Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Study Unit 2: History, Development and Value of Physical Education and Sport
Development of sport and physical education through the ages:
* Primitive society
* Ancient civilisations
* Middle Ages
* From the reform to Modern Times
* Modern era
Factors influencing sport in modern times:
Secularism. Sport is far less linked to religious beliefs and religious rituals than it was in
earlier times. Material values play a more important role.
Equality for all. Now there is a need for all to take part in sport. Men and women and people of
all classes have equal opportunities to participate.
Specialisation. Increasingly specialised sporting equipment and training methods are being
introduced. Athletes start to specialise at a very early age.
Rationalisation and rules. Sport is controlled and regulated by rules and strategies.
Unfortunately children's games are dominated by the rules for adults.
Bureaucratisation. Modern sport has become a complex structure with formal organisations at
three levels: national, regional and local.
Qualifications. Measurements and statistics are common aspects related to modern sport. All
events are recorded according to time, distance and score.
Records. Considerable emphasis is placed on setting up and breaking records. The
overemphasis on winning has caused many athletes to stop participating at an early age.
Other factors
Joints - form the junctions between the bones used for movement.
Bones - support, protect and help the body perform any muscular movement.
Muscles - muscular movement goes on all the time --- for breathing, moving and standing.
Nervous system - carries signals from the brain --- the nervous system includes brain, spinal
cord, and many other nerves that branch off the spinal cord.
Cells: The building blocks of life
Functions: - carry msgs (nerve cells carry electrical msgs)
- carry chemicals (red cells in blood O2 around the body)
- support the body (bone cells make up skeleton)
- move the body (muscle cells can create force)
Skeleton
3 Main functions:
- support
- protection
- movement
Defn: A skeleton is a system of bones and other supporting material that is found inside our
bodies.
(1) Support.
(2) Protection.
(3) Movement.
The skeleton supports the rest of the body, like the framework of a
building. Without this a human being would be a shapeless lump.
The skeleton protects important and delicate organs of the body; for
example the skull protects the brain.
The skeleton provides anchorage for muscles. Muscles that are fixed to
the skeleton can operate joints. We can move the body as a whole and
also move parts of the body with a high degree of precision and control.
Bones
- Living & non-living parts
- living parts make the bone
slightly flexible and let it absorb
sudden shocks.
- nonliving part of a bone makes
it rigid and gives it strength
* Bones act as a system of levers
* not actually joined; instead they fit
closely together, forming joints.
Joints
- form the junctions between bones
- bones at each joint are linked by tough, flexible ligaments
- Ligaments are strong fibrous straps that will not return to their original shape once they have
been damaged or stretched.
- different joints between the bones allow you to move in different ways.
- Each joint therefore allows a different sort of movement.
Muscles and Tendons
* The muscle used to control movements consists of bundles of long, thin cells called muscle
fibres. Each bundle of fibre is held together by a tough sheath.
* All the connecting sheaths join together at the end of each muscle, forming the tendons
which anchor the muscle to the bone.
The fast twitch muscle fibre is like the engine of a racing car. It produces high-speed
movement for short periods of time.
The slow twitch fibre produces less power and speed but can operate for much longer
periods.
Tendons are connecting sheaths joined together at the end of each muscle from tendons.
They are made up of strong tissue.
Nervous system
* The nervous impulse is
an electrical signal carried
by the nerve cells.
* The nervous system is a
whole network that includes
the brain, spinal cord and the
many nerves that branch off the
spinal cord to all parts of the body.
posture. This has to do with the alignment of the body segments. In other words, how well the
child can keep his or her body erect and balanced.
Problem
Kyphosis
Description
Correction
Round upper back is a marked increase in the curve Exercises for the head and neck
position:
of the back.
Lordosis
Scoliosis
. head pull
. head turns
. heck flattener
. head lift
Exercise for round shoulders:
. hanging
. pull-ups
. push-ups
. arm rotators
. wall push
. head and arm raisers
Exercises for the lower back:
. cat stretcher
. trunk stretcher
. back arch
Exercises for abdominal muscles:
. curl-ups
. elbow-knee touch
. hip raisers
Exercises for functional scoliosis:
. hanging
. side stretch
Exercises for the lower back:
. cat stretcher
. trunk stretcher
. back arch
2.
3.
The side and rear view plumbline test and posture charts are used to evaluate posture.
Both serve as basic screening devices. The physical educator can pick up any major
changes in a learners posture.
The view from the side: take a line through the middle of ear and shoulder joint, slightly in
front of anklebone.
Back view: Through middle of head, vertebra and middle of buttocks, and equidistant
between heels.
the change in body size that results from more and bigger body cells and more
intercellular material.
Development - change in a learner's level of functioning. changes in the functional level in a
behavioural sense.
Maturation - changes which occur in the body over a period of time.
Experience - vast number of opportunities a learner has to learn to move.
Period of childhood to adolescence divided into categories based on certain age groups:
Infancy is from birth to one year.
Childhood is from one year to adolescence and is divided into early childhood (the preschool
years) and middle childhood (the elementary school years).
Adolescence starts at sexual maturity. For girls this is between ages 8 and 19, most
commonly around 11 and 12. For boys, the age is from 10 to 22 years, but most commonly
around 13 and 14 years.
Growth Spurt = rapid increase in growth
----- Body size
Phys. Development
----- Body Proportions
Mini-Tennis
Decrease area --- use half the court.
Use smaller rackets or use bats.
Use softer balls if possible.
Allow for double bounce at first.
Enlarge the area, use the tram lines.
Basketball
Use a smaller ball.
Eliminate zone defences.
Use a shorter distance to the basket from the foul line.
Eliminate the concept of five members per team.
Lower the basket's height.
Eliminate certain violations (eg 3-second count, 5-second jump ball).
Soccer
Use a smaller ball, perhaps a number two or three.
Use a smaller playing area so that learners have the opportunity to touch the ball more often during play.
Use smaller goals and scrap the position of goalkeeper.
Reduce the number of players in a team in order to emphasise teamwork.
Eliminate the off-side rule.
The following adaptations are made to suit the needs of the child:
Modify techniques.
Adapt and use equipment and tools of suitable size and weight.
Modify rules to help learning and performance.
The implications of modified sport for the coach.
Keep the rules to the minimum.
Keep competitions informal until the age of 12 years.
Avoid involving children in adult competitiveness before they are ready.
Refrain from putting pressure on the learner to win at all costs.
Reward learners for their efforts.
Adapt the sport to suit the child.
Use equipment of appropriate weight and size.
Modify rules to improve learning.
Use smaller groups when possible.
Try to be creative when solving problems.
Make allowances for natural energy combined with a shorter attention span
scale down the playing field as a way of increasing the amount of activity in the time available.
do not make unnecessary allowances or lower your standards
Progress is measured by the improvement in a learner's responses, skills level, and in participation and
enjoyment.
General Considerations:
o
o
o
Sensory disabilities:
Deaf and hearing impaired
o hearing impairment may experience balance problems
o main problem is with communication.
o Initially learning is slow because of communication difficulty - no lack of intelligence.
o Once the idea or concept grasped - rate of learning is generally normal
o use demonstrations and develop key signals and cues (a flag, or a tap on the shoulder)
Blind and visually impaired:
degrees of visual impairment
from perception of light and shadow and colour, with some peripheral vision, to total blindness
pointers will help you coach a blind or visually impaired athlete:
- Identify yourself and introduce the athletes to others present.
- Tell them when you are leaving. No one likes talking to thin air.
- Familiarise them with obstacles in the training and the competition areas.
- Describe technique and correct technique in an articulate and imaginative way.
- Visually impaired people are not deaf do not shout.
- Demonstrate all techniques individually; if necessary break down complex movements into
manageable parts.
- Always correct style manually. But do not push or prod, or grab them unexpectedly.
- A buddy system may be helpful for exercising.
- Give constant feedback on progress in any activity or game.
- Some games or sports may require acoustic signalling to communicate direction or distance.
- Educators must develop and use keywords, for example communicating direction by referring to the
hands on the clock (eg ``three o'clock'').
Intellectual Disabilities:
generally respond to logical, sequential physical activity programmes.
important requirements apply to the education of learners with intellectual disabilities:
- Give instructions slowly and sequentially and express them in a concrete, physical form.
- Use simple, familiar imagery to get your message across.
- Be prepared to teach basic movement patterns and skills, in the event of developmental delays.
- Keep practice time on specific activities brief to prevent loss of concentration and boredom.
- Divide skills training into smaller manageable parts.
- Review and repeat skills training, drills and games in many different ways.
- Move the learner through the desired motion when teaching new skills.
- Demonstrate in a way that the learner can follow.
- Praise good efforts immediately and spontaneously.
- Motivate with the appropriate devices for example use award schemes or present medals.
- Encourage learners to compete against themselves.
Key principles of communication which are specific to teaching learners with sensory and intellectual
disabilities
Sensory
Demonstrate all skills.
Develop key signals.
Tap on shoulders.
Change methods of class attention.
Tell the athlete when you are leaving.
Visually impaired people are not deaf.
Demonstrate all techniques individually.
Intellectual
Breakdown skills into smaller parts.
Teach the basic movements.
Keep instructions slow and sequential.
Keep practice time focused on a specific action.
Physical disabilities:
need to understand the basic principles of coaching learners with a physical disability,
e.g.: amputees, wheelchair-bound or cerebral palsied
same warm-up, stretching and similar activity programmes and cool-down exercises as
used for able-bodied learnersActivities should maximise the learner's functional potential.
Amputees:
require the least attention of the major disabled groups. They will already
be well adjusted to their condition and able to suggest how activities can be modified to
suit their circumstances.
Hints for the educator
Be prepared to modify skills and techniques to accommodate individual strengths.
Consider the learner's starting balance and the need to transfer weight during movement.
Keep all landing areas safe.
Identify safe methods for landing and spreading weight load.
Adopt a ``whole body'' approach to activities and exercising. Imbalances may lead to poor
biomechanics and increase risk of injury.
Learners using wheel chairs:
due to injury to the spinal cord through trauma, polio or spinal bifida.
Hints for the educator
Check on easy wheelchair access to your venue.
Know which muscle groups are useable for specific movements.
Strengthen muscles wherever possible. Paraplegics need very strong arms, so focus on developing
these muscles.
Find ways to build fitness and drilling skills but do not over-use the upper body.
Severe spinal cord injury impairs ability to regulate body temperature. So be sure that affected learners
get enough to drink and can cool down in hot conditions. You may need to take breaks during a lesson.
In learners with spinal cord injury in the neck area the heart rate does not rise with intensified activity.
So log time and distance to monitor improvements in fitness.
Ensure that learners maintain their wheelchairs in top condition.
Cerebral-palsied learners:
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a congenital neuromuscular condition caused by injury to the brain before,
during or immediately after birth.
characterised by a lack of coordination in certain parts of the body.
Abnormal reflex activity and muscle tone, perceptual-motor problems, visual dysfunction, learning
disabilities, and other soft signs of neurological damage.
Development levels:
Development stages are seen as approximate time periods from early childhood in which learners assimilate
psychomotor, cognitive and affective concepts, and gain certain skills and understandings.
class size
time allocation
scheduling
assistance
Energy Balance:
- typical growing adolescent - 2 500 calories of energy per day for basic energy requirements
- additional 500 calories for a training session
- athlete's diet that does not include sufficient calories cause a reduction in performance.
- excess intake of calories stored in the body as fatty tissue.
- energy balance to ensure successful training and competition
Nutrients:
-
Food is made up of different things which are essential to the body's functioning nutrients
different jobs to perform in the body
o protein
o carbohydrate
o fat
o vitamins
o minerals
o water
o fibre
Proteins:
Growth and repair food
-
Until the age of 18 the body makes new cells in order to grow
cells wear out and are replaced again.
material for cells comes from food
main body-building nutrients
needed to repair any damaged tissue, and also for a regular protein intake.
consist of building blocks called amino acids - 21 types of amino acid - combine in different ways to make up
proteins
Proteins are broken up into amino acids.
All but eight made up inside the human body essential amino acids
High-quality proteins generally animal proteins such as egg protein, milk protein, fish and meat protein
Lower-quality protein is food in plants such as nuts, lentils and beans.
Athletes in training need extra protein to create muscle tissue.
increased need for extra calories and extra protein eating more food.
Any extra amount eaten - body does not use - converted for use as an energy source or stored as body fat.
Carbohydrates:
Energy food
-
Fat:
Slow energy food
-
Vitamins:
-
Minerals:
-
basic elements which are to be found in the soil and in the air.
Only small amounts are needed daily
Incl. calcium, sodium, potassium, iron and iodine
essential for the proper functioning of nerves and muscles and to help build the body (bones, teeth, skin and
muscle).
Iron is essential for the transportation of oxygen in the body.
Women in particular need more iron in their diet.
Red meats are rich in iron
Other sources: dates, prunes, apricots, raisins and most beans.
Iodine helps to control the rate at which energy is released from the blood
Shortage causes the thyroid gland in the neck to swell up.
Sources: Fish and seafood
Water:
-
Fibre:
-
Nutrient Balance:
* like energy balance
- All the nutrients taken in the correct amounts will ensure a balance in the energy level.
Weight control:
-
Balanced diet:
A balanced diet maintains the individual's energy balance and nutrient balance.
Guidelines for maintaining a balanced diet
(1) Eat lots of different kinds of food, vegetables, fruits, fish, meats, dairy produce and grains.
(2) Eat fresh food rather than frozen or canned.
(3) Eat high proportions of carbohydrate-rich foods.
(4) Grill, steam or bake foods. Avoid boiling and frying.
(5) Avoid fatty meals and sweet or salty snacks.
(6) Check your fibre intake. Eat wholemeal breads, cereals and pasta. Avoid eating refined foods.
(7) Flavour foods with herbs and spices rather than salt.
(8) Drink small amounts of water and fruit juices often.
Nutritional neglect:
-
Children and adolescents - are possibly the most nutritionally neglected groups participating in modern sport.
accepted practice at sports meetings - supply sweets, chips and cool drinks.
nutritional needs of children and adolescents - among highest of any group - combined demands of sport and
of growth and development.
influences of bad eating habits often go unnoticed by parents, coaches and educators.
Poor concentration, falling asleep in class, irritability, short-temper or declining sports performance often
dismissed as simply part of a busy learners' lifestyle -symptoms can often be attributed to a poor diet.
encouragement given to learners to improve their sporting skill as well as to enjoy sport and competition\
few people seem at all concerned about their eating behaviours
Proper planning is needed to avoid poor eating habits at sports venues.
Make nutritious snack foods and drinks a part of the sport equipment
Reinforce good eating habits
Change habits
Advice on nutrition
Recommended
Vegetables, Fruit Fish
Fresh food
High proportions of Carbo
Grill steam or bake
Wholewheat bread, cereal, pasta
Not recommended
Fatty food
Fried food
Chocolate
Sweets
Chips
warm soup
fruit juices
fresh fruit
Types of drugs
Egs
Effects
Narcotics analgesics:
Anti-inflammatories:
Non-narcotic analgesics:
STIMULANTS
-
NARCOTIC ANALGESICS
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ANABOLIC STEROIDS
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DIURETICS
-
used mainly for rapid weight loss especially in sports where weight categories are involved
used to dilute the concentration of drugs in urine by producing more rapid excretion in an attempt to reduce
the possibility of detecting banned substances in the urine.
attempt both to deliberately reduce weight artificially to get a participant into a lower weight category
to dilute forbidden substances in the urine
definitely manipulates the rules and compromises sporting ethics
SOCIAL DRUGS
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alcohol or tobacco.
side effects are far from socially desirable
Cigarette smoke contains tar which is the major cause of cancer - collects in lungs nicotine - very harmful to
the heart, blood vessels and nervous system
gases in tobacco smoke damage the small hairs lining the bronchial tubes, which prevents them from
removing the dust and other particles from the lungs. The result is that the air cells in the lungs become
clogged and prevent efficient breathing.
Alcohol - fairly harmless if taken in reasonable quantities
danger arises when an individual becomes dependent on it
Drinking and sport are often linked: players discuss a game over a drink; some use alcohol to calm their
nerves
drink and top sports performance do not go together
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Warm ups
Stretching
Cool-downs
Fitness - good conditioning
Obedience to the rules
Playing areas and facilities
Spectators
Protective devices
Environmental conditions
Proper management of injuries
Illness and participation
Medical conditions and participation
Balanced competitions
Common sense
Injury Management:
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STOP assess severity of injury and determine whether player should continue or not.
RICER treat minor injuries
Coach know how to treat injured athlete & deal with recovery from injury
Recovery process lengthly if precautions not taken to avoid further damage
RICER:
2 SERIOUS INJURIES
4 OVERUSE INJURIES