Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo

Sta. Cruz Atizapan: a 22-ka lake level record and climatic

implications for the late Holocene human occupation in the
Upper Lerma Basin, Central Mexico
Margarita Caballero a; , Beatriz Ortega a , Francisco Valadez b ,
Sarah Metcalfe c , Jose Luis Macias a , Yoko Sugiura d
a

Instituto de Geof|sica, UNAM, Coyoacan 04510, Mexico D.F., Mexico

Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM, Coyoacan 04510, Mexico D.F., Mexico
c
Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XP, UK
Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, UNAM, Coyoacan 04510, Mexico D.F., Mexico
b

Received 23 July 2001; received in revised form 15 July 2002; accepted 24 July 2002

Abstract
The Upper Lerma is a high altitude basin with three water bodies linked by the Lerma River. This basin has a
long archaeological history, characterised by the establishment of settlements within the lacustrine ecosystem itself
(man-made islands) during the late Classic to Epiclassic (AD 550^900), which were abandoned by the end of the
Epiclassic. The Upper Lerma is an ideal site to study climatic and environmental conditions during the period of
human occupation, as well as during the last full-glacial/interglacial cycle. Two sediment cores (STCRZ: 9.54 m and
Almoloya del R|o: 5.12 m) were recovered from the highest lake in the system (Chignahuapan). Ten radiocarbon
dates provide chronologies for these sequences in which the Tres Cruces Tephra (c. 8500 yr BP) and the Upper Toluca
Pumice (c. 11 600 yr BP) serve as stratigraphic markers. Magnetic properties, loss on ignition, and diatom analyses
were used to infer lake level fluctuations during the last c. 22 000 yr BP. The Late Pleistocene environment was
characterised by a freshwater lake. High sediment input and variable lake levels are recorded during the Last Glacial
Maximum (c. 19 000^16 000 yr BP), while slightly higher water levels and reduced sediment input are recorded during
the Late Glacial (c. 16 000^11 000 yr BP). A short episode of shallow conditions is inferred by c. 12 400 yr BP.
Holocene lake levels were generally shallower, and three episodes of very shallow, slightly alkaline waters are
identified. The first dates to the early Holocene (c. 11 000^7000 yr BP). The second is centred at c. 4600/4500 yr BP.
The third occurred between c. 2000 (?) and 800 yr BP (c. 200 BC^AD 1100, calibrated ages) with very shallow water
after c. 1400 yr BP (AD 550, calibrated age). Lake level increased after c. 800 yr BP. These three shallow water events
are also recorded at other sites in Central Mexico indicating regional climatic trends rather than local events. A deeper
water phase occurred between 7000 and 6400/6200 yr BP. The last shallow water phase correlates with the Classic and
Epiclassic periods (AD 200^900), and shallowest conditions occurred in the late Classic to Epiclassic (c. AD 550^900),
when the construction of man-made islands reached a peak. An increase in lake level after c. 800 yr BP (AD 1100
calibrated age) may have led to the abandonment of this life strategy.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

* Corresponding author. Fax: +52-55-55509395.

E-mail address: maga@tonatiuh.igeofcu.unam.mx (M. Caballero).

0031-0182 / 02 / $ ^ see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 1 - 0 1 8 2 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 5 0 2 - 3

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

218

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

Keywords: palaeolimnology; palaeoclimatology; archaeology; Mexico; Quaternary; Late Pleistocene; Holocene; diatoms; magnetic
properties

1. Introduction
Palaeoenvironmental research in Central Mexico started in the 1940s (Deevey, 1944; Sears,
1952) with the main objective of inferring climatic
conditions during the developmental stages of the
great Mesoamerican cultures. Later work focused
on climatic change during the last glacial/interglacial cycle. Over the last decade, diatom, pollen,
ostracod, rock-magnetism, geochemistry, tephrochronology and palaeosol records have been published (Metcalfe et al., 1991; OHara et al., 1993;
Lozano et al., 1993; Caballero and Ortega, 1998;
Newton and Metcalfe, 1999; Bridgwater et al.,
1999; Caballero et al., 1999; Bradbury, 2000; Ortega Guerrero et al., 2000; Sedov et al., 2001).
Few sites, however, have a continuous record covering the last c. 20 000 yr, i.e. the last full-glacial/
interglacial cycle, or display sucient preservation
and resolution for the late Holocene sediments to
allow clear correlation with the archaeological
record.
Many records for Central Mexico come from
the Basin of Mexico. Due to urban development
and the explosive demographic increase in this
area, many sites where correlation between archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records
might have been possible have been destroyed or
buried under urban infrastructure. The nearby,
less disturbed, Upper Lerma Basin is therefore
an ideal site to study climatic and environmental
conditions during the period of human occupation, as well as during the last full-glacial/interglacial cycle. In the Upper Lerma Basin, archaeological studies indicate a long and uninterrupted
occupational history, which began as early as
3500 yr BP (Sugiura, 1992, 2000). The late Classic
to Epiclassic (AD 550^900), however, was characterised by the establishment of man-made islands
within the lake, that were abandoned by the end
of the Epiclassic (c. AD 900). Natural variations
in water levels undoubtedly inuenced this living
strategy. In this paper we present an integrated
view of the palaeolimnological evolution of Lake

Chignahuapan, in the Upper Lerma (Fig. 1), from

the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene, and
emphasise possible correlations with the archaeological record, particularly at the end of the Classic period.

2. The study area

2.1. General setting
The Upper Lerma Basin (1910PN, 9932PW;
2570 m a.s.l.) is the source of the longest river
in Mexico, the Lerma. It is bounded to the east,
south and west by volcanic Sierras of Pliocene to
Holocene age and by smaller hills to the north,
through which the Lerma river ows out of the
basin. The area has a tropical, high altitude climate (Cw2 ), with a summer rainy season (c. 1000
mm/yr, INEGI, 1980). Due to its high altitude,
frost is common during winter but summer temperatures can be as high as 27C.
There are three water bodies, connected by the
Lerma River, from south to north: Chignahuapan, Lerma and Chiconahuapan (Fig. 1). Here
we present palaeolimnological data from Chignahuapan. At present, all the lakes are very shallow,
particularly during the dry, winter season, due to
water extraction for Mexico City. Springs used to
be an important source of water, but several have
gone dry. Lake level is maintained mainly by rainwater, but inputs of sewage water are also common. The lakes are shallow (c. 3 m), with pH
between 7 and 8.5 and conductivity between 600
and 1000 WS/cm.
2.2. Volcanic stratigraphy
The Nevado de Toluca, of Pleistocene^Holocene age, is the main volcano in the basin. Two
major Plinian-type eruptions occurred in the Nevado during the last 25 000 years (Bloomeld and
Valastro, 1974, 1977; Bloomeld et al., 1977;
Mac|as et al., 1997): the Lower Toluca Pumice

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

219

Fig. 1. Location maps. (a) Central Mexico with the location of Lake Chignahuapan, Upper Lerma Basin, and of other sites with
previously published palaeoenvironmental records. (b) Upper Lerma Basin, with the location of palaeolimnological study sites:
1. Pit 2 (Metcalfe et al., 1991); 2. Isla II core (Caballero et al., 2001); 3. Almoloya del R|o core (Newton and Metcalfe, 1999,
this paper); 4. Pit 1 (Metcalfe et al., 1991); 5. STCRZ core (this paper).

(LTP, V24 000 yr BP) and the Upper Toluca

Pumice (UTP, V11 600 yr BP). Two more events
were documented recently: (1) a ne grey massive
sand^silt ash ow deposit with a minimum age of
14 000 yr BP (Caballero et al., 2001; Garc|a-Palomo et al., 2002), and (2) the so-called White Pumice ow deposit (Mac|as et al., 1997), dated at
12 414+290/3280 and 12 040 S 92 yr BP (Garc|aPalomo et al., 2002).
Monogenetic activity has also been important

in the area (Bloomeld, 1975; Garc|a-Palomo et

al., 2002), such as that of the Tres Cruces volcano that produced the Tres Cruces Tephra (TCT)
by c. 8500 yr BP (Bloomeld, 1975). Newton and
Metcalfe (1999) reported other tephras in the
area: the Lower Almoloya Tephra (LAT), dated
at c. 12 400 yr BP, the Techuchulco tephras (1
and 2), between the UTP and the TCT and the
Upper Almoloya Tephra (UAT), overlying the
TCT.

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

220

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

2.3. Archaeology
Humans were present in the Upper Lerma (or
Toluca) Basin from the early Formative (1500^
1000 BC), and increased in numbers during the
middle Formative (800^500 BC) (Sugiura, 1992,
2000). Occupation then decreased until the early
Classic (AD 200^450) when re-population started.
Population increased during the subsequent periods, reaching a peak during the Postclassic (AD
1000^1520). Late Classic (AD 550^650) to Epiclassic (AD 700^900) sites, however, are numerous both around the lakes and on man-made islands (or mounds) of variable size within them.
During the Epiclassic period, mound construction
accelerated and lacustrine life reached its peak.
All mounds were abandoned by the end of the
Epiclassic (c. AD 900).
Archaeological excavations (by Y. Sugiura) on
some of these mounds have uncovered evidence

that sheds light on the end of the Classic period

in this area. Most of the smaller articial islands
were probably domestic habitation units, while
some larger ones were apparently used for public
gatherings. Although island use was intensive and
uninterrupted, inhabitants had to deal with the
problems of sinking and the eects of water level
uctuations by raising the oor levels using rocks
and sediments. Natural water level variations undoubtedly aected local living conditions.
2.4. Previous palaeoenvironmental work
Chemistry and diatom analysis of two pit sequences (Pit 1 and Pit 2, Figs. 1 and 2) were
studied by Metcalfe et al. (1991). Sugiura et al.
(1994) also studied a series of pits for which pollen, diatom and soil analyses are in progress. Most
of these sequences are only c. 2 m deep, many with
the 11 600 yr BP UTP at their base. They largely

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic columns of palaeolimnological sequences from Lake Chignahuapan, Upper Lerma Basin, Central Mexico.
Sequences are presented from west to east. Tephra abbreviations as follows: TCT = Tres Cruces Tephra, UTP = Upper Toluca
Pumice, LAT = Lower Almoloya Tephra, UAT = Upper Almoloya Tephra.

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

221

Table 1
AMS 14 C dates for the STCRZ sequence, Upper Lerma Basin, Mexico
Laboratory code

Radiocarbon date
(yr BP)

N13 CPDB
(x)

Calibrated datea
(calendar years)

Depth
(m)

A-9701
NSRL-12051
A-9702
A-9703
NSRL-10408
NSRL-10934

1200+195/3190
4560 S 45
8630 S 80
9950 S 180
11 850 S 110
21 500 S 160

326.8
328.1
325.9
328.8
327.3
326.1

AD 655^1020 (1295^930 BP)

3495^3098 BC (5314^5073 BP)
7750^7580 BC (9700^9530 BP)
9750^9240 BC (11 695^11 185 BP)
12 110^11 850 BC (14 060^13 800 BP)
^

0.90^0.95
1.95^2.00
3.76^3.78
4.42^4.45
5.49^5.51
8.87^8.89

A = Geochronology Laboratory, University of Arizona; NSRL = INSTAAR ^ Laboratory for AMS Radiocarbon Preparation
and Research, University of Colorado.
a
Radiocarbon Calibration Program 2000, rev. 4.3 (Stuiver et al., 1998).

cover the Holocene, and frequently have a discontinuous diatom record. Caballero et al. (2001) report diatom analysis from a core sequence (Isla II)
covering the last c. 14 000 yr BP (Figs. 1 and 2),
but chronostratigraphic resolution of this core,
particularly for the Holocene, is relatively poor,
as the sequence is dominated by volcanic material.

3. Methods
Here we present results from two sequences :
STCRZ (9.54 m) and Almoloya del R|o (5.12 m)
(Figs. 1 and 2). The STCRZ sequence is located
near an archaeological research site (Santa Cruz
Atizapan) where a late Classic to Epiclassic articial island was excavated by Y. Sugiura (Fig. 1).
The STCRZ sequence shows a clear horizon of
Epiclassic pottery shards (Fig. 2). It consists of
a 2-m trench and a 7.54-m core drilled at the
base of the trench. The Almoloya del R|o core
was taken about 4 km west of the STCRZ site
(Fig. 1). All cores were drilled with an Eijkelkamp
percussion-type soil sampler.

The STCRZ core was sampled for diatoms and

pollen at 10-cm intervals. The STCRZ trench was
sampled every 5 cm, to provide high resolution
data for the late Holocene. The uppermost 0.5 m
were not studied because the soil was reworked by
agricultural activities. Six samples for radiocarbon
dating were collected at selected horizons (Table
1, Fig. 2).
The Almoloya del R|o core was sampled primarily for tephra studies (Newton and Metcalfe,
1999) and diatom analyses. Three radiocarbon
dates were published in Newton and Metcalfe
(1999) and one new 14 C date is presented here
(Table 2, Fig. 2). Samples for diatom analysis
were taken only from non-tephra units. Sampling
resolution was every 2 cm in the bottom 50 cm of
the sequence and every 5 cm elsewhere, except the
top peat unit.
Diatom samples were prepared by treating
them successively with 10% HCl and concentrated
H2 O2 to eliminate carbonate and organic matter
respectively. Slides for microscope analysis were
prepared with 200 Wl of the nal solution, using
Naphrax as a mounting medium. Microscope

Table 2
AMS 14 C dates for the Almoloya del R|o sequence, Upper Lerma Basin, Mexico
Laboratory code

Radiocarbon date
(yr BP)

N13 CPDB
(x)

Calibrated datea
(calendar years)

Depth
(m)

Beta-102337
Beta-94127
Beta-94128
Beta-94129

6180 S 60
9180 S 50
12 060 S 60
12 400 S 60

310.9
325.9
327.8
327.4

5258^5005 BC (7208^6955 BP)

8516^8289 BC (10 465^10 238 BP)
13 072^11 894 BC (15 022^13 844 BP)
13 408^12 228 BC (15 358^14 178 BP)

2.52^2.54
3.38^3.40
4.58^4.60
4.80^4.82

Beta = Beta Analytic Inc., Florida.

a
Radiocarbon Calibration Program 2000, rev. 4.3 (Stuiver et al., 1998).

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

222

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

analyses were carried out at 1000U magnication

with Olympus BH2 and BX50 microscopes. Minimum counts of 400 valves were done, and species
identications were made with reference to standard oras (Hustedt, 1930, 1959, 1960^66; Gasse,
1986; Kramer and Lange-Bertalot, 1986, 1988,
1991). Pollen analysis for the STCRZ sequence
is currently under way.
Samples for loss on ignition (LOI), i.e. organic
matter content, were collected every 5 cm

throughout the sequence. Samples were ignited

at 550C for 2 h (Bengtsson and Enell, 1986).
Samples for rock-magnetism analyses (see Table
3) were collected in 8-cm3 plastic cubes at intervals of 5 cm. Mass specic low eld magnetic susceptibility (M) was measured in a Bartington system. Anhysteretic remanent magnetisations
(ARM) were measured in half of the samples, at
10-cm intervals. ARMs were imparted in a 50-WT
bias eld, superimposed on a peak alternating

Table 3
Magnetic parameters and their environmental signicance in lacustrine sediments
Parameter

Interpretation

Magnetic susceptibility M. Ratio of the induced magnetisation

to the strength of a weak eld applied. Commonly expressed
in mass specic units (m3 /kg).

Is a measure of the concentration of magnetic minerals. If

concentration of ferrimagnetic minerals (e.g. magnetite) is low,
it reects the presence of antiferrimagnetic (haematite,
goethite), paramagnetic (Fe-Mg silicates) and diamagnetic
(silica, carbonates) minerals. High M can be indicative of
higher erosion, airfall products of basaltic-andesitic volcanism.

Anhysteretic remanent magnetisation (ARM). Magnetisation

acquired in a biasing DC eld (50 WT) within an alternating
decreasing eld (100 mT).

Depends on the concentration of ferrimagnetic material, but is

highly sensitive to smaller magnetite grain sizes ( 6 10 Wm).

Isothermal remanent magnetisation (IRM). Magnetic remanence acquired in a strong DC eld ( s 5 mT). The remanence
acquired at the highest eld applied (usually 1 T) is expressed
as saturation remanent magnetisation (SIRM or MR ).

Depends on the concentration of magnetic material. Only

responds to ferrimagnetic grains and is not aected by
paramagnetic content (such as pyroxenes, amphiboles, biotites,
etc.).

Saturation magnetisation (MS ). The highest magnetisation

achievable in the presence of the saturating eld.

Depends on the concentration of magnetic material.

Coercive force (BO )C , and coercivity of remanence (BO )CR .

The inverse eld necessary to rotate to zero either a saturation
magnetisation, in the presence of the applied eld [(BO )C ], or a
saturation remanence magnetisation, in the absence of the
applied eld [(BO )CR ].

The ratio (BO )CR /(BO )C is diagnostic of grain size in Timagnetites. Plotted against the ratio MR /MS , helps to
discriminate between the ne single domain magnetic grain
size (SD), the medium pseudo-single domain size (PSD), and
the coarse multidomain grain size (MD) (Day et al., 1977).

ARM/SIRM ratio.

Is a guide of grain size variations. Increases with the presence

of ne, SD grains.

S300 ratio. Dened as S300 = (IRM300 /SIRM)U100, where IRM

is an inverse eld of 0.3 T, imparted on a sample previously
saturated.

Is an indicator of changes in magnetic mineralogy. Lower

values indicate the presence of a high coercivity phase, such as
haematite or goethite, while higher values indicate low
coercivity values, characteristic of ferrimagnetic mineralogy.

Curie temperatures. The temperature at which ferrimagnetic

minerals become paramagnetic, and their remanence and
susceptibility drops.

Is diagnostic for the composition of minerals: 580C for

magnetite, 680C for haematite. In Ti-magnetites, it decreases
as Ti content increases.

Low temperature transitions. The changes in remanence during

heating (or cooling) between 10 and 300 K, due to phase
transitions.

Useful for the identication of mineralogy. Magnetite shows a

marked drop at c. 120 K.

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

223

Fig. 3. Time scale, lithology, LOI and several rock-magnetic parameters for the Santa Cruz core. Magnetic susceptibility M, an indicator for the concentration of magnetic minerals in sediments, is plotted along with frequency dependence Mfd% values for selected samples (scale on the bottom). High values of Mfd% indicate the presence of ultrane SP grains. Higher ARM/SIRM ratios
indicate the presence of ne SD grains. Lower S ratio values are indicative of a high coercivity magnetic mineralogy, commonly
haematite or goethite.

eld of 100 mT in a Schonstedt GSD-1 demagnetiser, and remanences measured in a 2G three-axis

cryogenic magnetometer. Isothermal remanent
magnetisation (MR ) in all samples was imparted
with a pulse magnetiser at a forward eld of 1 T
and at a backward eld of 300 mT, and measured
in a Molspin uxgate magnetometer. S300 ratios
were calculated (Table 3). Saturation magnetisation (MS ) and coercivity parameters, BCR , BC ,
were obtained from hysteresis loops measured
with a Princeton Measurement Corporation Micro-Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (WVSM) at
room temperature in selected samples. Magnetic
mineralogy was determined from the Curie temperatures, estimated from the variations of M between 20 and 700C, measured in a Kappa bridge
in owing helium gas for an inert atmosphere.

4. Results
4.1. Stratigraphy
4.1.1. STCRZ sequence
The base of the sequence (9.54^9.43 m) is a
pumice-rich lapilli layer of unknown source, older
than 21 500 yr BP (Fig. 2, Table 1). The layer
consists of subangular to subrounded lapilli pumice fragments, embedded in a ner matrix, suggesting that the pumice layer represents a reworked horizon and not a primary tephra fall.
Lacustrine silt is present between 9.43 and
5.47 m (Fig. 2). The 8.87^8.89 m level was dated
at 21 500 S 160 yr BP (Fig. 2, Table 1) giving a
minimum age for this record. The UTP is well
represented between 5.47 and 4.46 m, overlying

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

224

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

an organic-rich level (Fig. 3) dated at 11 850 S 110

yr BP (Fig. 2, Table 1). Lacustrine silt is present
between 4.46 and 3.75 m. The TCT is present at
3.75^3.52 m, above sediments dated to 8630 S
80 yr BP (Fig. 2, Table 1). Lacustrine silt is
present between 3.52 and the top of the sequence.
Two thin ( 6 2 cm), dark grey tephras composed
of ne sand scoria occur at 1.70 and 1.40 m. Organic-rich sediments (Fig. 3) underlying the 1.70 m
tephra were dated at 4560 S 45 yr BP (Fig. 2,
Table 1). The 1.69^1.62 m and 1.33^0.98 m levels
contain horizontal bands of beige and dark brown
silt. The archaeological horizon, containing pottery shards, occurs between 0.98 and 0.77 m.
Charcoal fragments, also abundant at this level,
dated to 1200+195/3190 yr BP (AD 655^1020,
calibrated age, Stuiver et al., 1998, Table 1,
Fig. 2). The STCRZ sequence apparently did
not reach the LTP (c. 24 000 yr BP) and except
for the UTP and the TCT, no other tephras were
identied. The two thin tephras near the top of
the sequence have not been reported previously
and provide evidence of the complex regional
tephra stratigraphy.
4.1.2. Almoloya del R|o core
The stratigraphy of this core is described in
Newton and Metcalfe (1999) and is presented
here in Fig. 2. In this sequence the UTP and the
TCT are clearly identied and the Lower and
Upper Almoloya tephras were described from
this core. Chronology is based on four radiocarbon dates (Fig. 2, Table 2), spanning c. 12 500 yr
BP.
4.2. Rock magnetism
4.2.1. STCRZ sequence
Rock-magnetic parameters in lake sediments
are useful guides to environmental changes (e.g.
Thouveny et al., 1994). Processes such as catch-

225

ment erosion, soil development, volcanic activity

and lake chemistry can yield dierent assemblages
of magnetic properties. Rock-magnetic techniques
discriminate the magnetic content in three main
variables: concentration, magnetic grain size and
mineralogy. A summary of rock-magnetic parameters and their environmental signicance in sediments is presented in Table 3.
Curie temperatures between 490C and 572C
show (Table 3) that the main magnetic phases are
titanomagnetites with Ti content from TM20 to
almost pure magnetite, and in some samples an
additional phase with Curie temperatures between
350C and 400C (Table 3). Low temperature demagnetisation experiments, where a well-marked
drop of remanence below 120 K is present in most
samples, conrmed the presence of magnetite.
Presence of a magnetically hard phase, goethite
or haematite, is indicated by relatively low S ratios (Table 3).
Rock-magnetic parameters show a mixture of
characteristics (Fig. 3). The magnetic concentration is very low for most of the record, where
values are around 0.1 Wm3 /kg and a diamagnetic
component is present, except in the tephra at
1.40 m and in two zones of lake sediments: between 8.20 and 7.00 m (c. 19 000^16 000 yr BP,
M s 0.3 Wm3 /kg) and above 1.35 m (c. 1500 yr BP,
M s 0.5 Wm3 /kg). However, dierent magnetic
mineral and grain size assemblages are present
in each of these two zones. The deepest has the
coarsest magnetic grains and high coercivity mineral content, presumably haematite/goethite. In
contrast, the topmost record has low coercivity
minerals of relatively smaller grain sizes. Sediments between the two tephras at 1.70 and
1.40 m (c. 3500^2500 yr BP) have the same characteristics as the 8.20^7.00-m zone.
Although the very low magnetic concentration
zones below 8.20 m (c. 19 000 yr BP) and between
7.00 and 5.78 m (c. 16 000^12 000 yr BP) possess

Fig. 4. Diatom stratigraphy from STCRZ core, Upper Lerma Basin, Central Mexico, selected taxa (as percentages of total
counts). (a) Aerophilous/benthic and epiphytic varieties with chrysophyte statocyst (as total counts) and sponge spicules (as total
counts). (b) Tychoplanktonic varieties with sums of aerophilous and alkaliphilous taxa and total diatom abundance as valves per
gramme of dry sediment (v/gds). Shaded areas correspond to tephra layers, tephra abbreviations as follows: UTP = Upper Toluca
Pumice, TCT = Tres Cruces Tephra.

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

226

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

relatively coarse and low coercivity minerals, the

zones at 5.78^5.47 m (c. 12 500^11 850 yr BP) and
4.30^2.80 m (c. 9500^6500 yr BP) have coarse
grains, but the highest coercivity, indicating signicant haematite/goethite content. In contrast,
the low concentration zone between 2.8 and
1.6 m (c. 6500^3300 yr BP) has smaller magnetic
grain size, magnetically soft, low coercivity minerals.
The UTP, and the sediments above up to 4.30 m
(c. 9500 yr BP), are characterised by moderate
magnetic concentrations with diamagnetic content
and low coercivity coarse magnetic grains. The
TCT is characterised by high magnetic concentration, higher coercivity content and coarse (MD)
grains.
4.2.2. Almoloya del R|o
Only magnetic susceptibility was measured for
this sequence. This shows high values ( s 1 Wm3 /
kg) in the TCT, the UAT and parts of the UTP.
There is a lower peak (c. 0.5 Wm3 /kg) in the LAT.
A peak of 0.8 Wm3 /kg was recorded in a thin unit
at 2.50 m. It was thought that this might correspond to the Yellow Ash identied by Metcalfe et
al. (1991) and dated to 4750 S 60 yr BP. However,
no volcanic glass was found at this level in the
Almoloya sequence, so its identication remains
uncertain.
4.3. Diatoms
4.3.1. STCRZ sequence
In the STCRZ sequence diatoms were preserved
throughout the record, even though severely broken at several levels (Fig. 4). Diatom associations
can be grouped into three main assemblages
(Table 4), similar to those found in the Isla II
core (Caballero et al., 2001):
(1) Shallow alkaline marsh : Indicates the presence of shallow, slightly alkaline waters with some
aquatic vegetation. The abundance of Nitzschia
amphibia suggests a relatively high nutrient level.
An Aulacoseira species (A. sp1) is present, which
is characterised by dome-shaped valves (c. 50%)
that are taken to be resting spores (Edlund et al.,
1996; Caballero et al., 1999). Chrysophyte statocysts are also present. The abundance of benthic

and aerophilous species, together with the sporebearing Aulacoseira, indicates that at least seasonally the marsh was nearly dry.
(2) Freshwater pond: This assemblage represents an intermediate water level stage between
the marsh and lake environments. It is characterised by circumneutral (pHW7) waters, and abundant aquatic and subaquatic vegetation.
(3) Freshwater lake: Represents the deepest
water level in the STCRZ record, but the absence
of true planktonic species in this sequence indicates that the lake was not particularly deep,
maybe only a few metres. It was characterised
by circumneutral waters (pHW7) with the presence of some aquatic vegetation.
Cluster analysis (CONISS, Grimm, 1991^1992)
divides the record into two main zones, below and
above the UTP level (5.47^4.46 m), which corresponds roughly to the late Pleistocene/Holocene
transition (Fig. 4). The lower half of the core
shows higher total diatom abundance and is dominated by the freshwater lake assemblage. Nevertheless, three sub-zones can be discriminated
in this lower part of the core suggesting slight
lake level uctuations (Fig. 4). Below 7.00 m
(c. 16 000 yr BP) the freshwater lake assemblage
is associated with small numbers of Cocconeis placentula, indicating the inuence of littoral environments. A peak of an Aulacoseira species (Aulacoseira. sp2, a form close to Aulacoseira distans
or Aulacoseira alpigena) is present between 8.81
and 8.57 m (c. 20 000 yr BP), which might indicate
a short episode of slightly more dilute, deeper
waters. Above 7.00 m (c. 16 000 yr BP) the freshwater lake assemblage is overwhelmingly dominated by Fragilaria pinnata; also present are
very low, but constant, numbers of small Cyclotella species (mainly Cyclotella pseudostelligera),
suggesting more open and slightly deeper water
conditions.
In the upper half of the core ( 6 11 600 yr BP),
diatom assemblages show lower total abundance
and higher species diversity. In the rst sample
above the UTP, diatom abundance is low, dominated by Fragilaria brevistriata, a species that
seems to be pioneering after the intense perturbation of the system by the tephra input. This pattern is repeated after the TCT, where F. brevi-

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

striata also reaches high values. Between the UTP

(c. 11 600 yr BP) and the TCT (c. 8500 yr BP) the
alkaline shallow marsh assemblage is present, but
in association with some Fragilaria spp. Above
the TCT and up to 3.00 m (c. 7000 yr BP), the
freshwater lake assemblage is present, but in association with the aerophilous Navicula minima.
These assemblages indicate that between c.
11 600 and c. 7000 yr BP Chignahuapan had variable water levels, uctuating between marsh and
lake conditions (Fig. 4). Between 3.00 m (c. 7000

227

yr BP) and 1.40 m (c. 2500 yr BP) the freshwater

pond assemblage is dominant, but the interval
between 2.20 and 1.80 m (c. 5000^4000 yr BP)
shows the presence of the shallow, alkaline marsh
assemblage (Fig. 4). Between 1.40 m (c. 2500 yr
BP) and 0.65 m (c. 800 yr BP) the shallow, alkaline marsh assemblage is dominant. The base of
this interval (1.35^1.25 m, c. 2500^2000 yr BP),
however, shows the presence of small Cyclotella
spp. (mainly Cyclotella pseudostelligera) which
suggests the inuence of slightly deeper water.

Table 4
Diatom assemblages present in the STCRZ and Almoloya del R|o cores, Upper Lerma Basin, Central Mexico
Assemblage

Main diatoms

Habitat

pH

Shallow alkaline marsh (STCRZ)

Nitzschia amphibia
Rhopalodia gibba
Rhopalodia gibberula
Cocconeis placentula
Epithemia turgida
Hantzschia amphioxys
Eunotia formica
Eunotia naegelii
Pinnularia spp.
Aulacoseira sp1
Eunotia formica
Eunotia glacialis
Eunotia soleirolii
Pinnularia maior
Hantzschia amphioxys
Navicula (Luticola) mutica
Nitzschia amphibia
Aulacoseira italica
Cocconeis placentula
Cymbella aspera
Cymbella cistula
Rhoicosphenia curvata
Fragilaria (Punctastriata) pinnata
Fragilaria pinnata var. lancettula
Fragilaria (Punctastriata) pinnata
Fragilaria pinnata var. lancettula
Fragilaria (Pseudostaurosira) brevistriata
Fragilaria (Staurosira) construens f. venter
Cyclotella pseudostelligera
Fragilaria pinnata var. lancettula
Fragilaria (Pseudostaurosira) brevistriata
Stephanodiscus neoastrea
Aulacoseira ambigua
Aulacoseira granulata var. angustissima
Fragilaria (Staurosira) construens f. venter

E
B
B
E
E
A
B
A/B
A/B
B?
B
A/B
E
A/B
A
A/B
E
T
E
E
E
E
T
T
T
T
T
T
T/P
T
T
P
P
P
T

Ak
Ak
Ak
C/Ak
C/Ak
C/Ak
C
C/Ac
C/Ac
?
C
C/Ac
C
C/Ac
C/Ak
C/Ak
Ak
C
C/Ak
C/Ak
C/Ak
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

Shallow freshwater marsh (Almoloya)

Freshwater pond (STCRZ)

Freshwater lake (STCRZ)

Freshwater lake (Almoloya)

Species pH and habitat preferences are included.

Habitat: A = aerophilous, B = benthic, E = epiphytic, T = tychoplanktonic, P = planktonic.
pH: Ac = acidophilous, C = circumneutral, Ak = alkaliphilous.

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

228
M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

Fig. 5. Diatom stratigraphy from Almoloya del R|o core, Upper Lerma Basin, Central Mexico, selected taxa (as percentages of total counts). Shaded areas correspond to tephra layers, tephra abbreviations as follows: LAT = Lower Almoloya Tephra, UTP = Upper Toluca Pumice, TCT = Tres Cruces Tephra, UAT = Upper
Almoloya Tephra.

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

The diatom sequence indicates, therefore, that the

lake became generally more alkaline after c. 2500
yr BP, with a brief episode of slightly deeper
waters (c. 2500^2000 yr BP) before generally shallow water environments were established (Fig. 4).
The most recent samples studied (0.60^0.50 m)
show a mixed diatom association with species of
the alkaline, shallow pond and the freshwater lake
assemblages.

229

the highest diatom abundances. Centric forms

then decrease in abundance, suggesting a gradual
decrease in lake level. In the upper part of the
core ( 6 c. 6000 yr BP) only two samples yielded
diatom counts. These both show higher percentages of Cocconeis placentula var. lineata, which
dominates in the top sample (0.51 m).

5. Discussion
4.3.2. Almoloya del R|o sequence
In this core diatom preservation was discontinuous (Fig. 5). Diatom associations can be
grouped into two assemblages (Table 4), similar
to those found in the STCRZ sequence : (1) Shallow freshwater marsh: It indicates the presence of
rather shallow, circumneutral and relatively open
waters. It diers from the shallow alkaline marsh
assemblage present in the STCRZ record by the
dominance of benthic and aerophilous varieties
and the lower abundance of alkaliphilous and epiphytic taxa (Table 4). (2) Freshwater lake: It differs from the freshwater lake assemblage in the
STCRZ record by the presence of true planktonic
taxa (Table 4), indicating somewhat deeper and
more open environments.
The base of the Almoloya core (below the
LAT, c. 12 400 yr BP) is dominated by the shallow, freshwater marsh assemblage. Between the
LAT and the UTP the only countable sample is
dominated by Fragilaria construens var. venter,
indicating a slight increase in lake level. The rst
sample above the UTP is rich in Fragilaria brevistriata, a pattern also recorded in the STCRZ sequence. Between the UTP (c. 11 000 yr BP) and
the TCT (c. 8500 yr BP) the shallow, freshwater
marsh assemblage is present. This assemblage
continues in the rst two samples above the
TCT and UAT, indicating that shallow water
conditions existed at Chignahuapan before, during and after the fallout of these tephras. The
freshwater lake assemblage then dominates. Between 2.72 and 2.57 m the large centric Stephanodiscus neoastrea is abundant, dominating the assemblage (47%) at 2.72 m (Fig. 5). This indicates
an increase in water level and the establishment of
relatively deep water conditions. The part of the
core between 2.70 and 2.25 m is also marked by

The STCRZ and the Almoloya del R|o records

show a higher accumulation of lacustrine sediments for the Holocene than the previously
studied sequences (Pits 1 and 2, Metcalfe et al.,
1991, and Isla II core, Caballero et al., 2001)
(Fig. 2). This reects their position in a more central part of the basin, with relatively deeper water.
The STCRZ sequence is also the longest studied
for the area, covering the period from the last full
glacial to the present, with continuous diatom
preservation. Given the presence of late Classic
to Epiclassic pottery dated to 1200+195/3190 yr
BP (calibrated age AD 655^1020, Stuiver et al.,
1998, Table 1) the STCRZ core enables palaeoenvironmental correlation with the archaeological
record. Fig. 6 summarises the lake level curve
from Chignahuapan and compares it with records
from other sites from Central Mexico.
The STCRZ record indicates that the Late
Pleistocene (c. 22 000 to 11 600 yr BP) lacustrine
environment in Chignahuapan was dominated by
a freshwater lake that experienced some water
level variability (Fig. 6). Between c. 22 000 yr BP
and c. 19 000 yr BP ( s 8.00 m) the magnetic record, characterised by a low concentration of
coarse Ti-magnetite grains, indicates low sediment
input, while diatoms suggest the presence of a
freshwater lake, with a slightly deeper, more dilute phase around c. 20 000 yr BP. Between c.
19 000 and 16 000 yr BP (8.20^7.00 m) magnetic
data suggest an increase in the input of sediments,
clearly indicated by a rise in concentration (M) of
coarse magnetic grains. The magnetic mineralogy
inferred for this interval is a variable mixture of
Ti-magnetite and a high coercivity phase, presumably haematite. The content of haematite is particularly high around 19 000 yr BP (8-m level)

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

230
M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

Fig. 6. Lake level reconstructions from sites in Central Mexico: Patzcuaro (Bradbury, 1997, 2000), Zacapu (Metcalfe, 1995 and unpublished data), La Piscina de
Yuriria (Davies, 1995; Metcalfe and Hales, 1994 and unpublished data), Chignahuapan (Upper Lerma Basin, this study); Chalco (Caballero and Ortega, 1998),
Texcoco (Bradbury, 1989; Lozano and Ortega, 1998), Tecocomulco (Caballero et al., 1999). UTP = Upper Toluca Tephra, TCT = Tres Cruces Tephra.

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

which suggests that at this time the sediments

were partly oxidised as the result of aerobic conditions caused by lake level uctuations. During
this interval diatoms reect a slight change in the
dominant Fragilaria species (peak in Fragilaria
construens f. venter followed by dominance of
Fragilaria pinnata v. lancettula, Fig. 4), but do
not suggest extended dry periods. The STCRZ
magnetic and diatom data (Figs. 3 and 4) together
indicate that between c. 19 000 and 16 000 yr BP
the shallow freshwater lake at Chignahuapan
showed a slight decrease in water depth, with variable levels, reaching particularly low levels (seasonally ?) by c. 19 000 yr BP. During this interval,
which corresponds to the Last Glacial Maximum,
sediment input to the lake was relatively high,
probably as a result of more open vegetation conditions and lowering of the tree line.
Between c. 16 000 and 11 000 yr BP (7^5.5 m)
the STCRZ magnetic data show a return to a low
content of coarse Ti-magnetite grains, indicating
low sediment input. Diatoms show a slight increase in water level, suggesting a more stable,
slightly deeper, open lake (Fig. 4). In the Isla II
core, taken at the western shores of lake Chignahuapan (Fig. 1), comparable Fragilaria-rich assemblages are also present between c. 14 000 and
11 000 yr BP suggesting that a freshwater lake extended over the whole area. At the top of the Late
Pleistocene sequence in STCRZ, below the UTP
tephra, there is a shift to very low magnetic concentrations where diamagnetic minerals dominate
M and haematite content rises, possibly a consequence of drier conditions. This magnetic signal
in the STCRZ record correlates with particularly
high LOI values and, in the Almoloya del R|o
core, with the shallow water assemblage at the
base of the sequence (c. 12 400 yr BP). These results all indicate a short episode of generally shallower, marshy conditions, with lower pH in some
areas, by c. 12 400 yr BP. The Almoloya del R|o
sequence, however, suggests a recovery of lake level just prior to the fallout of the UTP (Fig. 5).
Holocene conditions in Chignahuapan appear
to have been generally shallower and more variable, with episodes of very shallow and slightly
alkaline waters. The rst of these events dates to
the early Holocene, between c. 11 000 to c. 7000

231

yr BP. In STCRZ, the magnetic record shows a

low concentration of ferrimagnetics (Ti-magnetite) and high haematite content, while the diatoms indicate the presence of shallow, variable
water levels. In the Almoloya del R|o and Isla
II (Caballero et al., 2001) cores, diatoms also indicate shallow water conditions during this interval (Fig. 5). In Pit 2 (Metcalfe et al., 1991) shallow marsh conditions are followed by a higher
water table after c. 8000 yr BP. In this sequence,
as well as in the Isla II core, there is evidence that
the TCT was exposed to subaereal conditions, indicating very shallow or dry environments at the
western shore of the lake for some time after the
tephra fallout (c. 8500 yr BP).
By c. 7000 yr BP lake levels at Chignahuapan
were higher (probably the highest in the Holocene), with the presence of a freshwater lake
that had areas of deeper, more open conditions.
In Pit 1 a mixed signal is recorded between c. 8000
and c. 6000 yr BP, with layers dominated by shallow water species and one sample dominated by
centric forms (Aulacoseira granulata, Cyclotella
meneghiniana, Stephanodiscus subtilis, Stephanodiscus niagarae) indicating relatively deep water
conditions. The presence of large centric species
(Stephanodiscus) is consistent with the ora in the
Almoloya core above the UAT (Fig. 5). In the
STCRZ record there are no planktonic species
but diatoms suggest a slight increase in lake level
by c. 7000 yr BP (Fig. 6). According to the Almoloya core, lake levels started to fall by c. 6200
yr BP.
A striking change in magnetic characteristics is
recorded in STCRZ between c. 6400 and 3300 yr
BP (2.80 and 1.60 m); as the concentration remains very low, the magnetic grain size results
indicate an assemblage of smaller grains (PSD)
and (Ti) magnetites with low to nil haematite content. This change in grain size does not correspond to an increase in susceptibility, which could
reect dilution by high organic content. During
part of this interval (2.80^2.20 m, c. 6400^5000
yr BP) the STCRZ diatom record indicates the
presence of a freshwater pond, rich in aquatic
vegetation. Taking the magnetic data into account, this pond must have had relatively stable
water levels. At Pit 2 diatoms suggest the presence

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

232

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

of a shallow lake, however, in the Almoloya del

R|o core and in Pit 1 diatoms are not preserved
(Fig. 5). Towards the end of this interval the
STCRZ diatom record (2.20^1.80 m, c. 5000^
4000 yr BP) indicates a second event of very shallow water environments dated at 4560 S 45 yr BP
(3495^3098 BC, calibrated ages, Stuiver et al.,
1998, Table 1). This shallow water episode is associated with the highest LOI values of the record
(Fig. 3), supporting the interpretation of a marsh
environment. Shallow conditions are also recorded in Pit 2, where a hiatus in sedimentation
is inferred after c. 4600 yr BP (Metcalfe et al.,
1991). The data indicate that by 4600/4500 yr
BP (3495^3098 BC, calibrated ages) very shallow
conditions prevailed in lake Chignahuapan.
In the STCRZ sequence, this very shallow water
episode is followed by a recovery to freshwater
pond conditions that lasted until c. 2500 yr BP
(1.35 m). The magnetic data, however, show (associated with a sharp decrease in LOI) an increase
in the magnetic grain size and an increase in haematite, which suggests variability in lake levels.
Diatom data from Pits 1 and 2 also show a recovery in lake level after the c. 4600 yr BP hiatus. The
data indicate that after the c. 4600/4500 shallow
episode and until c. 2500 yr BP (c. 800 BC, calibrated ages), a freshwater pond of uctuating lake
levels, rich in aquatic vegetation, was present at
Chignahuapan (Fig. 6). If there were no sedimentation hiatus in the STCRZ sequence, then the end
of the shallow episode was around c. 4000/3700 yr
BP (c. 2700 BC, calibrated age).
After c. 2500 yr BP the diatom record at
STCRZ indicates generally shallower, more alkaline environments (Fig. 6). A brief period of
slightly deeper water levels between c. 2500 and
2000 yr BP (1.40^1.24 m, c. 800^200 BC, calibrated ages) is followed by the establishment of
very shallow conditions between c. 2000 and 800
yr BP (1.25^0.65 m, c. 200 BC^AD 1500 calibrated ages). This upper section of the STCRZ
record (above 1.4 m, 6 2500 yr BP) is characterised by a sharp increase in M, where coarse, low
coercivity grains dominate the ferrimagnetic fraction and there is no evidence of high ultrane SP
content. This remarkable rise in M starts where
pottery shards appear in the record, and contin-

ues to the top of the sequence, beyond the stratum with artefacts. Human activities such as slash
and burn agriculture, as well as pottery ring and
meal cooking can form Fe-bearing minerals, including magnetite, and can also lead to increased
surface erosion, particularly by deforestation.
Correlation with Pit 1 is dicult as there is no
clear signal in the diatom record, while relating
these events to Pit 2 is problematic because the
sequence lacks dates for the late Holocene. In Pit
2, however, a relatively deep water phase (Aulacoseira ambigua, Cyclotella meneghiniana, Nitzschia amphibia and Cocconeis placentula) is reported by Metcalfe et al. (1991), and thought to
date to c. 1600 yr BP. It is possible that the relatively deeper episode recorded at STCRZ correlates with this deeper water phase at Pit 2. There
is also an indication of deeper water in the Almoloya core at 1.36 m, but unfortunately this is not
dated. The later reduction in lake levels is clearly
recorded in both Pits as a root mat dated at
1380 S 50 yr BP (AD 617^688, calibrated age,
Stuiver et al., 1998). As a whole, the data suggest
that after a short, deeper water phase (c. 2000(?)
yr BP, c. 200 BC, calibrated age), generally shallow environments were established at Chignahuapan with particularly shallow conditions present
after c. 1400 yr BP (c. AD 550, calibrated age).
Very shallow water conditions at c. AD 550 correlate with development of man-made islands during the late Classic to Epiclassic (AD 550^900).
In the STCRZ sequence, sediments above the
archaeological horizon contain a mixed diatom
assemblage that is dicult to interpret. In Pits 1
and 2 the sediments above the root mat indicate
a clear increase in lake level. In Pit 1 these sediments were dated at 870 S 50 (AD 1059^1221,
calibrated ages, Stuiver et al., 1998).

6. Conclusions
The STCRZ sequence represents a continuous
record of lake level changes for the past s 22 000
yr in the Upper Lerma Basin. This sequence allows good correlation with the archaeological record of the area, particularly during the late Classic to Epiclassic. The integrated data from the

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

Upper Lerma Basin give a valuable lake level

curve (Fig. 6) for regional palaeoclimatic studies
as many sequences from other basins in Central
Mexico show shorter or discontinuous records
(Metcalfe et al., 2000).
Late Pleistocene environments in Chignahuapan were characterised by the presence of a freshwater lake that showed some stage variability
(Fig. 6). The lake was slightly deeper by c. 20 000
yr BP, followed by lower levels at c. 19 000 yr BP.
A general increase in the input of sediments to the
lake is recorded between c. 19 000 and 16 000 yr
BP, this was probably related to more open vegetation conditions and a lower tree line. This interval correlates with the Last Glacial Maximum
in the Northern Hemisphere. For the Late Glacial
(c. 16 000^11 000 yr BP), lower sediment input
and moderately higher lake levels were inferred.
There was a short episode of shallow lake levels
around 12 400 yr BP, and a later rise in water
level. By c. 11 000 yr BP the Upper Lerma record
is dominated by the presence of the UTP.
In Central Mexico there are few records covering this period; those available are summarised in
Fig. 6. In lakes Texcoco and Tecocomulco, in the
neighbouring Basin of Mexico (Fig. 1), late Pleistocene resolution is poor, with a hiatus that extends from c. 15 000/14 000 yr BP into the mid to
early Holocene (Bradbury, 1989; Lozano and Ortega, 1998; Caballero et al., 1999). Lake Chalco,
also in the Basin of Mexico (Figs. 1 and 6), however, displays similarly shallow levels during the
Last Glacial Maximum (c. 18 000 yr BP) with a
moderate increase in water levels during the Late
Glacial (Caballero and Ortega, 1998). A sequence
from La Piscina de Yuriria, in southern Guanajuato (Fig. 1), also shows dry conditions around
the Last Glacial Maximum, with short-lived episodes of wetter conditions in the Late Glacial
(Fig. 6) (Davies, 1995; Metcalfe, unpublished
data). At Lake Patzcuaro (Figs. 1 and 6) relatively
constant high lake stands are present throughout
the period around the Last Glacial Maximum
(c. 37 000 to 12 500 yr BP (uncalibrated), Bradbury, 1997, 2000). The Terminal Glacial
(c. 12 500 to 10 000 yr BP (uncalibrated ages)) is
marked by lower lake levels (Fig. 6). The results
from Chignahuapan therefore appear to be con-

233

sistent with the idea that enhanced glacial moisture from displaced mid-latitude westerlies was
conned to northern and western Mexico (Bradbury et al., 2001).
Holocene water levels in Lake Chignahuapan
appear to have been generally shallower, possibly
as a consequence of the lling of the basin after
the UTP fallout. Water level was more variable,
marked by three episodes of shallow marsh conditions. The rst dry episode dates to the early
Holocene (c. 11 000 to 7000 yr BP), and the
Tres Cruces volcanic eruption occurred during
this interval. This shallow water episode is also
recorded at other sites in Central Mexico. In lakes
Tecocomulco and Texcoco it correlates with a
sedimentation hiatus (Fig. 6). In Chalco, shallow,
alkaline, saline environments dominated between
c. 10 000 and c. 5000 yr BP (Fig. 6) and in lake
Zacapu (Figs. 1 and 6) a shallow marsh was
present prior to c. 8000/7000 yr BP (Metcalfe,
1995). In Patzcuaro and La Piscina de Yuriria,
however, relatively high lake levels are recorded
(Fig. 6). These trends suggest that a negative
water balance dominated over part of Central
Mexico during the early Holocene.
A relatively deep water period is inferred at
Chignahuapan between c. 7000 and 6400/6200 yr
BP, followed by the establishment of a freshwater
pond, with stable water levels. Wetter conditions
are also recorded in La Piscina de Yuriria in the
early mid-Holocene (Fig. 6). After c. 5000 yr BP,
a second event of shallow conditions is recorded
(c. 4600/4500 yr BP) at Chignahuapan which can
be correlated with similar trends in the records
from La Piscina de Yuriria (Metcalfe and Hales,
1994), Zacapu (Metcalfe, 1995) and Patzcuaro
(Bradbury, 1997, 2000). It is clear that generally
lower lake levels and a negative water balance
were present in Central Mexico around 4500 yr
BP.
The presence of a freshwater pond, rich in
aquatic vegetation, with variable water level, is
inferred for Chignahuapan between c. 4000(?)
and 2500 yr BP (c. 2700^800 BC). These conditions seem to have prevailed at the beginning of
the archaeological record in the Upper Lerma Basin during the Early Formative (c. 1500^1000
BC). More alkaline, and nutrient-rich environ-

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

234

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

ments were established at Chignahuapan after

c. 2000 yr BP (200 BC), corresponding to the
third shallow marsh phase. Particularly shallow
conditions are recorded by c. 1400 yr BP (AD
550) and a clear correlation (stratigraphical and
chronological) can be made between this dry
phase and the occupation of the late Classic
(AD 550^650) to Epiclassic (AD 700^900) articial islands characteristic of this area. Shallow
lake levels by the end of the Classic period are
clearly recorded from La Piscina de Yuriria (c.
1400^900 yr BP, Metcalfe and Hales, 1994),
Lake Zacapu (c. 1000 yr BP, Metcalfe, 1995)
and Lake Patzcuaro (c. 1200^800 yr BP, Bridgwater et al., 1999; Bradbury, 2000). The record
from Chignahuapan suggests that the Classic was
relatively dry, but that drying became particularly
intense by the end of this period (AD 550). Low
lake levels were, nevertheless, favourable for the
development of a lacustrine lifestyle at Chignahuapan. Correlation with the available records
from Central Mexico indicates that this late Classic dry episode was widespread across the area. It
is probably the clearest climatic signal in the region. At Chignahuapan, a recovery in lake level is
recorded by c. 870 yr BP (AD 1059^1221). This
date correlates well with the end of the Epiclassic,
and it is inferred that an increase in lake level
could have been a factor related with the abandonment of the man-made islands that occurred
at this time.

Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the National
University of Mexico (DGAPA, IN104797) and
CONACyT (G-28528-T). S.E.M. thanks the Leverhulme Trust for nancial support (F/158/AW
and F/158/BL) and Dr Anthony Newton for the
susceptibility measurements on the Almoloya
core. Three radiocarbon dates (NSRL codes)
were funded by the National Science Foundation
(NSF) Grant ATM-9809285 to the University of
Colorado INSTAAR ^ Laboratory for AMS Radiocarbon Preparation and Research. Dr Cecilia
Caballero (Institute of Geophysics, UNAM) performed the rock-magnetism measurements sup-

ported by the Visitors Fellowship Program of

the Institute for Rock Magnetism (IRM), University of Minnesota. The IRM is funded by the
Earth Sciences Division of the NSF and the
W.M. Keck Foundation. A. Soler, T. Hernandez
and S. Sosa provided technical support. We thank
Dr. M. Brenner and an anonymous reviewer for
their thoughtful comments on the original manuscript.

References
Bengtsson, L., Enell, M., 1986. Chemical analyses. In: Berglund, B.E. (Ed.), Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and
Palaeohydrology. J. Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 423^
453.
Bloomeld, K., 1975. A Late-Quaternary monogenetic volcano
eld in Central Mexico. Geol. Rundsch. 64, 476^497.
Bloomeld, K., Valastro, S., 1974. Late Pleistocene eruptive
history of Nevado de Toluca volcano, Central Mexico. Bull.
Volcanol. 85, 901^906.
Bloomeld, K., Valastro, S., 1977. Late Quaternary tephrochronology of Nevado de Toluca volcano, Central Mexico.
Overseas Geol. Miner. Resources 46, 1^15.
Bloomeld, K., Sanchez-Rubio, G., Wilson, L., 1977. Plinian
eruptions of Nevado de Toluca volcano, Mexico. Geol.
Rundsch. 66, 120^146.
Bradbury, J., 1989. Late Quaternary lacustrine palaeoenvironments in the Cuenca de Mexico. Quat. Sci. Rev. 8, 75^100.
Bradbury, J.P., 1997. Sources of glacial moisture in Mesoamerica. Quat. Int. 43/44, 97^110.
Bradbury, J.P., 2000. Limnologic history of Lago de Patzcuaro, Michoacan, Mexico for the past 48,000 years: impacts of climate and man. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 163, 69^95.
Bradbury, J.P., Grosjean, M., Stine, S., Sylvestre, F., 2001.
Full and late glacial lake records along the PEP1 transect:
their role in developing interhemispheric paleoclimate interactions. In: Markgraf, V. (Ed.), Interhemispheric Climate
Linkages. Academic Press, New York, pp. 265^291.
Bridgwater, N.D., Heaton, T.H., OHara, S.L., 1999. A late
Holocene palaeolimnological record from central Mexico,
based on faunal and stable-isotope analysis of ostracod
shells. J. Paleolimnol. 22, 383^397.
Caballero, M.M., Ortega, G.B., 1998. Lake levels since about
40,000 years ago at Lake Chalco, near Mexico City. Quat.
Res. 50, 69^79.
Caballero, M.M., Lozano, G.S., Ortega, G.B., Urrutia, F.J.,
Macias, J.L., 1999. Environmental characteristics of Lake
Tecocomulco, northern basin of Mexico, for the last
50,000 years. J. Paleolimnol. 22, 399^411.
Caballero, M.M,Macias,J.L., Lozano, G.S,Urrutia,F.J., Castaneda-Bernal, R., 2001. Late Pleistocene-Holocene volcanic

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02

M. Caballero et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186 (2002) 217^235

stratigraphy and palaeoenvironments of the upper Lerma basin, Mexico. Int. Assoc. Sedimentol. Spec. Publ. 30, 247^261.
Davies, H., 1995. Quaternary Palaeolimnology of a Mexican
Crater Lake. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Kingston, 248 pp.
Day, R., Fuller, M., Schmidt, V.A., 1977. Hysteresis properties
of titanomagnetites: grain-size and compositional dependence. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 13, 260^267.
Deevey, E.S., 1944. Pollen analysis and Mexican archaeology,
an attempt to apply the method. Am. Antiq. 10, 135^149.
Edlund, B.M., Stroermer, F.E., Taylor, M.C., 1996. Aulacoseira
skvortzowii sp. nov. (Bacillariophyta), a poorly understood
diatom from Lake Baikal, Russia. J. Phycol. 32, 165^175.
Gasse, F., 1986. East African Diatoms: Taxonomy and Ecological Distribution. J. Cramer, Berlin.
Garc|a-Palomo, A., Mac|as, J.L., Arce, J.L., Capra, L., Garduno, V.H., Esp|ndola, J.M., 2002. Geology of Nevado de
Toluca volcano and surroundings areas, Central Mexico.
Geological Society of America Map and Chart Series,
MCH080.
Grimm, E.C., 1991^1992. Tilia Graph 1.18. Illinois State Museum, Springeld, IL.
Hustedt, F., 1930, 1959, 1960^66. Die Kieselalgen Deutsch esterreichs und der Schweiz, Vols I^III, 1991 relands, O
published by Koeltz Scientic Books, Champaign, IL.
INEGI, 1980, S|ntesis geograca del Estado de Mexico. SPP,
174 pp.
Kramer, K., Lange-Bertalot, H., 1986, 1988, 1991. Susswasserora von Mitteleuropa 2. Bacillariophyceae 2/1^2/4. Gustav
Fisher Verlag, New York.
Lozano, G.S., Ortega, G.B., 1998. Late Quaternary environmental changes of the central part of the basin of Mexico;
correlation between Texcoco and Chalco basins. Rev. Paleobot. Palynol. 99, 77^93.
Lozano, G.S., Ortega, G.B., Caballero, M.M., Urrutia, F.J.,
1993. Late Pleistocene and Holocene palaeoenvironments of
Chalco Lake, Central Mexico. Quat. Res. 40, 332^342.
Mac|as, J.L., Arce, J.L., Garc|a, P.A., Siebe, C., Esp|ndola,
J.M., Komorowski, J.C., Scott, K., 1997. Late PleistoceneHolocene cataclysmic eruptions at Nevado de Toluca and
Jocotitlan volcanoes, Central Mexico. In: Link, K.P., Kowallis, B.J. (Eds.), Guidebook of Geological Excursions for
the 1997 Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of
America, Salt Lake City, Book 1. BYU Press, Provo, UT,
pp. 1^28.
Metcalfe, S.E., 1995. Holocene environmental change in the
Zacapu Basin, Mexico: a diatom-based record. Holocene
5, 196^208.
Metcalfe, S.E., Hales, P.E., 1994. Late Holocene diatoms from

235

a Mexican crater lake ^ La Piscina de Yuriria. In: Kociolek,

P. (Ed.) Proceedings of the 11th International Diatom Symposium San Francisco, 1990, pp. 501^515.
Metcalfe, S.E., Street-Perrott, F.A., Perrott, R.A., Harkness,
D.D., 1991. Palaeolimnology of the Upper Lerma Basin,
Central Mexico: a record of climatic change and anthropogenic disturbance since 11,600 yr BP. J. Paleolimnol. 5, 197^
218.
Metcalfe, S.E., OHara, S.L., Caballero, M.M., Davies, S.J.,
2000. Records of late Pleistocene-Holocene climatic change
in Mexico ^ a review. Quat. Sci. Rev. 19, 699^721.
Newton, A.J., Metcalfe, S.E., 1999. Tephrochronololgy of the
Toluca Basin, central Mexico. Quat. Sci. Rev. 18, 1039^
1059.
OHara, S., Street-Perrott, A., Burt, P.T., 1993. Accelerated
soil erosion around a Mexican highland lake caused by prehispanic agriculture. Nature 362, 48^51.
Ortega Guerrero, B., Thompson, R., Urrutia Fucugauchi, J.,
2000. Magnetic properties of lake sediments from Lake
Chalco, central Mexico, and their palaeoenvironmental implications. J. Quat. Sci. 15, 127^140.
Sears, P.B., 1952. Palynology in Southern North America. I:
Archaeological horizons in the Basins of Mexico. Bull. Geol.
Soc. Am. 63, 241^254.
Sedov, S., Solleiro-Rebolledo, E., Gama-Castro, J., VallejoGomez, E., Gonzalez-Veazquez, A., 2001. Buried palaeosols
of the Nevado de Toluca: an alternative record of Late
Quaternary environmnetal change in central Mexico.
J. Quat. Sci. 16, 375^389.
Stuiver, M., Reimer, P.J., Bard, E., Beck, J.W., Burr, G.S.,
Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., van der
Plicht, J., Spurk, M., 1998. Radiocarbon calibration program, rev. 4.3. Radiocarbon 40, 1041^1083.
Sugiura, Y., 1992. El valle de Toluca despues del ocaso del
estado teotihuacano: El Epiclasico y el Posclasico. In: Sugiura, Y.Y. (Ed.) Historia General del Estado de Mexico,
Tomo I: Arqueolog|a. El Colegio Mexiquense, Toluca, Edo.
de Mexico.
Sugiura, Y., 2000. Cultura lacustre y sociedad del valle de
Toluca. Arqueol. Mex. VIII, 32^37.
Sugiura, Y., Flores, A., Ludlow, B., Valadez, F., Gold, M.,
Maillol, J.M., 1994. El agua, la tierra y el hombre en el Alto
Lerma: un estudio multidisciplinario. Resultados preliminares. Arqueolog|a 11^12, 29^45.
Thouveny, N., Beaulleu, J.L., Bonifay, E., Creer, K.M., Gulot,
J., Icole, M., Johnsen, S., Jouzel, J., Reille, M., Williams, T.,
Williamson, D., 1994. Climate variations in Europe over the
past 140 kyr deduced from rock magnetism. Nature 371,
503^506.

PALAEO 2924 7-10-02