

These strategies help students to learn through interaction with others.
Most studies show that advanced learners use more strategies, and use them more
frequently than students who show weaker results in the learning of languages. This
indicates that teachers should try to assess learners use of strategies by using selfreport surveys, interviews, learner journals, think-aloud techniques, and then use that
knowledge to orient their L2 instruction as well as the strategy instruction that can be
interwoven into the language instruction (Oxford, 2001). One of the easiest ways to
help learners identify styles and preferences is by using a self-check questionnaire.
Oxfords (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) is the most widely
used instrument for this purpose:

This questionnaire will help not only learners identify their preferred styles and
strategies, but it will also give teachers valuable information about their students
which they can use to help learners put certain strategies into practice. Brown (2007:
145) suggests that after the students have filled the questionnaire, the teacher can
engage them in any or all of the following:
(1) a discussion of why they responded as they did,
(2) small-group sharing of feelings underlying their responses,
(3) an informal tabulation of how people responded to each item,

(4) some advice, from your own experience, on why certain practices may be
successful or unsuccessful, or
(5) reaching the general consensus that responses in the A and B categories are
usually indicative of successful approaches to language learning.
The style preference questionnaire is designed in such a way that each item refers to a
characteristic of good language learners:
1. Lower inhibitions.
2. Encourage risk-taking.
3. Build self-confidence.
4. Develop intrinsic motivation.
5. Engage in cooperative learning.
6. Use right-brain processes.
7. Promote ambiguity tolerance.
8. Practice intuition.
9. Process error feedback.
10. Set personal goals.
In order to help learners develop useful strategies for language learning, teachers can
incorporate formal or informal strategy training in their teaching. Brown (2007: 146)
provides a list of ways of building strategic techniques in the language classroom
based on the ten items in the questionnaire:
1. To lower inhibitions: Play guessing games and communication games; do role
plays and skits; sing songs; use plenty of group work; laugh with your students;
have them share their fears in small groups.
2. To encourage risk taking: Praise students for making sincere efforts to tryout
language; use fluency exercises where errors are not corrected at that time; give
outside-of-class assignments to speak or write or otherwise tryout the language.
3. To build students' self-confidence: Tell students explicitly (verbally and
nonverbally) that you do indeed believe in them; have them make lists of their
strengths, of what they know or have accomplished so far in the course.
4. To help students develop intrinsic motivation: Remind them explicitly about the
rewards for learning English; describe (or have students look up) jobs that
require English; play down the final examination in favour of helping students
to see rewards for themselves beyond the final exam.
5. To promote cooperative learning: Direct students to share their knowledge; play
down competition among students; get your class to think of themselves as a
team; do a considerable amount of small-group work.
6. To encourage students to use right-brain processing: Use movies and tapes in
class; have students read passages rapidly; do skimming exercises; do rapid
"free writes"; do oral fluency exercises where the object is to get students to talk
(or write) a lot without being corrected.
7. To promote ambiguity tolerance: Encourage students to ask you, and each other,
questions when they don't understand something; keep your theoretical
explanations very simple and brief; deal with just a few rules at a time;
occasionally resort to translation into a native language to clarify a word or
meaning.

8. To help students use their intuition : Praise students for good guesses; do not
always give explanations of errors-let a correction suffice; correct only selected
errors, preferably just those that interfere with learning.
9. To get students to make their mistakes work FOR them: Tape-record students'
oral production and get them to identify errors; let students catch and correct
each other's errors-do not always give them the correct form; encourage students
to make lists of their common errors and to work on them on their own.
10. To get students to set their own goals: Explicitly encourage or direct students to
go beyond the classroom goals; have them make lists of what they will
accomplish on their own in a particular week; get students to make specific time
commitments at home to study the language; give "extra credit" work.

Conclusion
Students come to the classroom equipped with different skills and abilities and a
preferred way of learning. In order to teach successfully, teachers need to employ a
variety of teaching methods and techniques to cater for the needs of all learners. When
there is a mismatch between the teaching style and the students learning styles, the
objectives of the course cannot be achieved and the teaching and learning experience
will be full of frustrations and disappointments. Therefore, in order to be effective
teachers, they need to recognize the different learning styles of the students in the
classroom and adapt the teaching to suit their learning preferences. However, it is
neither possible nor desirable for learners to learn exclusively in the way they feel
most comfortable with. So, the best learning experience for learners would be to learn
partly in the way they prefer, and partly in less preferred ways in order to develop
different skills and abilities that they need in order to be successful both in their
studies and in their future professions.

References
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (5th ed.) White
Plains, NY: Pearson Longman.

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Davis, R. (1991). Learning How to Learn: Technology, the Seven Multiple
Intelligences and Learning. California: ERIC Clearinghouse (ERIC Document
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Dunn, R. & Griggs, S. (1988). Learning styles: Quiet revolution in American
schools. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary Schools Principals.
Felder, R. M. (1996). Matters of style. ASEE Prism, 6(4), 18-23.
Felder, R. M. & Brent, R. (2005). Understanding student differences. Journal of
Engineering Education, 94/1, 57-72.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books.
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the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois, April 21, 2003.
Gardner, H. (2005). Multiple Lenses on the Mind. Paper presented at the
ExpoGestion Conference, Bogota Colombia, May 25, 2005.
Harmer, J. (1998). How to Teach English: An introduction to the practice of English
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University Press: New York.
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implication for teaching. CRLT Occasional Paper, 10. The University of Michigan.
OConnor, T. (2011). Using Learning Styles to Adapt Technology for Higher
Education. Available at:
http://www.indstate.edu/cirt/id/pedagogies/styles/learning.html.
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Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should

know. New York: Newbury House.
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(Ed.), Teaching English as a Second of Foreign Language. 3 rd ed. Boston, MA: Heinle
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Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford
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Discussion questions:
1. What is the difference between learning styles and learning strategies?

2. Why are learning styles and strategies important for L2 teachers to understand?
3. Which is your preferred learning style?
4. Which intelligence/intelligences do you posses to a higher degree?
5. What strategies/categories of strategies do you use the most and which do you use
the least?
6. How can you include strategy instruction in your L2 teaching?
7. In a classroom situation, what can a teacher do to help all the learners and their
preferred styles?