Additive: Material Added In Small Amounts To Finished Fuel

Products To Improve Certain Properties Or Characteristics.

Antioxidant: Substance That Inhibits Reactions Promoted By

Oxygen

Aromatic Compound: A Hydrocarbon Based On A Six-Carbon

Benzenoid Ring

Biodiesel: Methyl Esters Of Fatty Acids Meeting The Requirements

Of Astm Specification D6751.

Biodegradable: Capable Of Being Broken Down By The Action Of

Microorganisms

Boiling Range: The Spread Of Temperature Over Which A Fuel, Or

Other Mixture Of Compounds, Distills.

Cetane Index: An Approximation Of Cetane Number Based On An

Empirical Relationship With Density And Volatility Parameters Such
As The Mid-Boiling Point. This Approximation Is Not Valid For
Biodiesel Or Biodiesel Blends.

Cetane Number: A Measure Of The Ignition Quality Of Diesel Fuel

Based On Ignition Delay In An Engine. The Higher The Cetane
Number, The Shorter The Ignition Delay And The Better The Ignition
Quality.

Chelating Compound: A Fuel Additive That Deactivates The

Catalytic Oxidizing Action Of Dissolved Metals, Notably Copper, On
Fuels During Storage.

Ci: Compression Ignition, I.E. A Diesel Engine

Cloud Point: The Temperature At Which A Sample Of A Fuel Just

Shows A Cloud Or Haze Of Wax (Or In The Case Of Biodiesel,
Methyl Ester) Crystals When It Is Cooled Under Standard Test
Conditions, As Defined In Astm D2500.
Detergent: A Fuel Detergent Is An Oil-Soluble Surfactant Additive
That Maintains The Cleanliness Of Engine Parts By Solubilizing
Deposits Or Materials Likely To Deposit In The Engine Fuel System.

Dispersant: A Surfactant Additive Designed To Hold Particulate

Matter Dispersed In A Liquid.

Elastomer: Synthetic Rubber-Type Material Frequently Used In

Vehicle Fuel Systems (But Not Necessarily Natural Or Synthetic
Rubber, May Also Apply To Other Polymers).

Energy Content: The Heat Produced On Combustion Of A Specified

Volume Or Mass Of Fuel, Also Known As Heating Value Or Heat Of
Combustion.

EPAct: Energy Policy Act of 1992. Title III provides incentives to

promote the use of alternative fuel vehicles in transportation.

fatty acid methyl esters (FAME): Mono alkyl ester of long-chain fatty
acids from naturally occurring vegetable oil, animal fats, and
recycled greases.

fatty acid: any of the saturated or unsaturated monocarboxylic

acids that occur naturally in the form of triglycerides (or mono or
diglycerides) or as free fatty acids in fats and fatty oils.

flash point: the lowest temperature at which vapors from a fuel will
ignite on application of a small flame under standard test
conditions.

Free fatty acids: any saturated or unsaturated monocarboxylic acids

that occur naturally fats, oils or greases but are not attached to
glycerol backbones. These can lead to high acid fuels and require
special processes technology to convert into biodiesel.

Hydrocarbon (HC): a compound composed of hydrogen and carbon.

Hydrocarbons can refer to fuel components and to unburned or
poorly combusted components in vehicle exhaust.

kerosene: a refined petroleum distillate of which different grades are

used as lamp oil, as heating oil, blended into diesel fuel, and as fuel
for aviation turbine engines.

lubricity: the ability of a fuel to lubricate.

microbial contamination: containing deposits or suspended matter

formed by microbial degradation of the fuel.

multifunctional additive: an additive or blend of additives with more

than one function.

OEM: original engine manufacturer.

Oxidation: Loosely, The Chemical Combination Of Oxygen To A

Molecule.

Oxidative Stability: The Ability Of A Fuel To Resist Oxidation During

Storage Or Use.

Oxygenate: A Fuel Component That Contains Oxygen; I.E., Biodiesel

Or Ethanol.

Particulate Matter (Pm): The Solid Or Semi-Solid Compounds Of

Unburned Fuel That Are Emitted From Engines.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Pah): Aromatic Compounds With

More Than One Benzenoid Ring (Pah). Also, Npah For NitroPolyaromatic Compounds.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Fatty Acids With More Than One

Double Bond.

Pour Point: The Lowest Temperature At Which A Fuel Will Just Flow
When Tested Under Standard Conditions As Defined In Astm D97.

Saturation: Or Saturated Compound. A Paraffinic Hydrocarbon Or

Fatty Acid, I.E. With Only Single Bonds And No Double Or Triple
Bonds.

Solvency: The Quality Or State Of Being A Solvent.

Specific Gravity: The Ratio Of The Density Of A Substance To The

Density Of Water.

Splash Blending: The Fuels To Be Blended Are Delivered Separately

Into A Tank Truck

Stratification: To Separate Into Layers.

Storage Stability: The Ability Of A Fuel To Resist Deterioration On

Storage Due To Oxidation.

Torque: A Force That Produces Rotation.

Viscosity: A Measure Of The Resistance To Flow Of A Liquid.

A chemical property is any of a material's properties that becomes

evident during a chemical reaction; that is, any quality that can be
established only by changing a substance's chemical identity.
[1]

Simply speaking, chemical properties cannot be determined just

by viewing or touching the substance; the substance's internal

structure must be affected for its chemical properties to be
investigated. However a catalytic property would also be a chemical
property.

The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it becomes

semi solid and loses its flow characteristics. In crude oil a high pour
point is generally associated with a highparaffin,or kerosene
content, typically found in crude deriving from a larger proportion

of plant material. That type of crude oil is mainly derived from

a kerogen Type II.

Gel

point

is

the

temperature

at

which diesel or biodiesel fuel freezes solid and can no longer flow by
gravity or be pumped through fuel lines. This phenomenon happens
when

fuel

reaches

low

enough

temperature

whereby

enough wax crystals have formed to prevent any movement in the

oil. For #2 diesel this is usually around 17.5 F (8.1 C).

For the fuel to become pumpable again, it needs to be brought

above the gel point temperature to the Ungel point, which is
typically near its pour point. However, most of the waxes will still
remain in solid form and the fuel has to be warmed up further until
its Remix temperature in order to completely remelt and redissolve
the waxes.

Anti-gel additives are

therefore

commonly

added

to

diesel

or

biodiesels where cold temperature is expected. They act to reduce

the formation of wax crystals in the fuel, thereby lowering the pour
point and the gel point of the fuel. Anti-gel additives may not
necessarily affect the cloud point.

The cloud point of a fluid is the temperature at which dissolved

solids are no longer completely soluble, precipitating as a second
phase giving the fluid a cloudy appearance. This term is relevant to
several applications with different consequences.
In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature
below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels form a cloudy
appearance. The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and
clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines. The wax also accumulates
on cold surfaces (e.g. pipeline or heat exchanger fouling) and forms
an emulsion with water. Therefore, cloud point indicates the
tendency of the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold operating
temperatures

The chemical composition of a mixture can be defined as the

distribution of the single substances that constitute the mixture
(called

"components").

In

other

words,

it

is

defined

giving

the concentration of each component.

Because there are different ways to define the concentration of a
component, as a consequence there are also different ways to define
the composition of a mixture. For example it can be expressed
as molar

fraction, volume

fraction, mass

fraction, molality, molarity or normality.

Molarity" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Molality.

In

chemistry,

the molar

the amount of a constituent

concentration,

is

also

concentration, amount
concentration,

or

defined

as

(usually measured in moles hence

the name) divided by the volume of the mixture

It

is

:[1]

called molarity, amount-of-substance

concentration, substance
simply concentration.

Whereas mole

fraction is a ratio of moles to moles, molar concentration is a

ratio of moles to volume. The volume

in the definition

refers to the volume of the solution, not the volume of the

solvent. One litre of a solution usually contains either slightly
more or slightly less than 1 liter of solvent because the process of
dissolution causes volume of liquid to increase or decrease
(discussed further at volume fraction).

In chemistry, the molality, b (or m), of a solution is defined as

the amount of substance (in mol) of solute,
the mass (in kg)

of

the solvent,

(not the

, divided by
mass

of

the

solution):[1]

The enthalpy of solution, enthalpy of dissolution, or heat of

solution is the enthalpy change associated with the dissolution of a
substance in a solvent at constant pressure resulting in infinite
dilution.

The enthalpy of solution is most often expressed in kJ/mol at

constant temperature. The energy change can be regarded as being
made of three parts, the endothermic breaking of bonds within the
solute and within the solvent, and the formation of attractions
between the solute and the solvent. An ideal solution has an
enthalpy of solution of zero. For a non-ideal solution it is an excess
molar quantity.

The enthalpy

of

mixing (also

called heat

of

mixing)

is

the heat that is taken up or released upon mixing of two (nonreacting) chemical substances. When the enthalpy of mixing is
positive, mixing is endothermic while negative enthalpy of mixing
signifies exothermic mixing.

In ideal

mixtures the

enthalpy

of

mixing is null. In non-ideal mixtures thethermodynamic activity of

each component is different from its concentration by multiplying
with the activity coefficient.
Chemical properties:

Enthalpy of reaction, defined as the enthalpy change observed

in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one mole of
substance reacts completely.

Enthalpy of formation, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one
mole of a compound is formed from its elementary antecedents.

Enthalpy of combustion, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one
mole of a substance burns completely with oxygen.

Enthalpy of hydrogenation, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one
mole of an unsaturated compound reacts completely with an
excess of hydrogen to form a saturated compound.

Enthalpy of atomization, defined as the enthalpy change

required to atomize one mole of compound completely.

Enthalpy of neutralization, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one
mole of water is formed when an acid and a base react.

Standard Enthalpy of solution, defined as the enthalpy change

observed in a constituent of a thermodynamic system when one
mole of a solute is dissolved completely in an excess of solvent, so
that the solution is at infinite dilution.

Standard enthalpy of Denaturation (biochemistry), defined as

the enthalpy change required to denature one mole of compound.

Enthalpy of hydration, defined as the enthalpy change

observed when one mole of gaseous ions are completely dissolved
in water forming one mole of aqueous ions.

Physical properties:

Enthalpy of fusion, defined as the enthalpy change required to

completely change the state of one mole of substance between
solid and liquid states.

Enthalpy of vaporization, defined as the enthalpy change

required to completely change the state of one mole of substance
between liquid and gaseous states.

Enthalpy of sublimation, defined as the enthalpy change

required to completely change the state of one mole of substance
between solid and gaseous states.

Lattice enthalpy, defined as the energy required to separate

one mole of an ionic compound into separated gaseous ions to an
infinite distance apart (meaning no force of attraction).

Enthalpy of mixing, defined as the enthalpy change upon

mixing of two (non-reacting) chemical substances.

Enthalpy is a defined thermodynamic potential, designated by the

letter "H", that consists of the internal energy of the system (U) plus
the product of pressure (p) and volume (V) of the system:[1]

Since enthalpy, H, consists of internal energy, U, plus the

product of pressure (p) and the volume (V) of the system, which
are all functions of the state of the thermodynamic system,
enthalpy is a state function.

Freezing-point depression describes the process in which adding

a solute to a solvent decreases the freezing point of the solvent.
Examples include salt in water, alcohol in water, or the mixing of
two solids such as impurities in a finely powdered drug. In the last
case, the added compound is the solute, and the original solid is
thought of as the solvent. The resulting solution or solid-solid
mixture has a lower freezing point than the pure solvent or solid

did. This phenomenon is what causes sea water, (a mixture of salt

(and other things) in water) to remain liquid at temperatures below
0 C (32 F), the freezing point of pure water.

In

chemistry, colligative

properties are

properties

of solutions that depend upon the ratio of the number of solute

particles to the number of solvent molecules in a solution, and
not on the type of chemical species present. [1] This number ratio
can be related to the various units for concentration of solutions.
Here we shall only consider those properties which result
because of the dissolution of nonvolatile solute in a volatile liquid
solvent.[2] They are independent of the nature of the solute
particles, and are due essentially to the dilution of the solvent by
the

solute.

The

word

colligative

is

derived

from

the

Latin colligatus meaning bound together.[3]

Solubility equilibrium is a type of dynamic equilibrium. It exists

when a chemical compound in the solid state is in chemical

equilibrium with a solution of that compound. The solid may

dissolve unchanged, with dissociation or with chemical reaction
with another constituent of the solvent, such as acid or alkali. Each
type

of

equilibrium

is

characterized

by

temperature-

dependent equilibrium constant. Solubility equilibria are important

in pharmaceutical, environmental and many other scenarios.

A solubility equilibrium exists when a chemical compound in the

solid

state

compound.

is

in chemical

The

equilibrium with

equilibrium

is

an

a solution of

example

that

of dynamic

equilibrium in that some individual molecules migrate between the

solid

and

solution

phases

such

that

the

rates

of dissolution and precipitation are equal to one another. When

equilibrium is established, the solution is said to be saturated.
The concentration of the solute in a saturated solution is known as
the solubility. Units of solubility may be molar (mol dm3) or

expressed as mass per unit volume, such as g ml1. Solubility is

temperature

dependent.

concentration

of

solute

solution

than

the

containing
solubility

a
is

higher
said

to

be supersaturated. A supersaturated solution may be induced to

come to equilibrium by the addition of a "seed" which may be a tiny
crystal of the solute, or a tiny solid particle, which initiates
precipitation.

Molar solubility is the number of moles of a substance (the solute)

that can be dissolved per liter of solution before the solution
becomes

saturated.

It

can

be

calculated

from

substance's solubility product constant (Ksp) and stoichiometry. The

units are mol/L, sometimes written as M.

Diesel engines can be run with a lean burn air-to-fuel ratio

(overstoichiometric ratio), to ensure the full combustion of soot and
to prevent the exhaust of unburnt fuel. The excess of oxygen
necessarily leads to generation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are
harmful pollutants, from the nitrogen in the air. Selective catalytic
reduction is used to reduce the amount of NOx released into the
atmosphere. Diesel exhaust fluid (from a separate DEF tank) is

injected into the exhaust pipeline, the aqueous urea vaporizes and
decomposes to form ammonia and carbon dioxide. Within the
SCR catalyst, the NOx are catalytically reduced by the ammonia
(NH3) into water (H2O) and nitrogen (N2), which are both harmless;
and these are then released through the exhaust. [3]

Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) is an emissions control liquid required

by modern diesel engines. It is injected into the exhaust stream.
DEF is never added to diesel fuel. It is a non-hazardous solution of
32.5% urea in 67.5% de-ionized water. DEF is clear and colorless,
and looks exactly like water. It has a slight smell of ammonia,
similar to some home cleaning agents. DEF is used in by Selective
Catalytic Reduction (SCR) technology to remove harmful NOx
emissions from diesel engines.
In January 2010, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
brought in new emissions standards requiring medium- and heavyduty vehicles to significantly reduce engine emissions, particularly
NOx and particulate matter (PM). Vehicle manufacturers use SCR to
meet these standards. DEF is sprayed into the exhaust, breaking
down NOx gases into nitrogen and water using an advanced catalyst
system. As a result most new diesel trucks, pickups, SUVs, and

vans are now fitted with SCR technology and have a DEF tank that
must be regularly refilled.

EPA set the emissions standards to improve air quality. NOx and PM
emissions are associated with a wide range of health problems
including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, aggravation of
asthma, acute respiratory symptoms, chronic bronchitis and
decreased lung function. The EPA estimates that the emission
standards will prevent 8,300 premature deaths, more than 9,500
hospitalizations and 1.5 million work days lost due to illness, saving
approximately $70.3 billion by 2030. But yet there is still the cost of
buying the Diesel Exhaust Fluid.

SCR is a so-called "aftertreatment" technology, which means that it

destroys

harmful

emissions

after

combustion.

This

gives

manufacturers greater scope to tune engines to improve fuel

efficiency and increase power. Owners of SCR vehicles enjoy greater
reliability and longer oil change intervals, which add up to
impressive operating cost savings over the life of the vehicle

A diluent (also

referred

to

as

a filler, dilutant or thinner)

is

a diluting agent. Certain fluids are too viscous to be pumped easily

or too dense to flow from one particular point to the other. This can
be problematic, because it might not be economically feasible to
transport such fluids in this state. To ease this restricted
movement, diluents are added. This decreases the viscosity of the
fluids, thereby also decreasing the pumping/transportation costs.
One

industrial

application

is

the

transport

of crude

oil via

pipelines. Heavy crude oil/bitumen are fluids with high viscosity,

especially at low temperatures. The addition of a diluent enables the
diluted fluid (dilbit in the case of bitumen) to meet pipeline
specifications in order for it to be efficiently transported. Typical
diluent in this case is naphtha orcondensate.

A dispersion is a system in which particles are dispersed in a

continuous phase of

different

composition

(or

state).

See

also emulsion. A dispersion is classified in a number of different

ways, including how large the particles are in relation to the
particles

of

the

continuous

phase,

whether

not precipitation occurs, and the presence of Brownian motion.

or

IUPAC definition
Material comprising more than one phase where at least one
of the phases consists of finely divided phase domains, often in the
colloidal size range, dispersed throughout a continuous phase.[1]
Note 1: Modification of definition in ref.[2]
There are three main types of dispersions:

Coarse dispersion (Suspension)

Colloid

Solution

The enthalpy of solution, enthalpy of dissolution, or heat of

solution is the enthalpy change associated with the dissolution of a
substance in a solvent at constant pressure resulting in infinite
dilution.

The enthalpy of solution is most often expressed in kJ/mol at

constant temperature. The energy change can be regarded as being

made of three parts, the endothermic breaking of bonds within the

solute and within the solvent, and the formation of attractions
between the solute and the solvent. An ideal solution has an
enthalpy of solution of zero. For a non-ideal solution it is an excess
molar quantity.

In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of

only

one phase.

In

such

mixture,

a solute is

substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent. The

solution more or less takes on the characteristics of the solvent
including its phase, and the solvent is commonly the major fraction
of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a solution is a
measure of how much of that solute is dissolved in the solvent.

The ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound is

called solubility. When a liquid can completely dissolve in another
liquid the two liquids are miscible. Two substances that can never
mix to form a solution are called immiscible.

All solutions have a positive entropy of mixing. The interactions

between different molecules or ions may be energetically favored or
not. If interactions are unfavorable, then thefree energy decreases
with increasing solute concentration. At some point the energy loss
outweighs the entropy gain, and no more solute particles can be
dissolved; the solution is said to be saturated. However, the point at
which a solution can become saturated can change significantly
with

different

environmental

factors,

such

as temperature, pressure, and contamination. For some solutesolvent combinations a supersaturated solution can be prepared by
raising the solubility (for example by increasing the temperature) to
dissolve more solute, and then lowering it (for example by cooling).
Usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a
given solid solute it can dissolve. However, most gases and some
compounds

exhibit

solubilities

that

decrease

with

increased

temperature. Such behavior is a result of an exothermic enthalpy of

solution. Some surfactants exhibit this behaviour. The solubility of
liquids in liquids is generally less temperature-sensitive than that of
solids or gases.

The fire point of a fuel is the temperature at which the vapour

produced by that given fuel will continue to burn for at least 5
seconds after ignition by an open flame. At the flash point, a lower
temperature, a substance will ignite briefly, but vapor might not be
produced at a rate to sustain the fire. Most tables of material
properties will only list material flash points, but in general the fire
points can be assumed to be about 10 C higher than the flash
points. However, this is no substitute for testing if the fire point is
safety critical. It is done by open cup apparatus.
The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is
the lowest temperature at which it will spontaneously ignite in a
normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as
a flame or spark. This temperature is required to supply
the activation energy needed for combustion. The temperature at
which a chemical will ignite decreases as the pressure or oxygen
concentration increases. It is usually applied to a combustible fuel
mixture.

Autoignition

temperatures

of

liquid

chemicals

are

typically

measured using a 500 mL flask placed in a temperature controlled

oven in accordance with the procedure described inASTM E659.[1]

Destructive

distillation is

the chemical

process involving

the decomposition of feedstock by heating to a high temperature;

the term generally applies to processing of organicmaterial in the
absence of air or in the presence of limited amounts of oxygen or
other reagents, catalysts, or solvents, such as steam or phenols. It
is

an

application

of pyrolysis.

The

process

breaks

up

or 'cracks' large molecules. Coke, coal gas, gas carbon, coal tar,
Buckministerfullerene, ammonia liquor, and "coal oil" historically,
are examples of commercial products of the destructive distillation
of coal.
Dry

distillation is

the heating of solid materials

to

produce gaseous products (which may condense into liquids or

solids). The method may not involve pyrolysis/thermolysis. The
products are condensed and collected. This method usually requires
higher temperatures than classical distillation. The method has
been used to obtain liquid fuels from coaland wood. It can also be
used

to

break

as sulfates through thermolysis,

down
in

this

mineral salts such

case

producing sulfur

dioxide/sulfur trioxide gas which can be dissolved in water to

obtain sulfuric acid. By this method sulfuric acid was first
identified and artificially produced.

Thermal

decomposition,

or thermolysis,

is

a chemical

decomposition caused by heat. The decomposition temperature of

a substance is the temperature at which the substance chemically
decomposes.

The

reaction

is

usually endothermic as

heat

is

required

to

break chemical bonds in the compound undergoing decomposition.

If decomposition is sufficiently exothermic, apositive feedback
loop is

created

producing thermal

runaway and

possibly

an

explosion.

In petroleum
whereby

geology and chemistry, cracking is

complex organic molecules such

the

process

as kerogens or

heavy hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules such

as light hydrocarbons, by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in
the precursors. The rate of cracking and the end products are
strongly dependent on thetemperature and presence of catalysts.
Cracking is the breakdown of a large alkane into smaller, more
useful alkanes and alkenes. Simply put, hydrocarbon cracking is

the process of breaking a long-chain of hydrocarbons into short

ones.

An oxidizing

agent (also oxidant, oxidizer or oxidiser)

is

the

element or compound in an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction

that accepts an electronfrom another species. Because the oxidizing
agent is gaining electrons (and is thus often called an electron
acceptor), it is said to have been reduced.
The oxidizing agent itself is reduced, as it is taking electrons onto
itself, but the reactant is oxidized by having its electrons taken away
by the oxidizing agent. Oxygen is the prime (and eponymous)
example among the varied types of oxidizing agents, but oxidisers
(e.g., chlorine trifluoride) do not necessarily donate or contain
oxygen.

Fusibility is the ease with which a material will melt. Materials

such as solder require a low melting point so that when heat is
applied to a joint, the solder will melt before the materials being

soldered melt, i.e. high fusibility. On the other hand, firebricks used
for furnace linings only melt at very high temperatures and so have
low fusibility. Materials that only melt at very high temperatures are
called refractorymaterials.

Heat capacity, or thermal capacity, is a measurable physical

quantity equal to the ratio of the heat added to (or subtracted from)
an object to the resulting temperature change.[1] The SI unit of heat
capacity

is joule per kelvin,

and

the dimensional

form is

M1L2T21.

A pyrophoric substance (from Greek

, pyrophoros, "firebearing") ignites spontaneously in air at or below 55C (130F).
[1]

Examples

are iron

sulfide and

many

reactive metals including uranium, when powdered or thinly sliced.

Pyrophoric materials are often water-reactive as well and will ignite
when they contact water or humid air. They can be handled safely
in atmospheres of argon or (with a few exceptions) nitrogen. Most

pyrophoric fires should be extinguished with a Class D fire

extinguisher for burning metals.

Organic

chemistry is

a chemistry subdiscipline

involving

the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions

of organic compounds andorganic materials, i.e., matter in its
various forms that contain carbon atoms.[1] Study of structure
includes using spectroscopy (e.g., NMR), mass spectrometry, and
other physical and chemical methods to determine the chemical
composition and constitution of organic compounds and materials.
Study of properties includes both physical properties and chemical
properties, and uses similar methods as well as methods to
evaluate chemical reactivity, with the aim to understand the
behavior of the organic matter in its pure form (when possible), but
also in solutions, mixtures, and fabricated forms. The study
of organic reactions includes probing their scope through use in
preparation

of

target

compounds

(e.g., natural

products, drugs,polymers, etc.) by chemical synthesis, as well as

the focused study of the reactivities of individual organic molecules,
both in the laboratory and via theoretical (in silico) study.

Catalysis is the increase in the rate of a chemical reaction due to

the participation of an additional substance called a catalyst.
[1]

With a catalyst, reactions occur faster and with less energy.

Because catalysts are not consumed, they are recycled. Often only
tiny amounts are required.

Cold filter plugging point (CFPP) is the lowest temperature,

expressed in degrees Celsius (C), at which a given volume
of diesel type

of fuel still

passes

through

standardized filtration device in a specified time when cooled under

certain conditions. This test gives an estimate for the lowest
temperature that a fuel will give trouble free flow in certain fuel
systems. This is important as in cold temperate countries, a high
cold filter plugging point will clog up vehicle engines more easily.

In cooking, the smoke point of an oil or fat is the temperature at

which, under defined conditions, enough volatile compounds
emerge from the oil that a bluish smoke becomes clearly visible. At
this temperature, volatile compounds, such as water, free fatty
acids, and short-chain degradation products of oxidation come up
from the oil. The smoke point is the temperature at which the oil is
decomposed and where possibly toxicological relevant compounds
are formed.
In chemistry, the standard molar entropy is the entropy content of
one mole of substance, under standard conditions (not standard
temperature and pressure STP).

The standard molar entropy is usually given the symbol S, and as

units

of joules per

mole kelvin (J

mol1 K1).

Unlike standard

enthalpies of formation, the value of S is an absolute. That is, an

element in its standard state has a nonzero value of S at room
temperature. The entropy of a pure crystalline structure can be 0 J
mol1 K1 only at 0 K, according to the third law of thermodynamics.
However, this presupposes that the material forms a 'perfect crystal'
without any frozen in entropy (defects, dislocations), which is never

completely

true

because

crystals

always

grow

at

finite

temperature. This residual entropy is often quite negligible.

In thermodynamics, entropy (usual symbol S) is a measure of the
number of specific ways in which a thermodynamic system may be
arranged,

commonly

understood

as

measure

of disorder.

According to the second law of thermodynamics the entropy of

anisolated

system never

decreases;

such

system

will

spontaneously evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium, the

configuration withmaximum entropy. Systems that are not isolated
may decrease in entropy, provided they increase the entropy of their
environment by at least that same amount. Since entropy is a state
function, the change in the entropy of a system is the same for any
process that goes from a given initial state to a given final state,
whether

the

process

is reversible or irreversible.

However

irreversible processes increase the combined entropy of the system

and its environment.

Lower flammability limit (LFL),[1] usually expressed in volume per

cent, is the lower end of the concentration range over which a
flammable mixture of gas or vapour in air can ignite at a given
temperature and pressure. The flammability range is delineated by
the upper and lower flammability limits. Outside this range of

air/vapor mixtures, the mixture will not ignite (unless the

temperature and pressure are increased). The LFL decreases with
increasing temperature; thus, a mixture that is below its LFL at a
given temperature may ignite if heated sufficiently. For liquids, the
LFL is typically close to the saturated vapor concentration at
the flash point, however, due to differences in the liquid properties,
the relationship of LFL to flash point (which is also dependent on
the test apparatus) is not fixed and some spread in the data usually
exists.

Minimum ignition energy (MIE) is the minimum amount of energy

required to ignite a combustible vapor, gas or dust cloud, for
example by means of an electrostatic discharge. Ignition of a
fuel/air mixture is possible only when the rate of liberation of heat
near the ignition zone is greater than the heat loss by conduction.
Heat loss due to radiation is not considered, as it is assumed to be
negligible, and the ignition process is assumed to be steady and
one-dimensional[clarification needed]. MIE is measured in joules.

flammability is

how

easily

something

will

burn

or

ignite,

causing fire or combustion. The degree of difficulty required to

cause the combustion of a substance is quantified through fire

testing. Internationally, a variety of test protocols exist to quantify
flammability. The ratings achieved are used in building codes,
insurance requirements, fire codes and other regulations governing
the use of building materials as well as the storage and handling of
highly flammable substances inside and outside of structures and
in

surface

and

air

transportation.

For

instance,

changing

an occupancy by altering the flammability of the contents requires

the owner of a building to apply for a building permit to make sure
that the overall fire protection design basis of the facility can take
the change into account.

Miscibility /msblti/ is the property of substances to mix in all

proportions, forming a homogeneous solution. The term is most
often

applied

to liquids,

but

applies

also

to

solids

and

gases. Water and ethanol, for example, are miscible because they
mix in all proportions.[1]
By contrast, substances are said to be immiscible if a significant
proportion does not form a solution. Otherwise, the substances are
considered miscible. For example, butanone is significantly soluble

in water, but these two solvents are not miscible because they are
not soluble in all proportions.

An emulsion is

a mixture of

two

or

more liquids that

are

normally immiscible (nonmixable or unblendable). Emulsions are

part

of

more

general

class

of matter called colloids.

of

two-phase

systems

Although

terms colloid and emulsion are

the

sometimes

used

interchangeably, emulsionshould be used when both the dispersed

and the continuous phase are liquids. In an emulsion, one liquid
(the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous
phase).

Examples

of

include vinaigrettes, milk, mayonnaise,

emulsions
and

some cutting

fluids for metal working.

A multiphasic

liquid is

a mixture consisting

of

more

than

two immiscible liquid phases. Biphasic mixtures consisting of two

immiscible phases are very common and usually consist of
an organic solvent and an aqueous phase ("oil and water").
Multiphasic

liquids

can

be

used

for

selective liquid-liquid

extractions or for decorative purposes, e.g. in cosmetics.

While

it

is

possible

to

get

multilayered

phases

by

layering nonpolar and aqueous phases of decreasing densities on

top of each other, these phases will not separate after mixing like
true multiphasic liquids.

A vapor (American

English

spelling)

or vapour (British)

is

substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical

point,[1]which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by
increasing its pressure without reducing the temperature.
For example, water has a critical temperature of 374 C (647 K),
which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist. In
theatmosphere at ordinary temperatures, therefore, gaseous water
(known as water vapor) will condense to liquid if its partial
pressure is increased sufficiently.
A vapor may co-exist with a liquid (or solid). When this is true, the
two phases will be in equilibrium, and the gas partial pressure will
equal the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).[1]
In thermodynamics,

the triple

point of

the temperature and pressure at

three phases (gas, liquid,

and solid)

substance

which
of

that

substance

is
the

coexist

in thermodynamic equilibrium.[1] For example, the triple point

of mercury occurs at a temperature of 38.8344 C and a pressure
of 0.2 mPa.
In addition to the triple point between solid, liquid, and gas, there
can be triple points involving more than one solid phase, for
substances with multiple polymorphs. Helium-4 is a special case
that presents a triple point involving two different fluid phases

True vapor pressure (TVP) is a common measure of the volatility of

petroleum distillate fuels. It is defined as the equilibrium partial
pressure exerted by a volatile organic liquid as a function of
temperature as determined by the test method ASTM D 2879. [1]
The true vapor pressure (TVP) at 100 F differs slightly from
the Reid vapor pressure (RVP) (per definition also at 100 F), as it
excludes dissolved fixed gases such as air.

Vapor

pressure or equilibrium

vapor

pressure is

defined

as

the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with

itscondensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in
a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of
a liquid'sevaporation rate. It relates to the tendency of particles to
escape from the liquid (or a solid). A substance with a high vapor
pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile.

A crude oil assay is essentially the chemical evaluation of crude

oil feedstocks by petroleum testing laboratories. Each crude oil type
has unique molecular, chemicalcharacteristics. No crude oil type is
identical and there are crucial differences in crude oil quality. The
results

of

crude

oil

assay

testing

provide

extensive

detailed hydrocarbonanalysis data for refiners, oil traders and

producers. Assay data help refineries determine if a crude oil
feedstock is compatible for a particular petroleum refinery or if the
crude oil could cause yield, quality, production, environmental and
other problems. "Crude Oil Assay". Intertek Worldwide. Retrieved
4/2/14.

The assay can be an inspection assay or comprehensive assay.

Testing can include crude oil characterization of whole crude oils
and the various boiling range fractions produced from physical or
simulated distillation by various procedures. Information obtained
from the petroleum assay is used for detailed refinery engineering
and client marketing purposes. Feedstock assay data are an
important tool in the refining process.

Octane rating or octane number is a standard measure of the

performance of an engine or aviation fuel. The higher the octane
number, the more compression the fuel can withstand before
detonating (igniting). In broad terms, fuels with a higher octane
rating are used in high performance petrol engines that require
higher compression ratios. In contrast, fuels with lower octane
numbers (but higher cetane numbers) are ideal for diesel engines,
because diesel engines (also referred to as compression-ignition
engines) do not compress the fuel but rather compress only air and
then inject the fuel into the air heated up by compression. Petrol
engines (also referred to as gasoline engines) rely on ignition of air
and fuel compressed together as a mixture without ignition, which
is then ignited at the end of the compression stroke using spark
plugs. Therefore, high compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for

petrol engines. Use of petrol (gasoline) with lower octane numbers

may lead to the problem of engine knocking.[1]
The tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is a unit of energy defined as the
amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil. It is
approximately 42 gigajoules, although as different crude oils have
different calorific values, the exact value is defined by convention;
several slightly different definitions exist. The toe is sometimes used
for large amounts of energy.

In a piston engine, the valve timing is the precise timing of the

opening and closing of the valves. In an internal combustion
engine these are usually poppet valves and in asteam engine they
are usually slide valves or piston valves.

The heat of combustion (

a

) is the energy released as heat when

compound

undergoes

complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions. The

chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon reacting with oxygen to
form carbon dioxide, water and heat. It may be expressed with the
quantities:

energy/mole of fuel (kJ/mol)

energy/mass of fuel

energy/volume of the fuel

The heat of combustion is conventionally measured with a bomb

calorimeter. It may also be calculated as the difference between
the heat of formation

of the products and reactants.

The compression

ratio of

an internal-combustion

engine or external combustion engine is a value that represents

the ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber from its largest
capacity to its smallest capacity. It is a fundamental specification
for many common combustion engines.
In a piston engine, it is the ratio between the volume of
the cylinder and

combustion

chamber

when

the piston is

at

the bottom of its stroke, and the volume of the combustion chamber
when the piston is at the top of its stroke.

An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into

useful mechanical
combustion

motion.[1][2] Heat

engines and external

engines,

including internal

combustion

engines (such

as steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat, which then creates

motion. Electric

motors convert

electrical

energy

into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air and

otherssuch
energy.

as clockwork

In

biological

motors in wind-up

toysuse elastic

systems, molecular

motors,

like myosins in muscles, usechemical energy to create motion.

The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a solid is the

temperature

at

which

it

changes state from solid to liquid at

atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid

phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance
depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure.
When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from
liquid

to

solid,

it

is

referred

to

as

the freezing

point or crystallization point. Because of the ability of some

substances to supercool, the freezing point is not considered as a
characteristic property of a substance. When the "characteristic
freezing point" of a substance is determined, in fact the actual
methodology is almost always "the principle of observing the

disappearance rather than the formation of ice", that is, the melting
point.[1]

The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a

substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used
for density is (the lower case Greek letter rho). Mathematically,
density is defined as mass divided by volume:

In cooking, the smoke point of an oil or fat is the temperature at

which, under defined conditions, enough volatile compounds
emerge from the oil that a bluish smoke becomes clearly visible. At
this temperature, volatile compounds, such as water, free fatty
acids, and short-chain degradation products of oxidation come up
from the oil. The smoke point is the temperature at which the oil is
decomposed and where possibly toxicological relevant compounds
are formed.
The smoke point for an oil varies widely depending on origin and
refinement.[1] The smoke point of an oil does tend to increase as free
fatty acid content decreases and degree of refinement increases. [2]
[3]

Heating the oil produces free fatty acid and as this heating time

increases, more free fatty acids are produced, thereby decreasing

smoke point. It is one reason not to use the same oil to deep fry

more than twice.[1] Intermittent frying has a markedly greater effect

on oil deterioration than continuous frying.[4]
Considerably above the temperature of the smoke point is the flash
point, the point at which the vapours from the oil can first ignite
when mixed with air.

The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is

the lowest temperature at which it will spontaneously ignite in a
normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as
a flame or spark. This temperature is required to supply
the activation energy needed for combustion. The temperature at
which a chemical will ignite decreases as the pressure or oxygen
concentration increases. It is usually applied to a combustible fuel
mixture. Autoignition temperatures of liquid chemicals are typically
measured using a 500 mL flask placed in a temperature controlled
oven in accordance with the procedure described in ASTM E659.

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which

the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding
the liquid[1][2] and the liquid changes into a vapor.

A liquid at high-pressure has a higher boiling point than when that

liquid is at atmospheric pressure. In other words, the boiling point
of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental
pressure. For a given pressure, different liquids boil at different
temperatures.

The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling

point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the
special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the
defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1atmosphere.[3][4] At that
temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to
overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form
inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point has been
defined by IUPACsince 1982 as the temperature at which boiling
occurs under a pressure of 1 bar
Combustibility is a measure of how easily a substance will set on
fire, through fire or combustion. This is an important property to
consider when a substance is used for construction or is being
stored. It is also important in processes that produce combustible
substances as a by-product. Special precautions are usually
required

for

substances

that

are

easily

combustible.

These

measures may include installation of fire sprinklers or storage

remote from possible sources of ignition.
Substances

with

low

combustibility

may

be

selected

for

construction where the fire risk needs to be reduced.Like apartment

buildings, houses,offices and so on. If combustible resources are
used there is greater chance of fire accidents and deaths. Fire
resistantsubstances are preferred for building materials and
furnishings.

Thermal energy is a term sometimes used to refer to the internal

energy

present

in

system

in

state

of thermodynamic

equilibriumby virtue of its temperature.[1] The average translational

kinetic energy possessed by free particles in a system of free
particles in thermodynamic equilibrium (as measured in the frame
of reference of the center of mass of that system) may also be
referred to as the thermal energy per particle

A temperature is a comparative objective measure of hot and cold.

The comparison is through detection of heat radiation, particle
velocity, kinetic energy, or most commonly, by the bulk behavior of

a thermometric material.

It

may

be calibrated in

any

of

varioustemperature scales, Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, etc.

The latent internal energy of a system is the internal energy a

system requires to undergo a phase transition. Its value is specific
to the substance or mix of substances in question. The value can
also vary with temperature and pressure. Generally speaking the
value is different for the type of phase change being accomplished.
Examples can include Latent internal energy of vaporization (liquid
to vapor), Latent internal energy of crystallization (liquid to solid)
Latent internal energy of sublimation (solid to vapor). These values
are usually expressed in units of energy per mass or per mole such
as J/mol or BTU/lb. Often a negative sign will be used to represent
energy being withdrawn from the system, while a positive value
represents energy being added to the system. However, reference
sources do vary so check the source to be sure.