Research families

Quantitative or Qualitative
Deskwork or Fieldwork
-Quantitative research is empirical
-Fieldwork refers to the process of
research where the data are in the
going out to collect research data.
form of numbers.
Such data may be described as
Characteristics : Quantitative research
original or empirical, and cannot be
tends to involve relatively large-scale
accessed without the researcher
and representative sets of data, and is
engaging in some kind of expedition
often, falsely in our view, presented or
members of staff.
perceived as being about the
Examples : visiting an institution to
gathering of facts.
interview
-Qualitative research is empirical
-Deskwork consists of those research
research where the data are not in the
processes which do not necessitate
form of numbers.
going into the eld. It consists,
Characteristics : Qualitative is
literally, of those things which can
concerned with collecting and
be done while sitting at a desk.
The differences between qualitative and quantitative research
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Qualitative paradigms
Concerned with understanding behaviour from actors
own frames of reference
Naturalistic and uncontrolled observation
Subjective
Close to the data: the insider perspective
Close to the data: the insider perspective
Grounded, discovery oriented, exploratory,
expansionist,
descriptive, inductive
Process-oriented
Valid: real, rich, deep data
Ungeneralizable: single case studies
Holistic
Assumes a dynamic reality
Quantitative paradigms
Seeks the facts/causes of social phenomena
Obtrusive and controlled measurement
Objective
Removed from the data: the outsider perspective
Ungrounded, verification oriented, reductionist,
hypothetico-deductive
Outcome-oriented
Reliable: hard and replicable data
Generalizable: multiple case studies
Particularistic
Assumes a stable reality

The similarities between qualitative and

quantitative research
While quantitative research may be mostly
used for testing theory, it can
also be used for exploring an area and
generating hypotheses and theory.
Similarly, qualitative research can be used
for testing hypotheses and
theories, even though it is mostly used for
theory generation.
Qualitative data often includes
quantification (e.g. statements such as
more than, less than, most, as well as specific
numbers).
Quantitative approaches (e.g. large-scale
surveys) can collect qualitative
(non-numeric) data through open-ended
questions.
The underlying philosophical positions are
not necessarily as distinct as the
stereotypes suggest

Notes :
As the development of information and communication technologies, the distinction between fieldwork
and deskwork is blurring.
Research
Action approaches
research is referred to variously as a term, process, enquiry, approach,
Action
Research
flexible spiral process and as cyclic. It has a practical, problemsolving emphasis. It is
carried out by individuals, professionals and educators. It involves research,
systematic, critical reflection and action. Action research is an increasingly popular
approach among small-scale researchers in the social sciences, particularly for those

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Criteria distinguishing action research

is educative;
deals with individuals as members of social groups;
is problem-focused, context-specific and future-orientated;
involves a change intervention;
aims at improvement and involvement;
involves a cyclic process in which research, action and evaluation are interlinked;
is founded on a research relationship in which those involved are participants in the change process.
Inappropriate uses of action research
Never use action research to:
Drive an unpopular policy or initiative through.
Experiment with different solutions without thinking through very carefully their soundness and
the ethics involved.
Manipulate employees or practitioners into thinking they have contributed to a policy decision
when it has already been made.
Try to bring a dysfunctional team or workgroup together (whether or not they actually are
dysfunctional, any doubts you may have suggest you need to examine your systems first, before
engaging in a time-consuming and potentially disruptive project).
Bolster a flagging career. Action research will expose any weaknesses you
may have extremely quickly!
The participatory action research spiral

PLAN ACT AND OSERVE REFLECT - - REVISED PLAN ACT

CaseAND
StudiesOBSERVE - REFLECT
The case study is the method of choice when the phenomenon under study is not readily distinguishable
from its context.
(Yin 2003: 4)
The case study is, in many ways, ideally suited to the needs and resources of the small-scale researcher.
This might be the researchers place of work, or another institution or organization with which they have a
connection: a company, a voluntary organization, a school, a ship or a prison.
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Advantages and disadvantages of case studies

Advantages
1. Case study data is drawn from peoples experiences and practices and so it is seen to be strong in
reality.
2. Case studies allow for generalizations from a specific instance to a more general issue.
3. Case studies allow the researcher to show the complexity of social life. Good case studies build on
this to explore alternative meanings and interpretations.
4. Case studies can provide a data source from which further analysis can be made. They can,
therefore, be archived for further research work.
5. Because case studies build on actual practices and experiences, they can be linked to action and
their insights contribute to changing practice. Indeed case study may be a sub-set of a broader action
research project.

6. Because the data contained in case studies are close to peoples experiences, they can be more
persuasive and more accessible.
Disadvantages
1. The very complexity of a case can make analysis difficult. This is particularly so because the holistic
nature of case study means that the researcher is often very aware of the connections between various
events, variables and outcomes. Accordingly, everything appears relevant. It is not, however, and to
write up your case as if it is does not make for good research! You might think about this in terms of
a Russian doll metaphor, where each piece of data rests inside another, separate but related. You need
to show the connections but not lose sight of the whole.
2. While the contextualization of aspects of the case strengthen this form of research, it is difficult to
know where context begins and ends.
Experiments
Surveys