56

Torsion of Solid Sections: General Cross-Sections

Recall torsion of a circular section

T

y
u

ur

assumed that plane

sections remained plane and
just rotated about z

So, we get
u = r and ur = 0 where is the angle of twist
Then
u = ux = u sin
v = uy = u cos
Thus
u = r sin = y
v = r cos = x
and w = uz = 0
Now, we guess that this is almost right for non-circular sections and leave rotation alone, but let w(x, y, z) = w(x, y) displacement, the warping of the section,
be unknown but independent of z.

4.1

Prandtls stress function solution

Based on these assumptions about the displacemnts, and the isotropic nature
of the material, we can make an educated guess for the stress fields in the bar
and then use the equations of 3D elasticity to see if our guess can be made to
work.
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57

A reasonable guess for the stress field is the following:

xx (x, y, z) = yy (x, y, z) = zz (x, y, z) = 0,
xy (x, y, z) = 0,
xz (x, y, z) = xz (x, y) = 0,
yz (x, y, z) = yz (x, y) = 0.

That is, all stress components are zero, except the out-of-plane shear stresses
which are the same for all cross-sections (independent of z).
Under this assumption for the stress fields, the equilibrium equations reduce
to
zx
zy
+
=0
x
y
Now, define
zx

and

zy =

for some function (x, y).

Q: Why make this choice?
A: Equilibrium is identically satisfied for any . Check:
! "
!
"

2
2

+

=0
x y
y
x
xy yx
Since we start with stresses (not displacements), we need to make sure compatibility is satisfied. Six equations reduce to two:
!
"

ezy
ezx

=0
+
x
x
y
!
"
ezy
ezx
=0

y
x
y
zx
Plug in stresses from above (recall ezx = 2G
, etc.) and we find
! 2
"
# 2 $
1 2
1

+ 2 =
=0
2G x x2
y
2G x % &' (

Laplacian of

and

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58

1
2G y

2 2
+ 2
x2
y

"

1 # 2 $
=0
2G y

These imply that 2 = F is a constant. Boundary conditions on the laterial

surfaces are [t] = [][n] = [0] or
zx nx + zy ny = 0 for traction-free lateral side
Substituting for the shears:

nx
ny = 0
y
x
y
ds

n
ny

dy
dx nx

Consider S as arc-length, then ds n

n

ds
ds
dy

(dx)

1
ny

nx

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n
59

so
dy
nx
=
ds
1

and

dx
= ny
ds

Substituting into B.C.

dy

y ds
x

!
"
dx

=0
ds

or

dx dy
+
=0
x ds
y ds
This is just the chain rule for
d
=0
ds
Thus, is a constant on the boundary. Without loss of generality, we can take
= 0 on the boundary. Now, compute the torque we have

zy

so, T =
zx

##
A

x
=

##
A

$
%
zx y + zy x dx dy
$
%
x dx dy
y
y
x

Consider each term in turn:

##

dA
y
y

integration by parts

y ds

##

dA

Similarly,
##
A

dA =
x

x ds

##

dA

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60

so (noting that is zero on the boundary) the line integrals disappear, resulting
in
!!
!!
!!
T =
dA +
dA = 2
dA
A

We still have not involved the twist per unit length d

dz , so lets look at displacements. From our original assumptions for the displacements (u(x, y, z) =
(z)y, v(x, y, z) = (z)x and w(x, y, z) = w(x, y), we have that the out-ofplane shear strains are:
1 u w
(
+
)=
2 z
x
1 v
w
= (
+
)=
2 z
y

exz =
eyz

1 d
w
1
(
y+
)=
,
2
dz
x
2G y
1 d
w
1
(
x+
)=
.
2 dz
y
2G x

Take /x of exz and /y of eyz , then subtract to obtain:

2G

d
= 2 = constant
dz

Thus,
d
2
=
dz
2G
and we usually define
T = GJ

d
dz

So

where GJ is the torsional rigidity.

GJ =

T
d
dz

4G
2

" !!
#
2G
2

dA
2
A

!!

dA

or
4
J= 2

!!

dA

So if we find such that

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61

2 = 2G

d
dz

and

= 0 on A

Then this equation tells us the torsional rigidity of the section.

4.2

Torsion of an ellipse and the Membrane Analogy

The equation of an ellipse is

b

y2
x2
+
=1
a2
b2

Recall: Prandtl stress function

equilibrium is automatic
compatibility: 2 = 2G d
dz
boundary condition: = 0 on A
Stresses are
zx =
torque is: T = 2

!!

and

zy =

dA

So, we need = 0 on A, i.e., for

x2
a2

y2
b2

=1

Try
=c

"

x2
y2
+
1
a2
b2

then
2 = c

"

2
2
+ 2
a2
b

= 2c

"

1
1
+ 2
a2
b

= 2G

d
dz

So

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62

c=

c=

a2 b 2
d
G
2
2
a +b
dz

d
a2 b 2
G
2
a + b2 dz

1
1
+ 2
2
a
b

"1

d
dz

!
"
1
1
a2 + b 2
recall 2 + 2 =
a
b
a2 b 2

giving

Finally,
!

x2
y2
+ 2 1
2
a
b

"

Then the torque is

##
##
##
##
2 2
2a b d 1
1
G
x2 dA + 2
y 2 dA
dA
T =2
dA = 2
a + b2 dz a2
b
A

Now,
##

x2 dA = Iy =

a3 b
4

##

y 2 dA = Ix =

b3 a
4

##

dA = A = ab

so
T =

=G

(
)
2a2 b2
d 1 a3 b
1 b3 a
G
+

ab
a2 + b2 dz a2 4
b2 4
d a3 b3
dz (a2 + b2 )

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63

So
GJ =

T
d
dz

=G

a3 b3
(a2 + b2 )

if a = b = R, we have a circle and we get

!
"
d R6
d R4
T =G
=
G
dz 2R2
dz 2
recall J =

R4
2

for a circle.

Plot over the cross-section

z

(x, y)
x

It looks like a soap bubble, which is a membrane. The equation for a membrane
P
is 2 w = N
.
For
w(x, y)

P
N

w height above z = 0
Compare to
2 = 2G

d
dz

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64

The equations have the same form, thus, we can picture the stress function as a
soap bubble. This is called the membrane analogy for Prandtls stress function.
The shear stress in the plane is

= zxi + yz j =
i
j
y
x
We can draw level curves of
boundary = 0

= c2

= c1

The normal to a level curve is

=

i+
j
x
y

NOTE: let = xzi + yz j be the shear stress vector (component of the traction
vector parallel to the x y plane). Then,
=

=0
x y
y x

So, is to n. Thus the tangents to the level curves point in the direction of
the shear stress.

=c

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65

This allows us to sketch a soap bubble and see how the stresses are distributed.
Also,
!" #
" #2
2

| | =
+
= ||
x
y
so the steeper the slope of the membrane, the larger the shear stress. For the
ellipse
y
x
z
y

z
x

largest slope largest shear | |

The largest shear stress is generally at the edge closest to the centroid. That is,
where the membrane has the largest slope.

4.3

Torsion of Narrow Cross-Sections

Consider

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66

Draw a membrane for this

z

max
x

except near the ends, the stress

! function
" only depends on x, and is independent
t2
2
of y. So, we guess that = c x 4 is an approximate stress function. This
is good except near the ends. NOTE: = 0 on x =
2 = 2c = 2G

d
dz

so

t
2 .

Now

c = G

d
dz

or
= G

d
dz

#
$
t2
x2
4

Shear stresses are

zx =

=0
y

zy =

yz

= 2G
x
x
dz

maximum occurs at x =

t
2

So the torque is
t

T =2

%%
A

$ % %2 #
$
#
t2
d
dx dy
x2
dx dy = 2 G
dz
4
0

t
2

$# 3
#
$& t
x
t2 && 2
d
= 2 G
x &
dz
3
4
t
2

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67

!
"! 3"
d
t
= 2 G

dz
6
d
=G
dz

"
t3
3
# $% &
J

This is only good for t, and is exact as

can write
(GJ) = G cf

. For finite values of

we

t3
3

cf = correction factor that can be found experimentally. Recall, the section also
warps:

zx =

!
"
d
w

=0=G
y+
y
dz
x

zy =

d
= 2G
x=G
x
dz

w
d
x+
dz
y

"

so
d
w
=
x,
y
dz

w(x, y) =

Then we find w

xy
z

w
d
=
y
x
dz

(ignore constant of integration)

d
dz xy

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68

4.4

Shafts with Multiple Thin Sections

2
y
x

t2
2

t1
Just as we ignored the contribution of the shear stress at the ends, we will ignore
what happens at the joint. Assume
!
"
!
"
t21
t22
2
2
1 = c1 x
2 = c2 y
4
4
just as for individual sections. Then use 1 or 2 depending on which area we
are considering. We still need

2 1 = 2c1 = 2G

d
dz

2 2 = 2c2 = 2G

d
dz

c2 = c2 = G

d
dz

so
d
1 = G
dz

!
"
t21
2
x
4

d
2 = G
dz

!
"
t22
2
y
4

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69

Then the torque is

T =2

!!

dx dy = 2

A1 +A2

!!

1 dx dy + 2

!!

2 dx dy

A2

A1

t1

t2

#"
#
#"
#
!0 !2 "
!2 !2 "
t21
t22
d
d
2
2
=2
x
dx dy + 2
y
dx dy
G
G
dz
4
dz
4
1

t1
2

t2
2

" 3
" 3
#& t1
#& t2
d
y
x
t21 && 2
t22 && 2
= 2G
+ 2
1
x &
y &
t1
t2
dz
3
4
3
4
2

so
*
* + ,3 -.
)
+ ,3 2 t21
2 t22
d
T = 2G
21
22
dz
3
3
/
0
t32 2
d t31 1
(same as we get if we consider each segment separately)
+
=G
dz
3
3
So, in general

d 1
T =G
dz

k=1

"

t3k k
3

for N sections.

NOTE: These sections cannot form any closed regions. Ex: does not work
for this:

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70

How can we deal with sections that have holes? Return to our membrane
analogy:

n
n

Recall we found that if d

ds = 0 on the boundaries of the area, then there were
no tractions on the sides of the shaft. Thus we chose = 0 on the outside. All
of this applies to the sides in the hole too, but we dont know what the value of
is there (cant pick = 0). So
|hole = c = constant
So we can draw the membrane as
z

constant over the hole

x

Think of there being no pressure on the membrane over the hole. So, for a
closed square section we have a picture like
z

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71

From the top

Shear stresses are all in the same direction.

4.5

Comparison of Open and Closed Tubes in Torsion

Closed
t

Side view of membrane

use =

G d 2
(x + y 2 R2 )
2 dz

for
R t r R and
= c1 for r < R t

Find c1 by matching

c1 = (R t) =
=

"
G d !
(R t)2 R2
2 dz
G d
(2Rt + t2 )
2 dz

(t2 is small, so ignore)

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72

c1 = G

d
Rt
dz

Then the torque is

T =2

!!

dA

(ignore area over section; only take area over cut-out)

= 2c1 A 2c1 R2
T G

d
d
(Rt) R2 = G
(2R3 t)
dz
dz

Thus, J = 2R3 t for a thin-walled closed tube.

Open tube

Eect of the cut: In a closed tube, vertical (axial) planes carry a shear
z

yz
zy
cut-away view of closed tube

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73

In open tubes
cut
=0
connected

free surface; no shear tractions

Thus = 0 on the top face too, near the cut edge. This is simply another way
of saying the membrane has to touch the edge at the cut. Treat this tube as a
rectangular section with = 2R, t. From before,

T =G

or

GJ = G

d (2R)t3
d 2
d t3
=G
=G
Rt3
dz 3
dz
3
dz 3
!

2 3
Rt
3

"

for open tubes

Now compare
(GJ)closed
2GR3 t
3R2
$= 2
= #2
3
(GJ)open
t
G 3 Rt
For example, for R = 0.5 in, t = 0.022 in

#t

(GJ)c
(0.5)2
=3
1550
(GJ)o
(0.022)2

$
= 0.044 . We have
times stier.

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