Analysis

ray and the surface normal, and that in the plane the angle

The experiment encompasses topics on optics particularly on plane and

spherical mirror. Generally, a light, like sound, behaves like a wave.
Thus, it also has properties like reflection, refraction, interference, and
diffraction. In this particular experiment, light is studied and treated like
wave with the use of a plane and spherical mirror.

reflected ray makes with the normal is equal to that

the

made by the

incident ray (See Figure 2-2 below). A beam of light is allowed to pass
through a plane mirror. As what is seen, the light reflects back at the same
angle from where the light strikes the mirror. Difficulty on arranging the
plane mirror is observed to have a perfect equal angle. The angle from

Mirrors are used widely in optical instruments for gathering light and

where the light strikes is called the angle of incidence while the angle

forming images since they work over a wider wavelength range and do

from where the light reflects back is called the angle of reflection. If

not have the problems of dispersion which are associated with lenses and

wrong set-up is made, it is noticed that the difference between the angle

other refracting elements.

of reflection and the angle of incidence increases as the angle is increased

For this experiment, materials that

Figure 2-1. Experimental Materials

upon rotating the mirror.

are necessary are plane mirrors, a

The data below (See Table 2-1)

pin, concave mirrors, candle, ray

shows the resulting angle of

table, three-surfaced mirror, meter

incidence and its corresponding

stick and optics table with light

angle of reflection. As seen, the

source. A labeled presentation of

angles are exactly equal, thus, the

the

law of reflection is completely

experimental

materials

is

shown to the left (Fig. 2-1).

In the first part of the experiment, law of reflection is being proven. This
law states that the reflected ray lies in the plane defined by the incident

proven.
Table 2-1. Laws of Reflection
Trial
1
2

Figure 2-2. Experimental Materials

Angle of Incidence
10
30

Angle of Reflection
10
30

3
4

50
70

When two plane mirrors face each other, various reflections of images are

50
70

being seen on both sides of the mirror and is given by the equation

The image to the left (See Fig.

2-3)

Figure 2-3. Reflection of angle beam at 70o

shows

the

reflection of the light in the

where I is the number of reflected images and is the angle between two

experiment. As seen, the angle

plane mirrors. With respect to our data, our result is somehow different

of incidence and the angle of

from what is theoretically observed. In the data below (See Table 2 also

reflection form are tantamount

associated with a graph), it is seen that when the angle is still big, the

to each other which is at 70o

number of reflected images can still be counted accurately but as the

measured from the normal line

angle is decreased, the possibility of miscounting also increase. It is due

there is maximum figures in the mirror which a human eye can see is

For the next part, the number of images formed when two plane mirrors
are arranged in such a way that they are facing each other, having a
common edge and also a common angle between them are determined.
The set-up of this part is well presented below.
Angle between them
Mirror 1

360
1equation 21

actual

to the plane mirror.

I=

Mirror 2

already attained.
Table 2-2. Number of Images
Trials
Angle between
plane mirrors
1
10
2
15
3
30
4
45
5
60
6
75
7
90
8
120

Number of Images Formed

Observed
Calculated
24
35
16
23
10
11
8
7
6
5
4
4
2
3
2
2

The angle determines the number of image that can form on the two
plane mirrors. The image below (Figure 2-4) shows that a degree of 60oC

angle between two mirrors would make 5 images which follow the

the image formed is cannot be seen by naked eye. Also, the brightness of

equation 1. In the figure above shows the experimental and theoretical

the image affects the number of images that can be seen by naked eye.

image of the number of figure can be seen for a 60 o between two mirrors.

Since the experiment has dark surroundings, then it is possible to get a far

As seen, the image is reflected as many as it can be depending on the

result than what is expected.

angle between the facing mirrors. It is observed that it is multiplied

40

according to a complete rotation of 360o, with respect to the angle

35

between the mirrors. However, the number should be decreased by one

30

because that one represents the real object.

25
Number of Images Formed

20
15
10
5
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Angle

Graph 2-1. Number of images formed vs. Angle obtained by calculations and
experimentally.
e 2-4. Experiment Part 2, Diagram on left side and actual experimentation on right side.

On the third part of the experiment, the focal length of both concave and
In the graph, the violet curve line shows the theoretical number of images
formed while for the observed, it is presented by a blue line. As seen,
greater miscounting increase as the angle is decreased. It is observed that
the images formed are getting smaller and smaller that comes a point that

convex mirror is obtained based on the reflected light observed on it.

These are done through mirror ray tracing. By this method, an imaginary
line which is the optic axis is drawn at the center of the mirror
perpendicular to its axis. When beam of lights are reflected by the mirror,

it all intersects at a common point (only when extended for convex

For convex mirror,

mirror). This point to the surface of the mirror through the optic axis is

a ray parallel to the

the focal length of the mirror. By convention, for convex mirror the said

optic axis and one

intersection point is located behind the surface of the mirror while for the

incident

ray

concave mirror it is located at front.

passing

through

and reflected back

Figure 2-5. Convex mirror focal length determination

from the center of

the

mirror

are

extended. The resulting light rays are back-drawn by projecting it from

the rays. The distance from the common point behind the surface of the
mirror located at the principal axis to the mirror itself is the actual
measure of the focal length. So as with for the concave mirror, the
distance between the common point formed at the front of the mirror at
the principal or optical axis determines the focal length of the mirror.
The focal length of
curved mirrors are said
to be twice the radius
of the circle fitted to
the

surface

of

the

mirror. It is given by
the

equation

below.

Figure 2-6. Concave mirror focal length determination

The image is also presented to allow us to have a better understanding of

this theorem.
f=

R
equation 22
2

As additional information, for concave mirrors, when the object is within

the range of the focal length, the formed image is enlarged, erected as is,
and formed behind the mirror as virtual image. While on the other hand,
when the object is outside the focal range, it is formed as a real image, in
front of the mirror, minimized and inverted. This scenario occurs in the
next part of the experiment.

Figure 2-6. The focal length based on the circle from where the arc of is segmented

Based on the image above, it can be said that the surface of a mirror can
be described as an arc segmented from a circle having a radius R.
Based on the focal length obtained from the actual and experimentally,

Figurethat
2-7. Part 3. Focal length determination for spherical mirrors (concave on left and co
the values are very consistent with each other. It means

experimentation is done correctly.

The image above shows the actual experimentation in determining the
Table 3. Determination of Focal Length and Radius
Types of Mirror
Convex
Concave
Focal Length, f
6
7
Experimental radius of
12
14
curvature, R expt
Actual radius of
12
13.5
curvature, R act
Percentage Error
0.0%
3.64%

focal length of the spherical mirror. The convex mirror is presented to left
while the concave mirror is at the right.

In the fourth and last part of this experiment, a spherical mirror is used to

itself and the mirror. It is given that the sum of the reciprocal of the

reflect back an objects image through a detector which is a plane white

object distance and the image distance to the mirror is equal to the

surface board.

reciprocal of mirrors focal length. It is described by the equation below.

As we all know, lights allows us to see object. When the light strikes the
object, its color, shape and depth can be seen. When a spherical mirror is

1 1 1
= + equation 23
f p q

brought in front of the object, the light travels from the object to the

It is also given that when the sign of q is negative, virtual image is seen

mirror, and is then reflected. If a detector is present, the reflected image is

which means that the reflected image is behind the spherical mirror. On

seen at a certain degree of clarity and size. The image is also seen to be

the other hand, when it is positive, the image is called a real image and is

inverted.

located at front of the mirror. Also, the f and R are positive when the
spherical mirror is concave and will be negative if the mirror is convex.
In the experiment, we are dealing with real images and concave mirror.
This part is divided into four parts, namely the (a) object distance is
greater than the image distance, (b) image distance is greater than the
object distance, (c) object distance is equal to image distance, and (d)
object distance is very far that it is assumed to approach infinity.
On part A, (See Table 4), the data shows object distance greater than the

Figure 2-8. Theoretical observation on reflection image of an object (Part 4)

image distance. The percentage difference of the data with the actual is

The clarity of the image and its size is related to the focal length of the

1.96% which means that the data is somewhat consistent to what is

spherical mirror. The image would only be clear until when the distance

theoretically occurring. At those distances, the reflection of the image is

required between the mirror and the detector (the reflected image) is

clear. Differences in the computed focal length are not major since they

attained at a known and distinct measure of distance between the object

only differ by a small amount. A sample computation of getting the data

seen, the data fall under a normally skewed graph (a graph with normal

is shown below using equation 2-3.

distribution). It means that the data are precise.

1 1 1
= +
f p q

Sample computations for the mean,

and standard deviation, are

shown below.
1
1
1
=
+
f 65.5 cm 25 cm

1
x =
N

1
=0.05527 /cm
f

xi
i=1

1
x = ( 18.09+18.31+ 18.15+18.06 ) cm
4

f =18.09 cm
x =18.1525 cm
Table 4. Object Distance Greater than Image Distance
Trial
Object Distance, p
Image Distance, q
1
65.5
2
72.5
3
83.3
4
87
Average focal length
Actual Focal Length
Percentage Difference

cm
cm
cm
cm
18.1525
17.8
1.960921

25
24.5
23.2
22.8
cm
cm
%

cm
cm
cm
cm

p>q
Computed focal
length
18.09
cm
18.31
cm
18.15
cm
18.06
cm

Table 5. Data for Statistical Data Analysis

x
d i= xx
18.09
18.31
18.15
18.06
x = 18.1525
=

To determine the precision of the data, it is important to use a statistical

tool such as standard deviation to determine how each result is near or far
from each other. It is an effective way to know the consistency result. As

0.0625
0.1575
0.0025
0.0925

1
d2
(N 1) i=1 i

1
(0.004 +0.025+6.25 x 106 +0.009)
41

d i2
0.00390625
0.02480625
6.25x10-6
0.00855625
=0.111467484

 =0.1147 cm

18.1525

Ev =18.1525 0.1147

0.111467
18.15 0.11

Ev ( x )
Table 6. Focal Length Standard Deviation, Part A

18.15 0.11

x 2

18.15 0.22

x 3

18.15 0.33

On part B, the image distance is farther than the object distance. The data
seems to be consistent except for the fourth trial. But overall, the average
focal length is not that for from the actual focal length. Differences with
the computed results are brought about by certain errors that may be
rooted from the following sources:
Inaccuracy of the measuring materials
Parallax error on reading the measurement
Misinterpretation of a clear image seen
Table 7. Image Distance Greater than Object Distance
Trial
Object Distance
Image Distance
1
28
cm
39
cm
2
25.5
cm
48
cm
3
24
cm
57
cm
4
25.5
cm
66.5
cm
Average focal length
17.0675
cm

q>p
Computed focal length
16.3
cm
16.65
cm
16.89
cm
18.43
cm

Actual Focal Length

Percentage Difference

17.8
4.20162

cm
%

To quantify those errors, we can use the propagation of error method to

determine how much error will make the data go wrong. The
uncertainties in measuring help us to determine how much difference it
will bring to the computed data. Based on observation, the meter stick
used is inaccurate by about

0.300 cm

. Thus, it will be the standard

uncertainty for both distance records. The uncertainty is big since it is

patterned with the nature of the experiment where it is dark and the direct
distance measuring of candle to mirror is not accurate.
Table 8. Uncertainty on Measuring Distances Using Error Propagation Method
Computed focal length
Uncertainty based on computed
16.3
0.238 cm
16.65
0.242 cm
16.89
0.246 cm
18.43
0.247 cm
17.070.243 cm

*Note: The data is computed using the rules of propagation of error

method. Formulas used are based on standard error propagation

Equation 2-3 is reconstructed in such a way that propagation of error

standard formulas can be used. Rearrangement of equation is shown
below.

1 1 1
= + f
f p q

determination method (See table below).

1=f

f=

( q+pqp )

pq
q+ p

Step in determining the propagation is first done by determining the

propagation obtained on the numerator and the denominator, respectively.
So, division equation can be used afterwards.
Therefore,

the

error

due

to

inaccuracy in measuring using a

Table 9. Object Distance Equal to the Images Distance

Trial
Object Distance
Image Distance
1
35 cm
35 cm
2
35 cm
35 cm
3
33 cm
33 cm
4
35 cm
35 cm
Average focal length
17.25 cm
Actual Focal Length
17.8 cm
Percentage of Difference
3.138374 %

Computed focal length

17.5 cm
17.5 cm
16.5 cm
17.5 cm

meter stick brought us a change of

0.243 cm. If 0.243cm is added

to the average computed focal

length, the resulting percentage
Figure 2-9. Error in measuring

difference will be reduced to

2.77% from 4.20% original.

In the figure below (See Figure 2-10) shows the relative image when the
image distance is farther and when it is nearer (arranged from left to
right). The image is somewhat darker when the object is farther. Their
distances are to be measured to determine the experimental value for f,
the focal length of the mirror.

On the third part, the image distance is equal to the object distance. It is
considered to be the hardest part of the experiment because two things
are need to be adjusted which are any of the white surface, the candle and
the spherical mirror. In the data shown below, it is observed that almost in
all trial, the distances measured are the same which is 35 cm. It denotes
that we are consistent with our data. It also implies that we are correct
since the focal length of mirror is constant. The percentage difference that
has been computed is not that high so, we can conclude that we are
making a careful and an accurate experimentation.

Figure 2-10. Image reflected is (a) farther and (b) nearer the mirror.

Finally, in the last part the actual value for the focal length is determined
by having a very far object distance. By that, it is assumed that the object
distance q is very large that it is equal to infinity. Using this method, we
could directly acquire the value of the focal length by using the value of
the image distance. Since p=, then 1/p=0. Thus, q=f. From the values
we obtained, we find equivalent values of 17.8 cm.
That value would represent the theoretical value for the focal length of
the mirror. It is advised for the performers to minimize on committing
mistakes for this part because of the dependency of other data with the
data obtained in here.

Conclusion
Light also behaves like wave, so it also has certain characteristics similar
in describing waves. A mirror is an optical tool which formed images by
gathering the light.
For a plane mirror, the angle between the normal plane which is the angle
of reflection and incidence are the equivalent to each other. It shares a
common side which is a line normal to the mirror itself.
When two mirrors are arranged in such a way that they are facing each
other facing a common side, with a certain angle between them, the
image that is present in front of the mirrors are formed a definite times
depending on the inclination between them. It is found out that at larger
angles, less number of images are formed in the mirrors while at small
angle, large number of images is seen. It follows a circular path, with
respect to the angle of inclination. At smaller angle, less accuracy of
counting are done due to some of the images formed are too small or too
dim to be seen by a naked eye.
The focal length of the mirror determines how image will be projected or
reflected by the mirror depending on the distance from where the object
is located, etc. One way of determining the focal length of a spherical
mirror is through ray tracing method. For convex mirror, the ray of light
that is reflected is projected back through the mirror and is located behind

it at the optic axis. On the other hand, the ray of lights reflected back by

greater than the focal length, the image would form in front small and

the concave mirror are intersected through one point that is located in

inverted, known to be a real image. But when the object distance is less,

front of the mirror lying on the optic axis. The distance between the

it is reflected at the back of the mirror, enlarged and erected as is.

intersected points to the center of the curvature is the focal length of the
mirror. It is also equal to the radius of the circle from where the curved
mirror is segmented.

Experimental errors are not that serious because data are consistent with
each other. Less discrepancy from the actual or theoretical values are
obtained, which means that the performers had done a good

The object when reflected its image by a mirror would become clear at a

experimentation and yield good results. As for the experiment, it can be

certain distance from the image to the mirror and the object to the mirror

said that its objectives are well attained.

and is determined using the mirrors focal length. The reciprocal of the
focal length of the mirror is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the
image distance and the object distance. When the object distance is