Understanding Flight:

Newton Reigns in
Aerodynamics!

Scott Eberhardt
March 26, 2007

General Aviation

Military Aviation

Commercial Aviation

What you will learn today

Some of the things you learned might
be wrong
The physical description of lift, using
Newtons Laws
The connection between lift and power
Some ideas about why wings look the
way they do

Descriptions of Lift

Explaining Lift
Mathematical description
Taught to Aeronautical Engineers
Popular description
Taught by flight schools, FAA,
NASA, etc
Physical description
What you are learning today

The Myth of the Bumblebee The Aerodynamicists Bane

Aerodynamicist Proves
Bumblebees Cant Fly!
The tabloids do
it to science
again?

Seattle

$1..00
September 10

Muckraker
Elvis is Alive,
Living in
Argentina
News Flash.
Britney Spears
to run for governor
of New York

Guru remains
in trance
for 20 years
..without food or drink

A 380

Giant fly
devours
jumbo jet
. Hundreds missing

Astrophysicists find dark matter

its cosmic cow poop

The Actual Origin of the Bumblebee Myth

From A. Magnan, Le Vol Des Insects,
Paris: Herman and Cle, 1934 (p. 8):
Tout dabord, pousse par ce qui fait en
aviation, jai applique aux insectes les
lois de la resistance delair, et je suis
arrive avec M. [Andre] SAINTE-LAGUE a
cette conclusion que leur vol est
impossible.

Popular Description of Lift

(what you might have learned)
Bernoulli relates pressure to
velocity
Focuses on shape of wing to
determine velocity
Perpetuates Myths

Physical Description of Lift

Forget Bernoullis Theorem
Stick and Rudder, published 1944

Lift is a Reaction Force

Physical Description
Based on Newtons laws
Easy to understand without
equations
Leads to an understanding of
power required for flight

Newtons Third Law

To every Action there is an

equal and opposite Reaction

Newtons First Law

A body at rest will remain at rest,
or a body in motion will continue
in straight line motion unless subjected
to an external applied force

So.
For a wing to go up
it must force air down
Lots of air!

Cessna Citation flying over fog

(Photo By Paul Bowen)

A Rotating Wing Pushes Air Down

Does this picture show an

airfoil generating lift?

No, the air must experience a

net change, as shown below

a sh
w
p

D ow n

was h

Downwash
Wing pulls air down -- Downwash

Downwash is related to angle of

attack and airspeed, which the
pilot can control

Why does the air follow the

top surface of the wing?

Nature Abhors a Vacuum

This cannot happen

Air could fill from below?

Air could fill from below?

Cant happen (except in superfluids)

Air could fill from back

Air could fill from back

Stall on flat plate

Air could fill from top

Air could fill from top

Picture a curved hose

Air
Force

Hose is like an airfoil

Air
Force

Viscosity

Force on glass

Force on water

Newtons Second Law

The thrust of a rocket is equal to the
velocity of the exhaust times the amount
of mass ejected per second

Newtons 2nd law

applied to a wing
The lift on a wing is proportional
to the amount of
air diverted per second times
the vertical velocity of the air
Lift = mass/sec * vertical velocity

Lift
So, wing diverts air down for lift
Lift = mass/sec * vertical velocity
or
Lift = (m/t) * Vdownwash
(m/t) is mass flow rate of air
pumped down

Diverted Air
The amount of air diverted is
proportional to:
The speed
The air density

The wing as a scoop

The scoop can be calculated with

the Biot-Savart Law.

Vertical Velocity
The vertical velocity is proportional
to:
The speed
The angle of attack

Vertical Velocity
Speed

Do w
n wa
sh

a:

b:

Speed (x2)

Vv(x2)

Dow
nwa
sh

c:

Vv

Speed
(x2)

Do
wn
wa

Pilot controls airspeed and

angle of attack

Vv(x2)
sh

Angle of Attack

Critical angle of attack

Lift

Lift is a Function of
Angle of Attack

10

15

20

Effective angle of attack (degrees)

(at constant density and speed)

Vertical Velocity
Vertical velocity is related to
angle of attack and the airspeed
of the wing
Pilot controls airspeed
and angle of attack

How much air is pushed

down?
A Cessna 172
diverts approximately
5 times its own weight per second!

Whats going on in this photo?

Summary of Lift
Lift is proportional to:
Amount of air diverted per second
Downwash velocity of that air
Amount of air diverted per second is proportional
to: Speed of wing
Density of air
Downwash velocity of air is proportional to:
Angle of attack
Speed of wing

Myth: 1
T=0
Tf

Particles reach trailing edge at same time.

With Equal Transit times,

How Can...
An airfoil fly upside down?
A paper airplane fly?
A wing fly in ground effect?
Equal transit times says it cant happen
Equal transit times is wrong!

Reality

Air goes much quicker over the top

Critical angle of attack

Lift

Lift is a Function of
Angle of Attack

10

15

20

Effective angle of attack (degrees)

Myth #2

These two pictures are not

the same thing

Cessna Citation flying over

fog
(Photo By Paul Bowen)

Summary of Lift
Lift is proportional to:
Amount of air diverted per second
Downwash velocity of that air
Amount of air diverted per second is proportional
to: Speed of wing
Density of air
Downwash velocity of air is proportional to:

Angle of attack
Speed of wing

Power

If Lift didnt require Power

Planes would have same range
empty or full
Helicopters could hover at any
altitude and load
Propulsion would not require
power either (same physics)

Power required for lift

Power is Force times Velocity
Induced Power is the lift times
the vertical velocity
Induced Power = Lift * Vertical Velocity

What is the Lift?

Lift = Weight
(for straight and level flight)

Weight isnt changing

Lift is constant
So

How does Vertical Velocity

Change?
As speed increases, more air passes
past wing so the amount of air diverted
per second increases.
Lift = (m/t) * vertical velocity
or
Vertical velocity = Lift/(m/t)

Therefore, as speed increases,

downwash decreases

So,
Induced Power= Lift * Vertical Velocity
Induced Power decreases with speed!

But, dont forget power to overcome

skin and form drag

Induced Power
At half the speed:
Half the air is diverted
therefore, you need to double
the vertical velocity by increasing
the angle of attack

Induced power goes as 1/speed

Induced Power
Cessna 172 Skyhawk
120

Power

100
80
60
40
20
0
0

20

40

60

80

V - mph

100

120

140

160

Parasitic Power
The energy loss to collision with the air
is proportional to speed squared (1/2mv2)
Number of collisions is proportional
to speed

Parasitic power goes as speed cubed

Parasitic Power
Cessna 172 Skyhawk
120.0000

Power

100.0000
80.0000
60.0000
40.0000
20.0000
0.0000
0

20

40

60

80

V - mph

100

120

140

160

Power Required
120.0
100.0

Power

80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0

Ve
0

50

100

V - mph

150

Langleys Law

Summary of Power
Lift requires power
Power due to lift: Induced Power

Wing Efficiency

Wing Efficiency
Induced power is proportional to lift times vertical
velocity
If you double the span of the wing you double the
amount of air diverted and therefore halve the
vertical velocity

Induced Power and Induced Drag

decrease as wingspan increases

Gliders have efficient wings

Classical Aerodynamics
Lift does no work!
But, classical aerodynamics
assumes a wing of infinite span
if span -> infinity
powerinduced -> 0!

Summary
Lift is a REACTION FORCE
Lift is described using Newtons
Laws
Lift requires Power
High span increases wing
efficiency

References
http://home.comcast.net/~clipper-108/Professional.html

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Research Trends
From the University Perspective

Smart Structures
Active Flow Control
Coordinated and Formation Flying of UAVs
Better Materials

From the Boeing Perspective:

Innovations That Add Value

Composite Structure
Lower Maintenance
Costs

Breakthrough
Cabin
Passenger
Preference

Enhanced
Flight Deck
Operational
Reliability

Innovative Systems
Flexible for
the Future

Advanced
Engines
Large Cargo
Capacity
More Revenue
Potential

Advanced Wing
Enhanced
Efficiency

Fuel Efficiency
Lower Noise

Many Thanks!