AIR POLLUTION

Introduction to Environmental Engineering

AIR POLLUTION - is the presence in the atmosphere of a substance w/c may be injurious
to human, plant or animal life
AIR POLLUTANTS contaminants which interact with the environment to cause toxicity,
disease, aesthetic distress, physiological effects or environmental decay.
Atmosphere the thin layer gases that envelops the earth, which is a great resource to
all living things in the planet.
Composition of Air:
Gas
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
Neon
Helium
Krypton
Xenon

% of Earth Atmosphere
78.08
20.95
0.93
0.03
0.0018
0.0005
0.0001
0.00001

CLASSIFICATIONS OF AIR POLLUTANTS:

1. Natural Contaminants (e.g. natural fog, pollen grains, bacteria and products of
volcanic eruption)
2. Aerosols (Particulates) (e.g. dust, smoke, mists, fog and fumes)
3. Gases and Vapors
Natural Contaminants:
Pollen Grains
discharges into the atmosphere from weeds, grasses and trees
size ranges between 10 to 50 microns
may result to asthma, hay fever, bronchitis, bronchial asthma and dermatitis

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Aerosols
refer to the dispersion of solid or liquid particles of microscopic size in
gaseous media such as dust, smoke or mist
-- term aerosol is used during the time it is suspended in the air
-- sizes range from 0.01 100 microns
Dust
capable of temporary suspension in air or other gases
Smoke
consists of finely divided particles produced by incomplete combustion
consists of carbon particles and other combustible materials
usually less than 1 micron
Mists
refers to low concentration dispersion of liquid particles at large size
natural mist particle formed from water vapor in the atmosphere ranges
from 500-40 microns
in meteorology, it means a light dispersion of minute water droplets
suspended in the atmosphere
Fog
refers to visible aerosols in which the dispersed phase is liquid
formation by condensation is usually implied
in meteorology, it refers to dispersion of water or ice in the atmosphere near
the earths surface reducing visibility to less than km
size range from 40-1 microns
Fumes
Solid particles generated by condensation from gaseous state, generally
from volatilization from melted substances, and often accompanied by a
chemical reaction such as oxidation
Gases/Vapors Air Contaminants
Groups
Sulfur Compounds
Nitrogen Compounds
Oxygen Compounds
Halogen Compounds
Organic Compounds
Radioactive Compounds

Examples
SO2, SO3, H2S
NO, NO2, NH3
O3, CO, CO2
HF, HCl
Aldehydes, hydrocarbons
Radioactive Gases

TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS:

1. Primary pollutants emitted directly into the air from identifiable sources.
Ex. SOx, NOx, CO, VOCs, H2S, HF, PM, Asbestos and Lead
2. Secondary Pollutants produced through reactions between primary pollutants
and normal atmospheric compounds
Ex. Ozone, PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate), formaldehyde, photochemical smog
and formation of acid mists (H2SO4)
CLASSIFICATION OF EMISSION SOURCES:
1. Points Source large stationary sources
2. Area Sources small stationary sources and mobile sources with indefinite routes
3. Line Sources mobile sources with definite routes

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INDOOR AIR POLLUTION:

Common Indoor Air Pollutants and their Sources:
1. Asbestos from fire proofing and vinyl floors
2. Carbon Monoxide from smoking, space heaters and stove
3. Formaldehyde from carpets, ceiling tile and paneling
4. Particulates from smoking, fireplaces and dusting
5. Nitrogen oxides from kerosene stoves and gas stoves
6. Ozone from photocopying machines
7. Radon diffused from soil
8. Sulfur dioxide from kerosene heaters
9. Volatile organics from smoking, paints, solvents and cooking
SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF TYPICAL AIR POLLUTANTS:
Pollutants
Sources
volcanic eruptions
forest fires
fossil fuel burning
industrial processes

Effects

SO2

- reduced visibility
- important precursor to
acid rain
- effects on breathing,
respiratory
illnesses,
breakdown
of
lung
defense,
-aggravations of existing
respiratory
and
cardiovascular disease
contribute
to
the
development of acid rain
- irritate the eyes nose
throat,
lungs,
and
increased susceptibility
to viral infections
suppresses
plant
growth and damage leaf
tissue
- impair visibility when
converted to nitrates
- play a major role of
tropospheric
O3
formation
Increased
nitrogen
loading
upsets
the
chemical
balance
of
nutrients in water bodies

NOx

- fossil fuel burning

- automobiles

CO

- incomplete combustion
of any organic fuel

- Prevents blood from

carrying oxygen thus
extremely harmful to
humans
- Contributes to the
formation of smog or
ground-level ozone

Particulate Matter

- Combustion of fuel
(noncombustible ash or

- Reductions in visibility
(smog or haze), soiling of

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incompletely
burned
soot), materials handling
processes
(crushing,
grinding or bulk loading
of dry materials), dust
storm, volcanic ash &
forest fires

buildings,
corrosive
damage, alteration of
local weather
- respiratory disease,
coughing and painful
breathing
&
chronic
bronchitis
- retard plant growth

VOCs

- Incomplete combustion
or by evaporation of
organic liquids, cars &
other vehicles, solventbased paints, forests &
vegetation emit various
HCs in their biological
normal
processes,
bacterial decomposition
of organic matters (CH4),
incomplete combustion of
coal,
oil
&
wood,
processing & use of
petroleum

Reactive
HCs
(RCH=CHR) form smog

Ozone

Motor
vehicles
&
industrial sources
- Gasoline vapors
- Chemical solvents
- Called as summertime
pollutant since sunlight
and hot weather cause
ground level O3 to form
harmful concentrations
- Wind carries ozone

- Irritate lung airways &

cause
inflammation
much like a sunburn
- Wheezing, coughing,
pain when taking a deep
breath during outdoor
activities or exercise
- Repeated exposure for
several
months
can
cause permanent lung
damage
- Aggravated asthma,
reduced lung capacity
Susceptibility
to
pneumonia & bronchitis

Lead

Motor
vehicles
&
industrial sources
Metals processing
(lead smelters)
Waste
incinerators,
utilities
&
lead-acid
battery manufacturers.

Damages
organs
(kidneys, liver, brain and
nerves)
Osteoporosis
&
reproductive disorders
Seizures,
mental
retardation,
behavioral
disorders,
memory
problems
&
mood
changes
- Learning deficits &
lowered IQ

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- High blood pressure,

heart diseases
- Anemia or weak blood
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:
I. GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING:

Trapping of heat near the earths surface by certain gases.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the mean surface temperature has
increased by about 0.6oC.
Over the last 40 years, which is the period with most reliable data, the temperature
has increased by 0.3oC.
Warming in the 20th century is greater than in any time during the past 400-600 yrs.

Greenhouse
- CO2
- H2 O
- O3
- CH4
- N 2O
- CFCs

Gases:
Carbon dioxide
Water vapor
Ozone
Methane
Nitrous oxide
Chlorofluorocarbons

Carbon dioxide:
Sources Of CO2:

From carbonates
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
CaCO3 + HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Fermentation of sugar
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

End product of metabolism

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

Combustion
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Advantages

of Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming:

Decrease in heating costs
Longer growing seasons for crops in the northern regions
Easier navigation, longer period during the summer, easier conditions for
offshore oil and gas developments

Disadvantages of Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming:

Drier crop conditions
Melting of permafrost, altering building technology and conditions for road
and pipeline construction
Mountain glaciers are receding
The Arctic ice pack has lost about 40% of its thickness over the past four
decades
The global sea level is rising about three times faster over the past 100
years

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More heat waves and droughts, resulting in more and more conflict for water
resources
More extreme weather events, producing floods and property destruction
Greater potential for heat related illnesses and deaths as well as the wider
spread of infectious diseases

Control Measures:
Improvement of energy efficiency in automobiles and in
household heating and lighting
Development of non-fossil fuel energy sources, such as photovoltaic cells
Phasing out of CFCs
Recovery of methane gas generated at landfills
Reduction of natural gas leakages
Preservation of forests

II. OZONE LAYER:

Ozone - Prevents UV radiation emitted by the sun from reaching the earths surface
Formation of Ozone:
Photodissociation of oxygen
O2 + uv O + O
Ozone formation
O + O2 + M O3 + M
Ozone dissociation
O3 + uv O + O2
Depletion of Ozone Layer:
Substances responsible for the depletion of ozone layer:
1. CFC
2. NOx
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
- First synthesized in the 1930s
- Known by the trade name Freon
Freon 11
CFCl3
Freon 12
CF2Cl2
Freon 113
C2F3Cl3
Freon 114
C2F4Cl2
Properties of CFC:
1. Readily liquefied
2. Relatively inert
3. Nontoxic
4. Noncombustible
5. Volatile
Uses of CFC:

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1. Coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners in place of sulfur dioxide and

ammonia
2. Manufacture of disposable foam products
3. Aerosol propellants in spray cans
4. Solvents
How Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) deplete ozone layer?
Diffusion of CFCs
CFCl3 CFCl2 + Cl
CF2Cl2 CF2Cl + Cl
Reaction with Oxygen
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
ClO + O Cl + O2
Net Reaction
O3 + O 2O2

How NOx depletes ozone layer:

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
O3 O 2 + O
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
NO2 + O NO + O2
Overall
2O3 3O2
Chlorine Reservoir
ClO + NO2 ClONO2
HCl + ClONO2 Cl2 + HNO3
Cl2 + hv 2Cl
Control Measures:
- 1987, Montreal Protocol elimination of CFCs by 2000.
- Recycling of CFCs
- Substitution of CFCs
CFCHCl2 + OH CF3CCl2 + H2O
Hydrofluorocarbons
- Use of ethane or propane
Cl + C2H6 HCl + C2H5
III. ACID RAIN:
- Label given to both wet and dry acidic deposition.
- pH is less than the normal 5.6
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
SO2 + H2O H2SO4
NOx + H2O HNO3
Causes:
1. SO2 from metal smelting, burning of fossil fuels and volcanic eruptions
2. NOx from automobile and industry exhausts
3. CO2 from burning of fossil fuels

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Effects on Aquatic Systems

1. Acidification of aquatic systems
2. Increased metal concentration in fish
3. Decline in fish population
4. Ecological imbalance
Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystems
1. Damage to forest seedlings
2. Increased vulnerability of trees to disease and insects
3. Leaching of components from plants ~ aluminum toxicity
Effects on Groundwater
1. Metal contamination Pb, Cu, Zn, Al from water pipes
2. Metal pipes corrosion
Effects on Buildings
1. Corrosion
IV. PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
NOx results into photochemical smog.
A typical smog incident during morning rush-hour traffic:
N2 + O2 2NO + O2 2NO2
NO2 + sunlight NO + O
O2 + O O 3
HCs + O3 PAN
Since NO2 is heavier than air & soluble in water the above reaction may occur.
NO2 + HCs + sunlight photochemical smog
O3 & PAN oxidizing agents
O3 destroys chlorophyll & lung tissues
PAN eye irritants
THE PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT (RA 8749)
- a comprehensive air quality management policy and program which aims to
achieve and maintain healthy air for all Filipinos.
- A consolidation of Senate Bill No. 1255 and House Bill No. 6216 and was finally
passed by the Senate and the House of Representatives on May 13, 1999 and
May 10, 1999 respectively.
- The passage of Clean Air Act in 1999 marks a milestone since it provides a
comprehensive and integrated policy for air quality management.
AIR POLLUTION IN METRO MANILA:
- According to Asian Development Bank study (1991-1992) showed that the Total
Suspended Particles (TSP) exceeded WHO guidelines by as much as five times,
particulate matter of 10 microns or less in diameter (PM 10) were three times the
guidelines, and lead levels went as high as two times the guidelines.

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DENR monitoring data (2000) showed that TSP levels were two times the annual
average guideline, and the ambient lead levels are now well within the
standards with the complete phase out of unleaded gasoline.
According to a World Bank study, about 80% of the Metro Manila residents are
exposed to levels of TSP that exceed the standards.
Findings of the UP College of Public Health show that the incidence of bronchitis
among children in Metro Manila is 11 times the national average. Results of
monitoring of the incidence of chronic cough, chronic phlegm, wheezing and
shortness of breath among jeepney drivers reveal that jeepney drivers,
representing 32% of the subjects are most exposed.

GUIDING PRINCIPLE OF THE CLEAN AIR ACT:

The CAA provides that the State shall:
1. protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful
ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
2. promote and protect the global environment which recognizing the
primary responsibility of local government units deal with environmental
problems.
3. recognize that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment
is primary area-based.
4. recognize that polluters must pay.
5. recognize that a clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and
should therefore be the concern of all.
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT:
Designation of Airsheds:
- The Secretary of DENR, upon recommendation of Environmental Management
Bureau (EMB), will divide the country into different airsheds.
- Airsheds are to be designated based on climate, weather, meteorology, and
topology, which affect the mixture and diffusion of pollutants in the air, share
common interents or face similar development problem.
Management of Airsheds:
- Airsheds are to be managed by multi-sectoral Governing Boards chaired by
Secretary of DENR with representatives from local government concerned
(province /city/municipality), the private sector, peoples organization, NGOs
and concerned government agencies.
Functions of Governing Boards:
- formulate policies and standards subject to national laws
- prepare a common action plan
- coordinate its members
- submit and publish an annual Air Quality Status Report for their airshed
Air Quality Management Fund (AQMF):
- this shall be established to finance containment, removal and clean up
operations of the government in air pollution cases, guarantee restoration of
ecosystem, etc.
- sources for the AQMF shall include: air emission charges from industries and
motor vehicles; fines and penalties for non-compliance with air pollution
standards; grants from both private and donor organizations; and a limited
percentage (5 to 10%) of the proceeds of the Program Loan for the Metro Manila
Air Quality Improvement Sector Development Program.
COVERED BY THE CLEAN AIR ACT:

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all potential sources of air pollution (mobile, point and area sources.
Mobile Sources refers to vehicles like cars, trucks, buses, jeepneys,
tricycle, motorcycles and vans.
Point Sources refer to stationary sources such as industrial firms and
smokestacks of power plants, hotels and other establishments
Area Sources refer to sources of emissions other than the above. These
include smoking, burning of garbage, and dust from construction, unpaved
grounds, etc.

COMPLIANCE MANDATES FOR MOBILE SOURCES:

- All motor vehicles classified under Philippine National Standards 1891 (PNS) of
the Bureau of Product Standards of the DTI, whether locally
assembled/manufactured or imported are to be covered by Certificate of
Conformity (COC).
- The COC is to be issued by the DENR to the motor vehicle manufacturer,
assemble or importer.
- In-use motor vehicles will only be allowed renewal of their registration upon
proof of compliance with emission standards through actual testing by Motor
Vehicle Inspection System (MVIS) of the DOTC/LTO, and authorized private
emission testing centers.
SMOKE BELCHING:
Violators will be subject to the following fines/penalties:
1st Offense
P 1,000
2nd Offense
P 3,000
3rd Offense
P 5,000 plus a seminar on pollution
management
FUELS:
The CAA provides for:
- the complete phase out of leaded gasoline before the end of the year 2000
- the lowering of the sulfur content of industrial and automobile diesel,
respectively, from 0.5% to 0.3% and from 0.2% and 0.05%
- the lowering of aromatics in unleaded gasoline from 45% to 35% maximum; and
the lowering of benzene in unleaded gasoline from 4% to 2% maximum
COMPLIANCE MANDATES FOR INDUSTRIAL SOURCES:
- All stationary sources must comply with National Emission Standards for Source
Specific Air Pollutants (NESSAP) and National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) and must secure permit to operate, prior to operation.
- A fine of more than P100,000 for every day of violation shall be charged against
the owner of a stationary source.
- For gross violation, the penalty is imprisonment of not less than six years but
not more than 10 years unpo discretion of the court.
SMOKING BAN:
Smoking is banned beginning May 25, 2001, in any of the following locations:
- inside a public building
- enclosed public places including public vehicles and other means of
transportation
- in any closed area outside of ones private residence, private place of work
- any duly designated area which will be enclosed
Penalty to violation of this provision is six months and one day to one year of
imprisonment, or a fine of P 10,000
INSTITUTIONS INVOLVE IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CAA:

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- DENR
- DOTC
- DTI
- LTFRB
- Bureau of Customs
- Landbank
- DPB
- DPWH
- LGUs
- Private Sectors

- DOST
- DOE
- LTO
- EMB
- Pollution Adjudication Board
- Oil Companies
- Automobile Manufacturers
- MMDA
- NGO

WHAT CAN WE DO TO HELP CLEAN THE AIR:

For Vehicle Owners/Motorists
- maintain your vehicle by changing oil regularly (every 5,000 km)
- keep the engine well-tuned following the owners manual
- keep tire properly inflated
- plan trips and observe proper driving habits
- remove unnecessary things from the trunk. Dont overload and travel only at
speed required by traffic regulations and road conditions
For Commuters:
- patronize mass railway transit (MRT and LRT)
For Office Workers:
- reduce use of air conditioning and ensure that rooms are sealed
- make sure that lights are energy-efficient
- use company vehicles wisely and make sure that they are well maintained
- use natural lighting by opening window curtains at daytime
At Home:
- use low watt bulbs or energy saving lights
- limit the use of air conditioning units and keep the temperature a few degrees
higher
- dont burn garbage
- avoid using aerosols
- properly dispose refrigerant, refrigeration equipment and used coolant
For Everyone:
- report smoke belchers to LTO, MMDA and/or the appropriate local government
units
- walk or ride your bike to places
- take a bus or mass rail transit whenever you can
- stop burning of garbage
- plant trees
- spread the words about the ban on smoking in public places
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL METHODS:
MEASUREMENT OF PARTICULATES:

Sample Problem: A hi-vol clean filter weighs 18.0

g, and the dirty filter weighs 18.6 g. The initial and
final air flows are 70 and 40 ft3/min. What volume of
air went through the filter in 24 hr.? What was the
particulate concentration?

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High-volume sampler
CONTROL OF PARTICULATES:
Settling Chamber
- the simplest device for controlling particulates
- consisting of nothing more than wide places in exhaust flue where larger
particles can settle out, usually with a baffle to slow the emission stream
- only large particulates (>100) can be sufficiently removed in settling chamber

Cyclone
-

Settling Chamber
the most popular, economical, and effective means of controlling particulates
the dirty air is blasted into a conical cylinder that creates a violent swirl within
the cone, and the heavy solids migrate to the wall of the cylinder where they
slow down due to friction, slide down the cone, and finally exit at the bottom.

Cyclone
Bag (or fabric) Filter / Baghouse Collector
- it operates like the common vacuum cleaner
- it is used to collect dust
- the fabric will remove nearly all particulates, including submicron sizes
- bag filters are widely used in many industrial applications, but are sensitive to
high temperatures and humidity

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Baghouse Collector
Spray Tower or Scrubber
- is an effective method for removing large particulates
- it promotes the contact between air and water by violent action in narrow throat
section into which the water is introduced
- the more violent the encounter, the smaller the gas bubbles, the more effective
the scrubbing

Spray Tower or Scrubber

Electrostatic Precipitator
- widely used in power plants, mainly because power is readily available
- the particulate matter is removed by first being charged by electrons jumping
from one high-voltage electrode to the other, and then migrating to the
positively charged collecting electrode
- have no moving parts, require only electricity to operate, and are extremely
effective in removing submicron particulates

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Electrostatic Precipitator
MEASUREMENT OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS:

Sample Problem: If the primary ambient air quality standard for nitrogen oxides (as NO 2) is
100 g/m3, what is this in ppm? (Assume 1atm and 250C)
CONTROL OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS:
Wet Scrubber
- can remove gaseous pollutants by simply dissolving them in water
- alternatively, a chemical (CaO or CaCO3 in removing SO2) may be injected into
the scrubber water, which then reacts with the pollutants
Adsorption
- useful method when it is possible to bring the pollutant into contact with an
efficient adsorber like activated carbon

Adsorber

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Flaring
-

is used when an organic pollutant can be oxidized to CO2 and water

a variation of flaring is catalytic combustion, whereby the temperature of the
reaction is lowered by the use if a catalyst that mediates the reaction

Incinerator
Absorption Process:
- Absorbed or spray towers are designed to selectively remove a specific gas
from a mixture of gases and are similar to low-pressure-drop scrubbers

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