Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

Lecture 7

Liquid Penetrant Testing

Fundamentals

MEC 4867
Dr. Meftah Hrairi

Outline

Introduction

Principles

Materials

Project discussion

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

Introduction

Penetrant testing (PT) is one of the most widely used

nondestructive testing methods for the detection of surface
discontinuities (such as cracks, laps and folds) in nonporous
solid materials:

Dr. M. Hrairi

most commonly used surface NDT method today because it can be applied
to virtually any magnetic or nonmagnetic material (complementary to MT).
provides industry with a wide range of sensitivities and techniques that
make it especially adaptable to a broad range of sizes and shapes.
useful for examinations that are conducted in remote field locations, since it
is extremely portable.
appropriate in a production type environment where many smaller parts can
be processed in a relatively short period of time.
builds on the principle of Visual Inspection.
increases the seeability of small discontinuities that the human eye might
not be able to detect alone.

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

How Does PT Work ?

In penetrant testing, a liquid with high surface wetting

characteristics is applied to the surface of a component
under test.

The penetrant penetrates into surface breaking

discontinuities via capillary action and other mechanisms.

Excess penetrant is removed from the surface and a

developer is applied to pull trapped penetrant back to the
surface.

With good inspection technique, visual

indications of any discontinuities
present become apparent.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

Basic Process of PT
1) Clean & Dry Component
2) Apply Penetrant

4) Apply Developer

3) Remove Excess

5) Visual Inspection

6) Post Clean Component

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

What Makes PT Work ?

Every step of the penetrant process is done to promote

capillary action.

This is the phenomenon of a liquid rising or climbing when

confined to small openings due to surface wetting
properties of the liquid.

Some examples:
Plants and trees draw water up
from the ground to their branches
and leaves to supply their
nourishment.
The human body has miles of
capillaries that carry life sustaining
blood to our entire body.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

What Types of Discontinuities can be Detected via PT ?

All defects that are open to the surface.

Rolled products-- cracks,
seams, laminations.
Castings-- cold shuts, hot
tears, porosity, blow holes,
shrinkage.
Forgings-- cracks, laps,
external bursts.
Welds-- cracks, porosity,
undercut, overlap, lack of
fusion, lack of penetration.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

What can be Inspected via PT ?

Almost any material that

has a relatively smooth,
nonporous surface
on which discontinuities
or defects are suspected.

PT can be used on any

material which has a
non-absorbent surface.

PT is generally found to be more sensitive than Xradiography or ultrasonics for fine surface cracks.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

What can NOT be Inspected via PT ?

Components with rough surfaces,

such as sand castings, that trap
and hold penetrant.

Porous ceramics

Wood and other fibrous materials.

Plastic parts that absorb or react

with the penetrant materials.

Components with coating

that prevent penetrants
from entering defects.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

Defect indications
become less
distinguishable as
the background
noise level
increases.

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Choices of Penetrant Materials

Penetrant

Type
I - Fluorescent

II - Visible

Remover

Removal Method
A Water Washable

B Post-emulsifiable, Lipophilic
C Solvent Removable
D Post-emulsifiable, Hydrophilic

Developer

Form
Dry Powder
Wet, Water Soluble

Wet, Water Suspendable

Wet, Non-Aqueous
Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Material

Penetrants are formulated to possess a number of important

characteristics. To perform well, a penetrant must:
Spread easily over the surface being inspected.
Be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action or other
mechanisms.
Remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the part.
Remain fluid through the drying and developing steps so it can be drawn
back to the surface.
Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
Not be harmful to the inspector or to the material being tested.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Materials

The characteristics of a good penetrant liquid are therefore

related to its surface tension, density and wetting properties
rather than viscosity.

Penetrants are solutions of colored or fluorescent dyes in

oil-based liquids.

Penetrants can be classified as:

Dr. M. Hrairi

Fluorescent
visible dye

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetration of a Liquid into a Crack

Penetrant materials are often pulled into surface breaking defects by

capillary action.

The capillary force F driving the penetrant into the crack is a function of
the surface tension of the liquid-gas interface, the contact angle, and the
size of the defect opening:

F = 2 r LV cos
r = radius of the crack opening (2 r is the line of contact between the
liquid and the solid tubular surface.)
LV = liquid-gas surface tension

= contact angle

LV

Vapor

The capillary force balances

the weight of the liquid so that

h = 2 LV cos / r g
Dr. M. Hrairi

SV

SL

Solid

2r

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Sensitivity Levels

Penetrants are also formulated to produce a variety of

sensitivity levels. The higher the sensitivity level, the
smaller the defect that the penetrant system is capable of
detecting.

The five sensitivity levels are:

Level - Ultra Low Sensitivity
Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
Level 3 - High Sensitivity
Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity

As the sensitivity level increases, so does the number of

nonrelevent indications. Therefore, a penetrant needs to be
selected that will find the defects of interest but not produce
too many nonrelevent indications.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Visible vs Fluorescent PT

Inspection can be performed using

visible (or red dye) or fluorescent
penetrant materials.

Visible PT is performed under white

light. All are in the level 1 sensitivity
range.

Fluorescent PT must be performed

using an ultraviolet light in a darkened
area.
Fluorescent PT is more sensitive than
visible PT because the eye is more
sensitive to a bright indication on a
dark background.
Sensitivity ranges from 1 to 4.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Removal Method

The excess penetrant can be removed in four different

ways
1.
2.
3.
4.

Dr. M. Hrairi

by water only
by emulsifier which is oil soluble (lipophilic), followed by water.
by a liquid solvent
by water, followed by a penetrant removal solution (detergent) which is
water soluble (hydrophilic), followed by water.

MEC4867- Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Removal Method

Penetrants are also classified by the method of removing the

excess penetrant.

Water Washable penetrants are removed with a

course spray of water. They are the easiest to

employ and most cost effective when inspecting
large areas.
Solvent Removable penetrants are removed by
wiping with a cloth dampened with solvent. They
are supplied in aerosol cans for portability and are
primarily used for spot checks.
Post-Emulsifiable penetrants are water washable
only after they have reacted with an
emulsifier solution. A post-emulsifiable system is
used when washing the penetrant out of the defect
is a concern. The emulsifier is given time to react
with the penetrant on the surface but not the
penetrant trapped in the flaw.
Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Developers

The role of the developer is to pull trapped

penetrant out of defects and to spread it out
on the surface so that it can be seen.
Also provides a light background to increase
contrast when visible penetrant is used.

Developer materials are available in several different forms

Dr. M. Hrairi

Dry Powder is a mix of light fluffy powder that clumps together where penetrant
bleeds back to the surface to produces very defined indications.
Wet, Water Suspendable is a powder that is suspended in a water that covers the
surface with a relatively uniform layer of developer when the water is evaporated.
The solution is somewhat difficult to maintain as the powder settles out over time.
Wet, Water Soluble is a crystalline powder that forms a clear solution when
mixed with water. The solution recrystallizes on the surface when the water
is driven off. Indications sometimes lack definition and look milky. Not
recommended for use with water-washable penetrants.
Wet, Non-Aqueous - is supplied in a spray can and is the most sensitive
developer for inspecting small areas. It is too costly and difficult to apply to
large areas.
MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Inspection System

Penetrant systems can therefore be classified as:

1.
2.
3.

The appropriate process to be used on any specific

application is based on:
1
2
3
4
5

Dr. M. Hrairi

water-washable
post-emulsifiable (i.e. the excess penetrant is emulsified for removal)
solvent-removable

The flaw sensitivity required.

The surface finish of the component.
The compatibility of the materials with the component.
The size, shape and accessibility of the region to be inspected.
The ultimate use of the component.

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Inspection System

Water-removal processes are more suitable for routine highvolume production inspection.

For maximum sensitivity, post-emulsifier fluorescent penetrants

with a hydrophilic solution remover are generally preferred.

Often, the final choice of a penetrant system is made in terms of

the most suitable penetrant remover related to surface finish,
compatibility, flash point, etc.

Some aerospace companies have compared penetrant materials

and systems by producing a series of similarly cracked
specimens, such as ex-service turbine blades with leading-edge
cracks.

The results of comparisons of different processes on these are

valuable at the time of the test, but rapidly become out-of-date as
newer penetrant materials are marketed.

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Inspection System

Equipment available can be divided into three types, as

follows:
1.

2.

3.

Portable kits are used for carrying out inspection of small areas, for use
on site; these often contain the materials to be used in aerosol form.
Fixed installations are used for testing components on a continuous basis,
with a series of processing stations in sequential order to form a flow line.
Increasingly, these are being automated to provide automatic component
handling and timing.
Self-contained processing booths are used for testing large components
which cannot be moved during testing.

Portable Penetrant System

Dr. M. Hrairi

Stationary Penetrant System

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Verification of Penetrant System Performance

Since penetrant testing

involves multiple
processing steps, the
performance of the
materials and the
processes should be
routinely checked using
performance verification
tools, which include:
TAM Panels
Crack Sensitivity Panels
Run Check Panels

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Technique Classification Summary

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Technique Classification Summary

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Penetrant Technique Classification Summary

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Project Discussion

Dr. M. Hrairi

MEC4867 - Nondestructive Evaluation of Structures

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Next Topics
Liquid penetrant

Further Readings
Handouts:
Liquid penetrant

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