PHILOSOPHY GLOSSARY I

A posteriori reasoning from particular facts to general principles or

conclusions; inductive, empirical. [ Latin, "from the posterior".]
A priori 1. reasoning from general propositions to particular conclusions;
deductive. 2. an assertion made before examination or substantiation. [Latin,
"from beforehand".] A priori knowledge exists independently of direct
experience; e.g., one needn't draw a hundred parallel lines to know that they
never intersect one another.
Absolute something that is independent of, and unconditioned by, anything
external to itself (non-contingent).
Abstract idea general idea; that which exists in the mind rather than in the
external world.
Absurd in logic, that which is irrational or contradictory.
Accident in metaphysics, a quality, property or characteristic that is not
essential to the nature of a thing.
Actuality in scholastic philosophy, the state of being something in reality (or in
fact) rather than being something in potential.
Ad hoc literally, to or for this; pertaining to this one particular case alone.
Ad infinitum going on forever (without end).
Aesthetics the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of beauty and
art.
A fortiori literally, with greater force; in logic, all the more reason.
Agnosticism the belief that one does not, or cannot, know ultimate reality
(especially God).
Altruism the belief that everyone should be concerned for the benefit and
welfare of others.
Amoral that which is neither moral nor immoral; outside the moral realm.
Analytic philosophy a modern movement in philosophy (primarily in England
and North America) which identifies the analysis of language as the central task
of philosophy. Linguistic analysis is used as a tool to identify and resolve
philosophical problems.
Analytic proposition according to Kant, a proposition (statement) that is true
by definition; a proposition whose predicate is deducible from the subject, as in
"All bachelors are unmarried men."
Angst German term for an inner sense of despair or dread.
Anthropomorphism the act of ascribing human characteristics to nonhumans (especially to God).
Antinomy contradiction made up of a thesis and antithesis.
Antithesis the contrast or opposite of the thesis statement.
Apologetics literally, to give a defense; in philosophy, to give rational
justification for one's beliefs.
A posteriori in epistemology, knowledge derived from, or posterior to (comes
after), five sense experience. Knowledge that comes from experience.
A priori in epistemology, knowledge which is acquired prior to, or
independently of, five sense experience.

Archetype an original model, type, pattern, or paradigm.

Aristotelians of or pertaining to the philosophy of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Atheism the belief that no God or gods exist in or beyond the universe
(traditional usage). Sometimes defined as an absence of belief in God.
Attribute a quality, property, or characteristic which is attributed to, or
predicated of, something.
Augustinianism of or pertaining to the philosophical and theological thought
of St. Augustine (354-430).
Autonomy the state of being independent, self-determining, or free.
Axiology the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of values.
Being that which exists, or is real (unchanging reality).
Categorical imperative Immanuel Kant's central ethical principle of conduct:
"Always act so as to will the maxim of your action to become a universal law."
Moral conduct should be universalized. The classic example of a purely
deontological approach to ethics.
Causality, principle of Every effect must have a sufficient cause; everything
that comes into being must have a cause.
Coherence theory of truth truth is determined by that which is internally and
logically consistent.
Contingent the state of being dependent upon something else for existence.
Correspondence theory of truth truth is determined by that which
corresponds to the present state of affairs.
Cosmological argument a proof for the existence of God; derived from the
Greek word cosmos (world), the argument states that a contingent world
requires the existence of God as its ultimate cause. The argument appears in
different forms (unmoved mover, first cause, contingency, kalam), and has been
presented and defended by numerous philosophers including: Aristotle, Thomas
Aquinas, Gottfried Leibniz, and Medieval Islamic philosopher Al-Ghazali.
Cosmos from the Greek word cosmos, meaning world or universe.
Deductive reasoning reasoning in which the conclusion of an argument
follows with logical necessity (certainty) from the premises. Deductive
Reasoning usually proceeds from general to particular or from whole to parts.
Contrasted with Inductive Reasoning.
Deism belief in a God who created the world, but does not intervene within it
(God is transcendent, but not immanent). This religious world view, which
emphasizes reason over revelation, was most popular during the 17th and 18th
centuries in England, France and America.
Determinism the view that everything in the universe is controlled by previous
conditions, and therefore could not be otherwise.
Dialectic the process of drawing out logical truths through dialogue, reasoning
and argumentation.
Doubt from the Latin dubito, to be uncertain.
Dualism in metaphysics, the view that reality consists of two fundamentally
distinct entities.
Efficient cause the agent through which something is produced or comes into
being.

Empiricism the belief that the source of all knowledge is five sense
experience. All knowledge of actually existing things is acquired through five
sense experience. Contrasted with Rationalism.
Epicureanism a hedonistic philosophy, founded by Epicurus, which stressed
long-term and higher pleasure (i.e., pleasures of the mind over the bodily
appetites).
Epistemology the branch or field of philosophy concerned with the origin,
nature, and limits of knowledge.
Essence the nature or "whatness" of a thing. The qualities or attributes hat
make a thing what it is.
Ethics the branch or field of philosophy concerned with moral values and
human conduct.
Existentialism a modern approach (movement) to philosophy which rejects
abstractions, and stresses concrete reality, especially individual human freedom,
choice, subjectivity, and existence.
Fideism the view that there is no way (and often no need) to justify one's
beliefs (usually religious belief). It is usually asserted that faith alone is
sufficient.
Final cause for the sake of which an agent acts (i.e., the end or goal). One of
Aristotle's four causes.
Finite having specific boundaries, limitations, or an end. Limitations in
attributes and character. Considered the opposite of infinite.
Form in metaphysics, the essence or nature of an entity.
Formal cause the structure, form, pattern, or configuration of which
something consists. One of Aristotle's four causes.
Foundationalism in epistemology, the belief that all knowledge is based upon
first principles (foundational truths) which provide justification for all other
beliefs. Some would argue that these foundational truths are themselves not
subject to any proof.
Hedonism the ethical viewpoint which asserts that pleasure is the Summum
Bonum (greatest good). It is often asserted that mankind is a pleasure-seeking,
pain-avoiding animal. There have been several different types of hedonistic
philosophies (e.g., Epicureanism, Egoism, Utilitarianism, etc.).
Humanism the view that "mankind is the measure of all things." Something's
value or significance is measured by its relationship to mankind.
Idealism the metaphysical view that all reality consists of mind and/or ideas.
Contrasted with Materialism.
Immanent - the state of being present with something (e.g., God is immanent
[present within the universe]).
Independent in Metaphysics, existence that is not conditioned or controlled
by something external to itself; a non-contingent.
Indeterminism the view that at least some events, especially the human will
and behavior, are free of causal determination.
Indubitable beyond all doubt; absolutely or unquestionably true.
Inductive reasoning reasoning in which the conclusion of an argument
follows only probably from the premises. Inductive Reasoning usually proceeds

from particular to general, or from parts to whole. Contrasted with Deductive

Reasoning.
Infinite without boundaries, limitations, or an end. No limitations in attributes
or character. Considered the opposite of finite.
Innate ideas the belief that at least some ideas are inborn (i.e., present in the
mind at birth).
Intuition the faculty by which truth is immediately grasped, separate from five
sense experience or reason.
Logic the study of the principles of correct thinking. The science that
evaluates thinking and argumentation. Considered a major branch or field of
philosophy.
Material cause the matter, stuff, or substance of which something is made.
One of Aristotle's four causes.
Materialism the metaphysical view that all reality consists of material or
physical entities with their physical properties. Contrasted with Idealism.
Metaphysics the branch or field of philosophy concerned with the ultimate
nature, structure, and characteristics of reality. A narrow usage of the term refers
to the study of that which lies beyond the physical realm (i.e., the supernatural
realm). Metaphysics is sometimes used interchangeably with the term
Ontology.
Monism the metaphysical view that all reality is one. Idealism and Materialism
are examples of monism.
Moral argument a proof for the existence of God; God's existence is the only
adequate grounds to explain objective morality.
Naturalism the belief that physical nature is the only reality. The philosophy of
naturalism is characterized by Monism, antisupernaturalism, scientism, and
Humanism.
Nihilism the view that there is no meaning, purpose, significance, or value in
the universe.
Noetic pertaining to reason, knowledge, and the intellect.
Noumena in Kant, the thing-in-itself, the world as it really is, apart from its
appearance; as opposed to the phenomena (the world of appearance). Also
referred to as the "noumenon" or "noumenal world."
Objective idealism the belief that things (ideas) genuinely exist apart from
our perception of them.
Ockhams razor the explanation which fits the facts with the least
assumptions is the best. Also known as the principle of parsimony.
Ontological argument a proof for the existence of God; St. Anselm argued
that reflection on God's perfect essence (or being) actually necessitates His
existence.
Absolute 1. that which can exist on its own without depending on other
things. 2. in ethics, the view that moral truth exists independently of cultural
context and time and place ("moral absolute"); cf. moral relativism.
absolutism in political philosophy, the view that absolute rule is the most
desirable, or the least inadequate.

Abstraction this operation of the agent intellect which considers one thing
without another out of several united in reality.
Accident that to which it belongs to be in another an not in itself as in a
subject.
Accident the universal in regards to its inferiors, as qualifying accidentally and
contingently.
Act an entity which perfects and determines a thing according to its nature.
Action the movement of the operative power insofar as it proceeds from the
power.
Adscititious not inherent or essential, derivative.
Agathism the doctrine that all things tend towards ultimate good, as
distinguished from optimism, which holds that all things are now for the
best. adj., agathistic. [From the Greek agathos, good.]
Agnosticism the belief that one cannot know whether God exists or does not
exist. An agnostic may or may not believe in God, but in any case feels that
there is insufficient proof to hold fast to either view. Cf. atheism.
Analogy the mutual relation of diverse things by which they are designated by
the same name.
Analogy of attribution the relation of one or several things to some one thing
by which the name applies properly and strictly to the latter is said also of the
former(s).
Analogy of proportion the mutual equality of two proportions.
Animism the belief that objects are inhabited by spirits, and that natural
events or processes are caused by spirits.
Anthropomorphism the ascription of human characteristics or motives to
inanimate objects, natural phenomena, or supernatural things. Many major
religious systems -- among them Judaism and Christianity -- share
anthropomorphic qualities. An example is the belief that human beings are
"made in God's image," or that God is a personal deity sensitive and responsive
to human need and pain, or more commonly, that God is an elderly man with a
long gray beard sitting somewhere in the sky on his celestial throne.
Anthropopathism the attribution of human feelings and emotions to anything
not human; e.g., inanimate objects and animals.
Anthroposophy a theory advanced by Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925)
contending that the spiritual realm can be understood through the exercise of
human intellectual faculties.
Apocalyptic of or pertaining to religious revelation or to momentous spiritual
occasions. From the Greek, meaning "uncovering".
Apodictic incontrovertibly true; demonstrably so, certain.
Apollonian having the classical beauty and strength of Apollo as opposed to
the emotionally volatile and romantic attributes of Dionysus. The
Apollonian/Dionysian -- or classicist/romanticist -- distinction is one of which
many philosophers have made use since Hellenistic times. It was drawn upon
by Nietzsche, for instance, in The Birth of Tragedy; the Apollonian was depicted
as critical, rational, logical; the Dionysian as intuitive, creative, artistic.
Appetite the inclination seeking/following a form.

Archetypes 1. an original model or prototype. 2. the quintessence or ideality

of something. 3. in Jungian psychology (Carl Jung, 1875-1961), symbolic
representations of established ways of responding to certain types of
experience, contained in the collective unconscious.
Argument a phrase which signifies the passage of one thing from another.
Aristotelianism of or pertaining to the philosophy of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.),
among the greatest philosophers who ever lived. Aristotle made prodigious
contributions to the understanding of biology, epistemology, ethics, logic,
metaphysics, and politics.
Art the right reason of things to be made.
Assent the act by which the intellect adheres to a given judgment.
Associationism -- a theory of knowledge propounded by thinkers such as
Condillac in France and James Mill in England which holds that nearly all
thought processes are governed by association (e.g., cause and effect,
resemblance and difference, contiguity). Associationism has influenced the
modern theory of conditioning and learning; it is opposed by those who believe
the mind can freely create arbitrary images.
Ataraxia a tranquil and calm state of mind.
Atheism -- the belief that God does not exist.
Atman -- in Hindu religion, the individual soul, in contrast to Brahman.
Atomism -- the theory, as set forth by philosophers such as Democritus, that
physical objects consist of minute, indivisible particles moving in a void.
Attribute -- in Spinozistic philosophy (Benedict Spinoza, 1632-1677), one of the
infinite aspects of Reality, such as matter or thought.
Averroism -- the philosophical system of Averroes, an important medieval
philosopher and contemporary of Thomas Aquinas (see Thomism). Averroes
denied the immortality of the soul but thought reason to be eternal and
transcultural.
Axiology -- the study of values and the nature of value judgments.
Axiom -- a statement that is true by definition or so obviously true that it needn't
be proved. In logic, an assumption used as an unquestioned basis for a theory.
Beatitude perfect good of the intellective nature.
Beautiful what pleases when apprehended.
Behaviorism -- a psychological theory that stresses the importance of studying
overt behavior and denies the legitimacy of introspective reports of
consciousness.
Being that whose act is to be; that which has being; that which exercises the
act of being.
Being of reason being which has objective being in the intellect alone.
Cause whatever influences the being of a thing.
Concept simple intellectual representation of the quiddity of something.
Contingent that which can be not.
Contradictory opposition the opposition between a thing and its negation.
Contrary opposition the opposition between those things which are most
distant in the same genus.
Creation production from nothing of its own or of the subjects.

Criteriology part of metaphysics which defends the principles of human

knowledge.
Definition the sequence which exposes the nature of a thing or the
signification of a term.
Demonstration a syllogism which makes something known; a syllogism
based on the true, first, immediate, proper and more known causes of the
conclusion.
Different things those things which have something in common, and differ by
some addition.
Disposition quality easily mobile disposing the subject to be or act well or
bad.
Distinct things those things, one of which is not the other.
Diverse things those things which have nothing in common, and differ among
themselves.
Division a sentence which separates a thing or a noun into different parts.
Efficient cause that which by its action produces the thing in existence.
Essence that by which a being is what it is.
Eternity wholesome, simultaneous, and perfect possession of the
interminable life.
Evil privation of a due good.
Final cause that for the sake of which something becomes.
First intention the act by which the mind tends to a real being.
First principle a proposition known to all necessarily (per se).
Form the determinative element of every essence.
Form/figure quality or mode in the body produced by the completion of
quantity.
Formal intention the act itself of the mind tending towards something.
Genus the universal in regards to its inferiors specifically distinct with
incomplete quiddity.
Good being in relation to the will.
Habit stable quality disposing the subject to be or act well or bad.
Habit that particular addition to the subject which results from a garment.
Individual a thing undivided in itself and divided from everything else.
Induction progression towards a universal statement from singulars
sufficiently enumerated.
Intellect the power of knowing the essences of things.
Judgment the act of the intellect which composes or divides by affirming or
denying.
Knowledge of "higher worlds" is possible according to this view.
Life self motion.
Logical truth conformity of intellect to thing.
Matter that out of which something becomes.
Metaphysics science of being in so far as being.
Moral conscience the judgment of the practical reason concerning the
morality of the acts.
Movement the act of a being in potency insofar as it is in potency.

Nature the principle and cause of motion and rest of a thing in which it is
necessarily and not accidentally.
Necessary that which cannot not be.
Negation being of reason by which non-being is conceived as a being (Gredt
110; negation = genus of the being of reason).
Notion proper reason by which the thing is made known to the mind.
Obediential potency the elevability of nature to an act exceeding all its
natural powers.
Objective intention the object towards which the mind tends.
One undivided being.
Ontological truth conformity of thing to intellect.
Ontology - the study of being; often used interchangeably with Metaphysics.
Pantheism - a world view that makes God identical with the world; "All is God
and God is all." God is wholly Immanent, and therefore not transcendent.
Phenomena - in Kant, the world of appearance (how things appear to the
senses); as opposed to the Noumena (world of reality). Also referred to as the
phenomenal world.
Philosophy - literally, the "love of wisdom"; an attempt to provide rational and
coherent understanding of the fundamental questions of life.
Platonism - of or pertaining to the philosophy of Plato (427-347 B.C.)
Pluralism - the metaphysical view that ultimate reality consists of many things.
Contrasted with Monism.
Pragmatism - an American philosophy which makes workability and practical
consequences the test for truth.
Rationalism - broadly speaking, the epistemological view that stresses reason
as the test of truth. In a strict sense, the belief that at least some knowledge is
acquired independent of sense experience. Contrasted with Empiricism.
Realism - the metaphysical view that asserts that physical objects exist apart
from being perceived; the belief that the essences of things possess objective
reality.
Relativism - the belief that no absolutes exist (in truth and/or ethics). Truth and
morality vary from person to person, time to time, circumstance to
circumstance.
Skepticism - in a loose sense, to doubt, question, or suspend judgment on
philosophical issues. In a strict sense, to deny that true knowledge is attainable.
Socratic Method - derived from the Greek philosopher Socrates, a method for
finding truth and meaning through rigorous questioning.
Solipsism - "I myself only exist." The only reality that exists is one's self.
Subjective idealism - the belief that things (ideas) are dependent upon
perception for their particular existence.
Substance - a thing's underlying essence; that which makes a thing what it is.
Tabula rasa - literally, a "blank tablet". John Locke's empirical view that human
beings possess no innate (inborn) ideas or principles.
Teleological argument - a proof for the existence of God; design, beauty,
harmony, and purposiveness in the universe require a cosmic architect (i.e.,
God). Known as the design argument, it was defended by Plato, but its most

popular presentation was given by William Paley.

Theism - the world view that affirms the existence of an infinite, personal God,
who is the transcendent creator, and immanent sustainer of the world. Judaism,
Christianity and Islam are examples of theistic religions.
Transcendent - beyond, or distinct from, the time/space world.
Weltanschauung - German term, referring to a person's world view (a
conceptual scheme for interpreting reality).
Operative potency proximate principle of acting simply and absolutely.
Opposition relation between several things by which they cannot agree in the
same thing under the same aspect simultaneously.
Oration (phrase) sequence of terms.
Passible quality a lasting accident causing a sensible alteration or caused by
a sensible alteration.
Passion the accident by which the subject becomes the receiver in act of the
effect of the agent.
Perfection (broad sense) any act/entity; (strict sense) the plenitude of a being
which is lacking no act necessary to its full actuation.
Person the supposit of a rational nature.
Personality the subsistence of a person.
Philosophy science of all things through the highest causes, obtained by
natural reason.
Place first immobile extremity of the surface of a body.
Position accident disposing the thing localized in relation to the place; the
order of the parts in the place.
Potency imperfect entity capable of perfection.
Predicable the mode of universality by which one thing can be in many and
be predicated of them.
Predicament = the supreme genus of being.
Prime matter the first subject out of which, something while in it, becomes but
not by accident.
Principle that from which something proceeds in any way.
Privation lack of perfection in a disposed subject.
Privative opposition the opposition between a thing and its privation.
Proper the universal in regards to its inferiors, as qualifying accidentally and
necessarily.
Proposition a phrase which affirms or denies something about something.
Prudence the right reason of things to be done (operations).
Quality accident determining or modifying the substance in itself.
Quantity the accident which extends the substance into different parts.
Quiddity a synonym of essences by which one answers the question about a
thing, "what is it?"
Reasoning the act of the mind by which the convenience or disconvenience
of two ideas is inferred by the proportion (conformity / difformity) which they
have to a third notion.
Relation the accident whose whole being is to be ordered to another.
Relation = the order of one thing to another.

Relative opposition the opposition between those thing which are ordained or
have respect to each other.
Science certain knowledge through causes.
Second intention the act by which the mind tends to a being of reason.
Sign that which, besides the species produced in the senses, reveals the
knowledge of something else.
Simple apprehension the operation by which the intellect understands some
quiddity without affirming anything about it.
Something being divided from others and non-being.
Soul the first act of a body living in potency.
Species the form determining completely the essence of a thing.
Species the universal in regards to its inferiors numerically distinct, with
complete quiddity.
Specific difference the universal in regards to its inferiors, as qualifying the
quiddity.
Subsistence a positive and natural mode terminating the nature in the line of
essence.
Substance that to which it belongs to be in itself and not in another as in a
subject.
Supposit an individuated substance complete in its species.
Supposition the use of the term to signify something.
Syllogism reasoning by which, out of two proportions, another is necessarily
inferred from the affirmation of the premises.
Synderesis habit of the first practical principles.
Term (oral) arbitrary vocal sign.
The notes of a concept the intelligible elements or aspects of this concept
which the mind discerns and which belong to it necessarily.
Theology science of God proceeding from Revelation.
Thing a synonym of being saying rather its essence.
Time measure of the movement according to before and after.
To be that by which the being is, or exists.
To consist to be composed out of components.
To exist to be placed outside of its causes and out of nothing.
To have knowledge to have intentionally in oneself a form as the form of
another (or) = to become another insofar as other.
To know to grasp . . . (a) the cause telling why the thing is, (b) the fact that it
is the cause of it, and (c) that it cannot be otherwise (the thing cannot have
another cause). .
To sense to know the passible qualities of material things.
To subsist to be in itself and not in another as in a subject.
To understand to know the essences of things.
Transcendental a universal mode of being insofar as being.
Transcendental relation the order of an absolute being ordered necessarily
(per se).
True being in relation to the intellect.
Truth conformity of thing and intellect.

Understanding the habit of the first speculative principles.

Universal one apt to be inherent in many.
Universal as predicable one nature said of many.
Universal in being one nature in many.
When accident of a thing which has some duration, which is measured by
addition of time.
Where that by which a thing is constituted in a place.
Will intellective appetite.
Wisdom knowledge of all things by the highest causes.