Stereoscopy

Stereographic redirects here. For the map projection,

see Stereographic projection.
Stereoscopy (also called stereoscopics) is a tech-

Company of ladies watching stereoscopic photographs, painting

by Jacob Spoel, before 1868. A very early depiction of people
using a stereoscope.

Pocket stereoscope with original test image. Used by military to

examine stereoscopic pairs of aerial photographs.

nique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an

image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The
word stereoscopy derives from Greek (stereos),
meaning rm, solid, and (skope), meaning
to look, to see.[2][3] Any stereoscopic image is called a
stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of
stereo images which could be viewed using a stereoscope.
Most stereoscopic methods present two oset images
separately to the left and right eye of the viewer. These
two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain
View of Boston, c. 1860; an early stereoscopic card for viewing to give the perception of 3D depth. This technique is disa scene from nature
tinguished from 3D displays that display an image in three
full dimensions, allowing the observer to increase information about the 3-dimensional objects being displayed
by head and eye movements.

1 Background
Stereoscopy creates the illusion of three-dimensional
depth from given two-dimensional images.[4] Human vision, including the perception of depth, is a complex process which only begins with the acquisition of visual information taken in through the eyes; much processing ensues within the brain, as it strives to make intelligent and
meaningful sense of the raw information provided. One
of the very important visual functions that occur within
the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is that of assessing the relative distances of various objects from the

Kaiserpanorama consisted of a multi-station viewing apparatus and sets of stereo slides. Patented by A. Fuhrmann around
1890.[1]

viewer, and the depth dimension of those same perceived

objects. The brain makes use of a number of cues to determine relative distances and depth in a perceived scene,
including:[5]
Stereopsis
Accommodation of the eye

BACKGROUND

most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays
because they meet the lower criteria as well.
Most 3D displays use this stereoscopic method to convey
images. It was rst invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone
in 1838,[7][8] and improved by Sir David Brewster who
made the rst portable 3D viewing device.[9]

Overlapping of one object by another

Subtended visual angle of an object of known size
Linear perspective (convergence of parallel edges)
Vertical position (objects higher in the scene generally
tend to be perceived as further away)
Haze, desaturation, and a shift to bluishness
Change in size of textured pattern detail

Wheatstone mirror stereoscope

Wheatstone originally used his stereoscope (a rather

(All the above cues, with the exception of the rst two, bulky device)[10] with drawings because photography was
are present in traditional two-dimensional images such as not yet available, yet his original paper seems to foresee
paintings, photographs, and television.)[6]
the development of a realistic imaging method:[11]
Stereoscopy is the production of the illusion of depth
in a photograph, movie, or other two-dimensional image
For the purposes of illustration I have emby presenting a slightly dierent image to each eye, and
ployed only outline gures, for had either shadthereby adding the rst of these cues (stereopsis) as well.
ing or colouring been introduced it might be
Both of the 2D oset images are then combined in the
supposed that the eect was wholly or in part
brain to give the perception of 3D depth. It is important
due to these circumstances, whereas by leavto note that since all points in the image focus at the same
ing them out of consideration no room is left to
plane regardless of their depth in the original scene, the
doubt that the entire eect of relief is owing to
second cue, focus, is still not duplicated and therefore the
the simultaneous perception of the two monocillusion of depth is incomplete. There are also primarular projections, one on each retina. But if it
ily two eects of stereoscopy that are unnatural for the
be required to obtain the most faithful resemhuman vision: rst, the mismatch between convergence
blances of real objects, shadowing and colourand accommodation, caused by the dierence between an
ing may properly be employed to heighten the
objects perceived position in front of or behind the diseects. Careful attention would enable an
play or screen and the real origin of that light and second,
artist to draw and paint the two component picpossible crosstalk between the eyes, caused by imperfect
tures, so as to present to the mind of the obimage separation by some methods.
server, in the resultant perception, perfect identity with the object represented. Flowers, crysAlthough the term 3D is ubiquitously used, it is also
tals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds,
important to note that the presentation of dual 2D im&c., might thus be represented so as not to
ages is distinctly dierent from displaying an image in
be distinguished by sight from the real objects
three full dimensions. The most notable dierence is
themselves.[7]
that, in the case of 3D displays, the observers head
and eye movement will not increase information about
the 3-dimensional objects being displayed. Holographic
displays or volumetric display are examples of displays
that do not have this limitation. Similar to the technology of sound reproduction, in which it is not possible to
recreate a full 3-dimensional sound eld merely with two
stereophonic speakers, it is likewise an overstatement of
capability to refer to dual 2D images as being 3D. The
accurate term stereoscopic is more cumbersome than
the common misnomer 3D, which has been entrenched
after many decades of unquestioned misuse. Although

Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for

entertainment through the production of stereograms.
Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from
large multi-dimensional data sets such as are produced
by experimental data. An early patent for 3D imaging in cinema and television was granted to physicist Theodor V. Ionescu in 1936. Modern industrial
three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners
to detect and record three-dimensional information.[12]
The three-dimensional depth information can be recon-

2.1

Freeviewing

structed from two images using a computer by corresponding the pixels in the left and right images.[13] Solving the Correspondence problem in the eld of Computer
Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from
two images.

3
at innite distance is perceived by the eye as being straight
ahead, the viewers eyes being neither crossed nor diverging. When the picture contains no object at innite distance, such as a horizon or a cloud, the pictures should be
spaced correspondingly closer together.

The principal advantages of side-by-side viewers is the

lack of diminution of brightness, allowing the presenta1.1 Visual requirements
tion of images at very high resolution and in full spectrum
color, simplicity in creation, and little or no additional imAnatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision reage processing is required. Under some circumstances,
quired to view stereo images:
such as when a pair of images are presented for freeviewing, no device or additional optical equipment is needed.
1. Simultaneous perception
The principal disadvantage of side-by-side viewers is that
2. Fusion (binocular 'single' vision)
large image displays are not practical and resolution is
limited by the lesser of the display medium or human
3. Stereopsis
eye. This is because as the dimensions of an image are
increased, either the viewing apparatus or viewer themThese functions develop in early childhood. Some people selves must move proportionately further away from it in
who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereop- order to view it comfortably. Moving closer to an image
sis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve in order to see more detail would only be possible with
binocular vision. A persons stereoacuity determines the viewing equipment that adjusted to the dierence.
minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It
is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable
to properly see 3D images, due to a variety of medical
conditions.[14][15] According to another experiment up to
30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity. This nullies or greatly decreases immersion effects of stereo to them.[16]

Side-by-side

The early bird catches the worm Stereograph published in

1900 by North-Western View Co. of Baraboo, Wisconsin, digitally restored.

Traditional stereoscopic photography consists of creating

a 3D illusion starting from a pair of 2D images, a stereogram. The easiest way to enhance depth perception in
the brain is to provide the eyes of the viewer with two different images, representing two perspectives of the same
object, with a minor deviation equal or nearly equal to the
perspectives that both eyes naturally receive in binocular
vision.
To avoid eyestrain and distortion, each of the two 2D images should be presented to the viewer so that any object

Printable cross eye viewer.

2.1 Freeviewing
Freeviewing is viewing a side-by-side image pair without
using a viewing device.[17]
Two methods are available to freeview:[18][19]
The parallel viewing method uses an image pair with

2
the left-eye image on the left and the right-eye image
on the right. The fused three-dimensional image appears larger and more distant than the two actual images, making it possible to convincingly simulate a
life-size scene. The viewer attempts to look through
the images with the eyes substantially parallel, as if
looking at the actual scene. This can be dicult with
normal vision because eye focus and binocular convergence are habitually coordinated. One approach
to decoupling the two functions is to view the image pair extremely close up with completely relaxed
eyes, making no attempt to focus clearly but simply achieving comfortable stereoscopic fusion of the
two blurry images by the look-through approach,
and only then exerting the eort to focus them more
clearly, increasing the viewing distance as necessary. Regardless of the approach used or the image
medium, for comfortable viewing and stereoscopic
accuracy the size and spacing of the images should
be such that the corresponding points of very distant
objects in the scene are separated by the same distance as the viewers eyes, but not more; the average
interocular distance is about 63 mm. Viewing much
more widely separated images is possible, but because the eyes never diverge in normal use it usually
requires some previous training and tends to cause
eye strain.
The cross-eyed viewing method swaps the left and
right eye images so that they will be correctly seen
cross-eyed, the left eye viewing the image on the
right and vice versa. The fused three-dimensional
image appears to be smaller and closer than the actual images, so that large objects and scenes appear
miniaturized. This method is usually easier for freeviewing novices. As an aid to fusion, a ngertip
can be placed just below the division between the
two images, then slowly brought straight toward the
viewers eyes, keeping the eyes directed at the ngertip; at a certain distance, a fused three-dimensional
image should seem to be hovering just above the
nger. Alternatively, a piece of paper with a small
opening cut into it can be used in a similar manner;
when correctly positioned between the image pair
and the viewers eyes, it will seem to frame a small
three-dimensional image.

Prismatic, self-masking glasses are now being used by

some cross-eyed-view advocates. These reduce the degree of convergence required and allow large images to
be displayed. However, any viewing aid that uses prisms,
mirrors or lenses to assist fusion or focus is simply a type
of stereoscope, excluded by the customary denition of
freeviewing.

SIDE-BY-SIDE

vergence and accommodation. Simple freeviewing therefore cannot accurately reproduce the physiological depth
cues of the real-world viewing experience. Dierent individuals may experience diering degrees of ease and
comfort in achieving fusion and good focus, as well as
diering tendencies to eye fatigue or strain.

2.2 Autostereogram
Main articles: Autostereogram and Random dot stereogram
An autostereogram is a single-image stereogram (SIS),
designed to create the visual illusion of a threedimensional (3D) scene within the human brain from an
external two-dimensional image. In order to perceive 3D
shapes in these autostereograms, one must overcome the
normally automatic coordination between focusing and
vergence.

2.3 Stereoscope and stereographic cards

Main article: Stereoscope
The stereoscope is essentially an instrument in which two
photographs of the same object, taken from slightly different angles, are simultaneously presented, one to each
eye. A simple stereoscope is limited in the size of the
image that may be used. A more complex stereoscope
uses a pair of horizontal periscope-like devices, allowing
the use of larger images that can present more detailed
information in a wider eld of view.

2.4 Transparency viewers

Main article: Slide viewer Stereo slide viewer
Some stereoscopes are designed for viewing transparent
photographs on lm or glass, known as transparencies or
diapositives and commonly called slides. Some of the earliest stereoscope views, issued in the 1850s, were on glass.
In the early 20th century, 45x107 mm and 6x13 cm glass
slides were common formats for amateur stereo photography, especially in Europe. In later years, several lmbased formats were in use. The best-known formats for
commercially issued stereo views on lm are Tru-Vue, introduced in 1931, and View-Master, introduced in 1939
and still in production. For amateur stereo slides, the
Stereo Realist format, introduced in 1947, is by far the
most common.

Stereoscopically fusing two separate images without the 2.5 Head-mounted displays
aid of mirrors or prisms while simultaneously keeping
them in sharp focus without the aid of suitable viewing Main article: Head-mounted display
lenses inevitably requires an unnatural combination of eye The user typically wears a helmet or glasses with two

2.6

Virtual retinal displays

5
windows as a player moves about. This type of system is
expected to have wide application in the maintenance of
complex systems, as it can give a technician what is effectively x-ray vision by combining computer graphics
rendering of hidden elements with the technicians natural vision. Additionally, technical data and schematic
diagrams may be delivered to this same equipment, eliminating the need to obtain and carry bulky paper documents.
Augmented stereoscopic vision is also expected to have
applications in surgery, as it allows the combination of
radiographic data (CAT scans and MRI imaging) with the
surgeons vision.

A View-Master Model E of the 1950s

2.6 Virtual retinal displays

Main article: Virtual retinal display

An HMD with a separate video source displayed in front of each

eye to achieve a stereoscopic eect

small LCD or OLED displays with magnifying lenses,

one for each eye. The technology can be used to show
stereo lms, images or games, but it can also be used to
create a virtual display. Head-mounted displays may also
be coupled with head-tracking devices, allowing the user
to look around the virtual world by moving their head,
eliminating the need for a separate controller. Performing
this update quickly enough to avoid inducing nausea in the
user requires a great amount of computer image processing. If six axis position sensing (direction and position) is
used then wearer may move about within the limitations
of the equipment used. Owing to rapid advancements in
computer graphics and the continuing miniaturization of
video and other equipment these devices are beginning to
become available at more reasonable cost.

A virtual retinal display (VRD), also known as a retinal

scan display (RSD) or retinal projector (RP), not to be
confused with a "Retina Display", is a display technology that draws a raster image (like a television picture)
directly onto the retina of the eye. The user sees what appears to be a conventional display oating in space in front
of them. For true stereoscopy, each eye must be provided
with its own discrete display. To produce a virtual display
that occupies a usefully large visual angle but does not involve the use of relatively large lenses or mirrors, the light
source must be very close to the eye. A contact lens incorporating one or more semiconductor light sources is
the form most commonly proposed. As of 2013, the inclusion of suitable light-beam-scanning means in a contact lens is still very problematic, as is the alternative of
embedding a reasonably transparent array of hundreds of
thousands (or millions, for HD resolution) of accurately
aligned sources of collimated light.

Head-mounted or wearable glasses may be used to view

a see-through image imposed upon the real world view,
creating what is called augmented reality. This is done
by reecting the video images through partially reective A pair of LC shutter glasses used to view XpanD 3D lms. The
mirrors. The real world view is seen through the mirrors thick frames conceal the electronics and batteries.
reective surface. Experimental systems have been used
for gaming, where virtual opponents may peek from real

3D VIEWERS

left and right views, so that it introduces a time parallax

for anything side moving: for instance, someone walking
at 3.4 mph will be seen 20% too close or 25% too remote
in the most current case of a 2x60 Hz projection.

3.2 Passive
3.2.1 Polarization systems

RealD circular polarized glasses

3D viewers

There are two categories of 3D viewer technology, active

and passive. Active viewers have electronics which inter- Functional principle of polarized 3D systems
act with a display. Passive viewers lter constant streams
of binocular input to the appropriate eye.
Main articles: Polarized 3D system and Vectograph

3.1
3.1.1

Active
Shutter systems

To present stereoscopic pictures, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through
polarizing lters or presented on a display with polarized lters. For projection, a silver screen is used so that
polarization is preserved. On most passive displays every other row of pixels are polarized for one eye or the
other.[20] This method is also known as being interlaced.
The viewer wears low-cost eyeglasses which also contain
a pair of opposite polarizing lters. As each lter only
passes light which is similarly polarized and blocks the
opposite polarized light, each eye only sees one of the
images, and the eect is achieved.
3.2.2 Interference lter systems

Functional principle of active shutter 3D systems

Main article: Active shutter 3D system

A shutter system works by openly presenting the image
intended for the left eye while blocking the right eyes
view, then presenting the right-eye image while blocking the left eye, and repeating this so rapidly that the interruptions do not interfere with the perceived fusion of
the two images into a single 3D image. It generally uses
liquid crystal shutter glasses. Each eyes glass contains a
liquid crystal layer which has the property of becoming
dark when voltage is applied, being otherwise transparent. The glasses are controlled by a timing signal that
allows the glasses to alternately darken over one eye, and
then the other, in synchronization with the refresh rate of
the screen. The main drawback of active shutters is that
most 3D videos and movies were shot with simultaneous

Main article: Interference lter systems

This technique uses specic wavelengths of red, green,
and blue for the right eye, and dierent wavelengths of
red, green, and blue for the left eye. Eyeglasses which
lter out the very specic wavelengths allow the wearer
to see a full color 3D image. It is also known as spectral
comb ltering or wavelength multiplex visualization
or super-anaglyph. Dolby 3D uses this principle. The
Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system has also used an improved version of this technology[21] In June 2012 the
Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system was discontinued by
DPVO Theatrical, who marketed it on behalf of Panavision, citing challenging global economic and 3D market
conditions.[22] Although DPVO dissolved its business
operations, Omega Optical continues promoting and selling 3D systems to non-theatrical markets. Omega Opticals 3D system contains projection lters and 3D glasses.

3.2

Passive

In addition to the passive stereoscopic 3D system, Omega

Optical has produced enhanced anaglyph 3D glasses. The
Omegas red/cyan anaglyph glasses use complex metal
oxide thin lm coatings and high quality annealed glass
optics.

7
uses a prism foil now with one eye but not on the other
eye, then the two seen pictures depending upon color
are more or less widely separated. The brain produces
the spatial impression from this dierence. The advantage of this technology consists above all of the fact that
one can regard ChromaDepth pictures also without eyeglasses (thus two-dimensional) problem-free (unlike with
two-color anaglyph). However the colors are only limitedly selectable, since they contain the depth information
of the picture. If one changes the color of an object, then
its observed distance will also be changed.

Anaglyph 3D glasses

3.2.3

Color anaglyph systems

Main article: Anaglyph 3D

Anaglyph 3D is the name given to the stereoscopic 3D
eect achieved by means of encoding each eyes image
using lters of dierent (usually chromatically opposite)
colors, typically red and cyan. Red-cyan lters can be
used because our vision processing systems use red and
cyan comparisons, as well as blue and yellow, to determine the color and contours of objects. Anaglyph 3D images contain two dierently ltered colored images, one
for each eye. When viewed through the color-coded
anaglyph glasses, each of the two images reaches one
eye, revealing an integrated stereoscopic image. The
visual cortex of the brain fuses this into perception of a
three dimensional scene or composition.[23]

KMQ stereo prismatic viewer with openKMQ plastics extensions

3.2.5 Pulfrich method

Main article: Pulfrich eect

The Pulfrich eect is based on the phenomenon of the

human eye processing images more slowly when there is
less light, as when looking through a dark lens. Because
the Pulfrich eect depends on motion in a particular direction to instigate the illusion of depth, it is not useful as
3.2.4 Chromadepth system
a general stereoscopic technique. For example, it cannot
be used to show a stationary object apparently extending
Main article: ChromaDepth
into or out of the screen; similarly, objects moving verThe ChromaDepth procedure of American Paper Optics tically will not be seen as moving in depth. Incidental
movement of objects will create spurious artifacts, and
these incidental eects will be seen as articial depth not
related to actual depth in the scene.

3.2.6 Over/under format

ChromaDepth glasses with prism-like lm

is based on the fact that with a prism, colors are separated by varying degrees. The ChromaDepth eyeglasses
contain special view foils, which consist of microscopically small prisms. This causes the image to be translated a certain amount that depends on its color. If one

Stereoscopic viewing is achieved by placing an image pair

one above one another. Special viewers are made for
over/under format that tilt the right eyesight slightly up
and the left eyesight slightly down. The most common one
with mirrors is the View Magic. Another with prismatic
glasses is the KMQ viewer.[24] A recent usage of this technique is the openKMQ project.[25]

OTHER DISPLAY METHODS WITHOUT VIEWERS

Other display methods without

viewers

complete realism that the reproduction is visually indistinguishable from the original, given the original lighting
conditions. It creates a light eld identical to that which
emanated from the original scene, with parallax about all
axes and a very wide viewing angle. The eye dieren4.1 Autostereoscopy
tially focuses objects at dierent distances and subject
detail is preserved down to the microscopic level. The
Main article: Autostereoscopy
Autostereoscopic display technologies use optical com- eect is exactly like looking through a window. Unfortunately, this pure form requires the subject to be laser-lit
and completely motionlessto within a minor fraction of
the wavelength of lightduring the photographic exposure, and laser light must be used to properly view the
results. Most people have never seen a laser-lit transmission hologram. The types of holograms commonly
encountered have seriously compromised image quality
so that ordinary white light can be used for viewing, and
non-holographic intermediate imaging processes are almost always resorted to, as an alternative to using powerful and hazardous pulsed lasers, when living subjects are
photographed.
Although the original photographic processes have
proven impractical for general use, the combination
of computer-generated holograms (CGH) and optoelectronic holographic displays, both under development for
many years, has the potential to transform the halfcentury-old pipe dream of holographic 3D television into
The Nintendo 3DS uses parallax barrier autostereoscopy to disa reality; so far, however, the large amount of calculation
play a 3D image.
required to generate just one detailed hologram, and the
huge bandwidth required to transmit a stream of them,
ponents in the display, rather than worn by the user, to en- have conned this technology to the research laboratory.
able each eye to see a dierent image. Because headgear
is not required, it is also called glasses-free 3D. The op- In 2013, a Silicon valley Company LEIA Inc started mantics split the images directionally into the viewers eyes, so ufacturing holographic displays well suited for mobile dethe display viewing geometry requires limited head posi- vices (watches, smartphones or tablets) using a multitions that will achieve the stereoscopic eect. Automulti- directional backlight and allowing a wide full-parallax an[26]
scopic displays provide multiple views of the same scene, gle view to see 3D content without the need of glasses.
rather than just two. Each view is visible from a dierent range of positions in front of the display. This allows the viewer to move left-right in front of the display 4.1.2 Volumetric displays
and see the correct view from any position. The technology includes two broad classes of displays: those that Main articles: Volumetric display and Bubblegram
use head-tracking to ensure that each of the viewers two
eyes sees a dierent image on the screen, and those that Volumetric displays use some physical mechanism to disdisplay multiple views so that the display does not need play points of light within a volume. Such displays use
to know where the viewers eyes are directed. Examples voxels instead of pixels. Volumetric displays include
of autostereoscopic displays technology include lenticular multiplanar displays, which have multiple display planes
lens, parallax barrier, volumetric display, holography and stacked up, and rotating panel displays, where a rotating
light eld displays.
panel sweeps out a volume.
4.1.1

Holography

Main articles: Holography and Computer Generated

Holography

Other technologies have been developed to project light

dots in the air above a device. An infrared laser is focused
on the destination in space, generating a small bubble of
plasma which emits visible light.

4.1.3 Integral imaging

Laser holography, in its original pure form of the photographic transmission hologram, is the only technology yet Main article: Integral imaging
created which can reproduce an object or scene with such

9
Integral imaging is an autostereoscopic or multiscopic
3D display, meaning that it displays a 3D image without the use of special glasses on the part of the viewer.
It achieves this by placing an array of microlenses (similar to a lenticular lens) in front of the image, where each
lens looks dierent depending on viewing angle. Thus
rather than displaying a 2D image that looks the same
from every direction, it reproduces a 4D light eld, creating stereo images that exhibit parallax when the viewer
moves.

There are, however, situations where it might be desirable to use a longer or shorter baseline. The factors to
consider include the viewing method to be used and the
goal in taking the picture. Note that the concept of baseline also applies to other branches of stereography, such
as stereo drawings and computer generated stereo images,
but it involves the point of view chosen rather than actual
physical separation of cameras or lenses.

6 Stereo window
4.2

Wiggle stereoscopy

For any branch of stereoscopy the concept of the stereo

Main articles: Wiggle stereoscopy and Kinetic depth window is important. If a scene is viewed through a window the entire scene would normally be behind the wineect
dow, if the scene is distant, it would be some distance
behind the window, if it is nearby, it would appear to be
Wiggle stereoscopy is an image display technique
just beyond the window. An object smaller than the winachieved by quickly alternating display of left and right
dow itself could even go through the window and appear
sides of a stereogram. Found in animated GIF format on
partially or completely in front of it. The same applies to
the web. Online examples are visible in the New-York
a part of a larger object that is smaller than the window.
Public Library stereogram collection. The technique is
[27]
The goal of setting the stereo window is to duplicate this
also known as Piku-Piku.
eect.

Stereo photography techniques

To truly understand the concept of window adjustment

it is necessary to understand where the stereo window itself is. In the case of projected stereo, including 3D
movies, the window would be at the surface of screen.
With printed material the window is at the surface of the
paper. When stereo images are seen by looking into a
viewer the window is at the position of the frame. In the
case of Virtual Reality the window seems to disappear as
the scene becomes truly immersive.
The entire scene can be moved backwards or forwards
in depth, relative to the stereo window, by horizontally
sliding the left and right eye views relative to each other.
Moving either or both images away from the center will
bring the whole scene away from the viewer, whereas
moving either or both images toward the center will move
the whole scene toward the viewer. Any objects in the
scene that have no horizontal oset, will appear at the
same depth as the stereo window.

Modern stereo TV camera

Main article: Stereo photography techniques

There are several considerations in deciding where to

place the scene relative to the window.
First, in the case of an actual physical window, the left
eye will see less of the left side of the scene and the right
eye will see less of the right side of the scene, because the
view is partly blocked by the window frame. This principle is known as less to the left on the left or 3L, and is
often used as a guide when adjusting the stereo window
where all objects are to appear behind the window. When
the images are moved further apart, the outer edges are
cropped by the same amount, thus duplicating the eect
of a window frame.

For general purpose stereo photography, where the goal

is to duplicate natural human vision and give a visual impression as close as possible to actually being there, the
correct baseline (distance between where the right and
left images are taken) would be the same as the distance
between the eyes.[28] When images taken with such a
baseline are viewed using a viewing method that duplicates the conditions under which the picture is taken then
the result would be an image pretty much the same as
what would be seen at the site the photo was taken. This Another consideration involves deciding where individcould be described as ortho stereo.
ual objects are placed relative to the window. It would

10

USES

be normal for the frame of an actual window to partly

overlap or cut o an object that is behind the window.
Thus an object behind the stereo window might be partly
cut o by the frame or side of the stereo window. So the
stereo window is often adjusted to place objects cut o
by window behind the window. If an object, or part of
an object, is not cut o by the window then it could be
placed in front of it and the stereo window may be adjusted with this in mind. This eect is how swords, bugs,
ashlights, etc. often seem to come o the screen in
3D movies.

7.1 Art

If an object which is cut o by the window is placed in

front of it, an eect results that is somewhat unnatural
and is usually considered undesirable, this is often called
a window violation. This can best be understood by
returning to the analogy of an actual physical window.
An object in front of the window would not be cut o
by the window frame but would, rather, continue to the
right and/or left of it. This can't be duplicated in stereography techniques other than Virtual Reality so the stereo
window will normally be adjusted to avoid window violations. There are, however, circumstances where they
could be considered permissible.

In the 19th Century, it was realized that stereoscopic images provided an opportunity for people to experience
places and things far away, and many tour sets were produced, and books were published allowing people to learn
about geography, science, history, and other subjects.[31]
Such uses continued till the mid 20th Century, with the
Keystone View Company producing cards into the 1960s.

A third consideration is viewing comfort. If the window

is adjusted too far back the right and left images of distant
parts of the scene may be more than 2.5 apart, requiring
that the viewers eyes diverge in order to fuse them. This
results in image doubling and/or viewer discomfort. In
such cases a compromise is necessary between viewing
comfort and the avoidance of window violations.

Salvador Dal created some impressive stereograms in his

exploration in a variety of optical illusions.[29] Red-andcyan anaglyph stereoscopic images have also been painted
by hand.[30]

7.2 Education

This image, captured on June 8, 2004, is an example of a composite anaglyph image generated from the stereo Pancam on
Spirit, one of the Mars Exploration Rovers. It can be viewed
stereoscopically with proper red/cyan lter glasses. A single 2D
version is also available. Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech. 3D red
cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.

In stereo photography window adjustments is accomplished by shifting/cropping the images, in other forms
of stereoscopy such as drawings and computer generated
images the window is built into the design of the images
as they are generated. It is by design that in CGI movies
certain images are behind the screen whereas others are 7.3
in front of it.
The images can be cropped creatively to create a stereo
window that is not necessarily rectangular or lying on
a at plane perpendicular to the viewers line of sight.
The edges of the stereo frame can be straight or curved
and, when viewed in 3D, can ow toward or away from
the viewer and through the scene. These designed stereo
frames can help emphasize certain elements in the stereo
image or can be an artistic component of the stereo image.

Uses

While stereoscopy have typically been used for

amusement, including stereographic cards, 3D lms,
stereoscopic video games, printings using anaglyph and
pictures, posters and books of autostereograms, there are
also other uses of this technology.

Space exploration

The Mars Exploration Rovers, launched by NASA in

2003 to explore the surface of Mars, are equipped with
unique cameras that allow researchers to view stereoscopic images of the surface of Mars.
The two cameras that make up each rovers Pancam are
situated 1.5m above the ground surface, and are separated
by 30 cm, with 1 degree of toe-in. This allows the image
pairs to be made into scientically useful stereoscopic
images, which can be viewed as stereograms, anaglyphs,
or processed into 3D computer images.[32]
The ability to create realistic 3D images from a pair of
cameras at roughly human-height gives researchers increased insight as to the nature of the landscapes being
viewed. In environments without hazy atmospheres or
familiar landmarks, humans rely on stereoscopic clues to
judge distance. Single camera viewpoints are therefore
more dicult to interpret. Multiple camera stereoscopic
systems like the Pancam address this problem with unmanned space exploration.

8.2

7.4

References

Clinical uses

Stereograms cards are frequently used by orthoptists and

vision therapists in the treatment of many binocular vision
and accommodative disorders.[33]

7.5

Mathematical, scientic and engineering uses

Stereopair photographs provided a way for 3-dimensional

(3D) visualisations of aerial photographs; since about
2000, 3D aerial views are mainly based on digital stereo
imaging technologies. Cartographers generate today
stereopairs using computer programs in order to visualise
topography in three dimensions.[34] Computerised stereo
visualisation applies stereo matching programs.[35] In biology and chemistry, complex molecular structures are
often rendered in stereopairs. The same technique can
also be applied to any mathematical (or scientic, or engineering) parameter that is a function of two variables,
although in these cases it is more common for a threedimensional eect to be created using a 'distorted' mesh
or shading (as if from a distant light source).

8
8.1
8.2

Bibliography
Footnotes
References

11

[12] Fay Huang, Reinhard Klette, and Karsten Scheibe:

Panoramic Imaging (Sensor-Line Cameras and Laser
Range-Finders). Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2008
[13] Dornaika, F.; Hammoudi, K (2009). Extracting 3D
Polyhedral Building Models from Aerial Images using a Featureless and Direct Approach (PDF). Proc.
IAPR/MVA. Retrieved 2010-09-26.
[14] Eyecare Trust. Eyecare Trust. Retrieved 29 March
2012.
[15] Daily Telegraph Newspaper. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
[16] Understanding Requirements for High-Quality 3D
Video: A Test in Stereo Perception. 3droundabout.com.
19 December 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
[17] The Logical Approach to Seeing 3D Pictures. www.
vision3d.com by Optometrists Network. Retrieved 200908-21
[18] How To Freeview Stereo (3D) Images. Greg Erker. Retrieved 2009-08-21
[19] How to View Photos on This Site. Stereo Photography
The World in 3D. Retrieved 2009-08-21
[20] Tseng, Belle; Anastassiou, Dimitris. Compatible Video
Coding of Stereoscopic Sequences using MPEG-2s Scalability and Interlaced Structure (PDF). Columbia University. Retrieved 8 July 2014.
[21] Seeing is believing""; Cinema Technology, Vol 24, No.1
March 2011

[1] The Kaiser (Emperor) Panorama. June 9, 2012.

[22] http://www.dpvotheatrical.com/

[2] Tufts.edu, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,

A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library

[23] Exercises in Three Dimensions: About 3D

[24] Glossary. June 8, 2012.

[3] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library

[25] openKMQ. June 8, 2012.

[4] Exercises in Three Dimensions: About 3D, Tom Lincoln,

2011

[26] A Multi-Directional Backlight For A Wide-Angle,

Glasses-Free 3D Display, Nature, 2013

[5] Flight Simulation, J. M. Rolfe and K. J. Staples,

Cambridge University Press, 1986, page 134

[27] http://www.shortcourses.com/stereo/stereo1-17.html

[6] Exercises in Three Dimensions, Tom Lincoln, 2011

[28] DrT (2008-02-25). Dr. T. Drt3d.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2012-03-04.

[7] Contributions to the Physiology of Vision.Part the

First. On some remarkable, and hitherto unobserved,
Phenomena of Binocular Vision.
By CHARLES
WHEATSTONE, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Philosophy in Kings College, London. Stereoscopy.com

[29] Horibuchi, S. (1994). Salvador Dal: the stereo pair artist.

In Horibuchi, S. (Ed.), Stereogram (pp.9, pp.42). San
Francisco: Cadence Books. ISBN 0-929279-85-9

[8] Welling, William. Photography in America, page 23

[31] University of Virginia The Stereoscope In America, accessed 21 March 2009.

[9] International Stereoscopic Union, 2006, Stereoscopy,

Numbers 65-72, p.18
[10] Stereo Realist Manual, p. 375.
[11] Stereo Realist Manual, pp. 377379.

[30] Exercises in Three Dimensions, Tom Lincoln, 2011

[32] Pancam technical brief (PDF). Cornell University. Retrieved 2006-06-30.

[33] Bartiss, OD MD, Michael (2005-01-25). Convergence
Insuciency. WebMD. Retrieved 2006-06-30.

12

EXTERNAL LINKS

[34] David F. Watson (1992). Contouring. A Guide to the

Analysis and Display of Spatial Data (with programs on
diskette). In: Daniel F. Merriam (Ed.); Computer Methods in the Geosciences; Pergamon / Elsevier Science, Amsterdam; 321 pp. ISBN 0-08-040286-0

International Stereoscopic Union

[35] Reinhard Klette (2014). Concise Computer Vision (see

Chapter 8 for stereo matching). Springer, London; 429
pp. ISBN 978-1-4471-6319-0

Views of California and the West, ca. 18671903,

The Bancroft Library

8.3

Museum exhibition on the history of stereographs

and stereoscopes (1850-1930)

Sources

Simmons, Gordon (MarchApril 1996). Clarence

G. Henning: The Man Behind the Macro. Stereo
World 23 (1): 3743.
Willke, Mark A.; Zakowski, Ron (MarchApril
1996). A Close Look into the Realist Macro Stereo
System. Stereo World 23 (1): 1435.
Morgan, Willard D.; Lester, Henry M. (October
1954). Stereo Realist Manual. and 14 contributors.
New York: Morgan & Lester. OCLC 789470.

8.4

Further reading

Scott B. Steinman, Barbara A. Steinman and Ralph

Philip Garzia. (2000). Foundations of Binocular Vision: A Clinical perspective. McGraw-Hill Medical.
ISBN 0-8385-2670-5

External links

9.1

Archival Collections

Guide to the Edward R. Frank Stereograph Collection. Special Collections and Archives, The UC
Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.

9.2

Other

Stereoscopy at DMOZ
The Quantitative Analysis of Stereoscopic Eect
Durham Visualization Laboratory stereoscopic
imaging methods and software tools
University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections Stereocard Collection
Stereographic Views of Louisville and Beyond,
1850s1930 from the University of Louisville Libraries
Stereoscopy on Flickr
Extremely rare and detailed Stereoscopic 3D scenes

American University in Cairo Rare Books and Special Collections Digital Library Underwood & Underwood Egypt Stereoviews Collection

3D Stereoscopy Community

13

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Stereoscopy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoscopy?oldid=693414059 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Rodrigob,

Caltrop, Heron, Hephaestos, Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Wm, Zanimum, Paddu, Tregoweth, Looxix~enwiki, Mac, Mark Forest, DropDeadGorgias, Paulnasca, Arteitle, Jengod, Popsracer, RodC, Reddi, Sbwoodside, Gutza, Wik, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Saltine, Ed
g2s, Reellis67, Lumos3, Robbot, Paranoid, Fredrik, TexasDex, Pengo, Rsduhamel, Craig Butz, DavidCary, BenFrantzDale, Lupin, Zigger,
Mcapdevila, JamesHoadley, Niteowlneils, Leonard G., Alexander.stohr, Xorx77, Quig, Forresto, Chowbok, Alexf, LucasVB, Ctachme,
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Discospinster, Sladen, Pjacobi, Rama, ArnoldReinhold, Dour High Arch, Deelkar, Bender235, Petersam, CanisRufus, El C, Robert P.
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Ehurtley, Jtalledo, Calton, Kocio, Hu, KJK::Hyperion, Velella, BanyanTree, Gunter, Klparrot, Recury, Dan100, Oleg Alexandrov, Firsfron,
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Psoreilly, Vossman, Srleer, Davidwkuntz, Bgwhite, Mortenoesterlundjoergensen, YurikBot, NTBot~enwiki, Stephen Day, Xaa, JarrahTree, Dreammaker182, Peter S., Aaron Walden, RadioFan, Manop, Gaius Cornelius, Ihope127, Royalbroil, NawlinWiki, Janke, Daniel
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Aisteco, BattyBot, Normandisteele, Motorman45, Carlatkmtkm, Fluystar, Carbo3d, Mdann52, Khazar2, Nhemenway, AccuTrans, JacobDeight, (ACB) 3-D, Cfrunyon, GenaRos, Lincolntom, Capitan Trueno, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Akbana ee, RadkaLG, Cyberscience3d,
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Franza, TeYea and Anonymous: 422

10.2

Images

File:3dviewer.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/3dviewer.gif License: GFDL Contributors: Own work

Original artist: Samu3d David Samuel
File:Active-3d-shutter-technology.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Active-3d-shutter-technology.
gif License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: https://www.locafox.de/magazin/3d-fernseher-aktiv-oder-passiv-3d/ Original artist: Locafox.de
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License:
Public domain Contributors:

14

10

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Original source: Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views. / United States. / States / Massachusetts. / Stereoscopic views of
Boston Common. (Approx. 72,000 stereoscopic views : 10 x 18 cm. or smaller.) digital record
Original artist: Soule, John P., 1827-1904 -- Photographer
File:Charles_Wheatstone-mirror_stereoscope_XIXc.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Charles_
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artist: ?
File:Company_of_ladies_watching_stereoscopic_photographs_by_Jacob_Spoel_1820-1868.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Company_of_ladies_watching_stereoscopic_photographs_by_Jacob_Spoel_1820-1868.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Rijksmuseum Original artist: Jacob Spoel
File:Early_bird_stereograph2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Early_bird_stereograph2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress[1] Original artist: E.R. McCollister
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File:SpiritsShadow-Sol153-6-8-2004.jpg
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Public domain Contributors: http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/gallery/3d/spirit/2004.html

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Content license

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