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Jan-Mar 2007
Forging operations
Edging is used to shape
the ends of the bars and to
gather metal. The metal
flow is confined in the
horizontal direction but it is
free to flow laterally to fill
the die.
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Forging operations
Fullering is used to reduce the cross-sectional area
of a portion of the stock. The metal flow is outward
and away from the centre of the fuller.
i.e., forging of connecting rod for an internalcombustion engine.
Fullers
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Forging operations
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By process
1) Open - die forging
2) Closed - die forging
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Forming machines
There are four basic types of forging machines
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Board hammer
Power hammer
Forging presses
Mechanical presses
Hydraulic presses
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Board hammer
Eq 1
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TUP
Metal
Anvil
Drop hammer
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Forging machine
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Power hammer
W=
1 2
mv + pAH = (mg + pA) H
2
Where
Power hammer
Eq 2
m = mass
v = velocity of ram at start of
deformation
g = acceleration of gravity
p = air or steam pressure
acting on ram cylinder on
downstroke
A = area of ram cylinder
H = height of the ram drop
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Ram
Die
Metal
Equipment is expensive.
Die
Hydraulic press
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W =
Mechanical press
1
I o2 2f
2
Eq 3
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Forging machine
3.6-4.8
3.0-9.0
6.0-24.0
0.06-1.5
0.06-0.30
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Open-die forging
Closed-die forging
Impression-die
forging
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Open-die forging
Open-die forging is carried
out between flat dies or dies of
very simple shape.
The process is used for
mostly large objects or when
the number of parts produced
is small.
Open-die forging is often used
to preform the workpiece for
closed-die forging.
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Die cavity
completely
filled
Flash begins
to form
Dies contact
workpiece
Forging stroke
Finishing die
Trimming die
Final
product
Forging complete
Preshaped
Forging load
billet
Jan-Mar 2007
Functions of flash
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Steering knuckle
Rail
Flange
http://www.hirschvogel.de/en/produkti
onsverfahren/warmumformung.php
See simulation
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Die materials
Required properties
Thermal shock resistance
Forging die
Thermal fatigue resistance
Die materials: alloyed steels (with Cr,
High temperature strength
Mo, W, V), tool steels, cast steels or cast
High wear resistance
iron. (Heat treatments such are nitriding
or chromium plating are required to
Hgh toughness and ductility
improve die life)
High hardenability
High dimensional stability during hardening
High machinability
Note:
1) Carbon steels with 0.7-0.85% C are appropriate for small tools and
flat impressions.
2) Medium-alloyed tool steels for hammer dies.
3) Highly alloyed steels for high temperature resistant dies used in
presses and horizontal forging machines.
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Die materials
Common steels used for forging dies
Forging
materials
Forging dies
Die inserts
Steels
DIN
AISI
DIN
AISI
Light alloys
DIN
AISI
C70 W2
C85 W2
60MnSi4
X30WCrV53
H21
X30WCrV53
40CrMnMo7
X38CrMoV51
H11
X38CrMoV51
H11
X32CrMoV33
H10
55NiCrMoV6
6F2
55NiCrMoV6
56NiCrMoV7
6F3
56NiCrMoV7
6F2
57NiCrMoV77
35NiCrMo16
X38CrMoV51
57NiCrMoV77
57NiCrMoV77
6F3
H11
X30WCrV93
H21
X38CrMoV51
H11
X32CrMoV33
H10
X32CrMoV33
H10
X32CrMoV33
H10
X30WCrV53
X30WCrV52
X30WCrV53
X37CrMoW51
H12
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Die materials
Die life can be increased by
1) Improving die materials such as using composite die or
2) Using surface coating or self-lubricating coatings
Future forging
In
m no
at va
er ti
ia ve
ls d
rfa
su
e
tiv tion
a
v a
no ific
n
I od
m
ce
http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/supporting_industries
/pdfs/innovative_die_materials.pdf
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Die failures
Wear (abrasion)
Thermal fatigue
Mechanical fatigue
Permanent deformation
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U ideal
=
U total
Note:
The calculation for forging load can be divided into three cases according to friction:
In the absence of friction
Low friction condition (lower bound analysis or sliding condition)
High friction condition (sticky friction condition)
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P =oA
Where
.Eq. 4
o
A
4 o Ah
4 Ph
4 Ph
p=
=
2
2
D
Do ho Do2 ho
ho
Do2 h = D 2 h
Where
h
ho
Do
.Eq. 5
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Jan-Mar 2007
Do
ho
D
h
h h ho
e=
=
ho
ho
.Eq. 6
dh
h
ho
= = ln = ln
h
ho
h
ho
.Eq. 7
= ln(e + 1)
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.Eq. 8
Jan-Mar 2007
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stress area = y dx
.Eq. 9
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h( x + d x ) + 2 y dx = h x
.Eq. 10
Rearranging, we have
2 y dx = hd x
.Eq. 11
and therefore
d x
y
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2
dx
h
.Eq. 12
Jan-Mar 2007
y x =
Where
o = o'
.Eq. 13
d y
2
dx
h
.Eq. 14
2 x
ln y =
+ Co .Eq. 15
h
2 x
or y = C exp
.Eq. 16
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Jan-Mar 2007
2 a
'
C exp
= o .Eq. 17
h
2a y
exp
h
'
o
Friction hill
so
2a
C = exp
h
'
o
2
(a x )
h
o' exp
.Eq. 18
-a
o
X
y = exp (a x )
h
'
o
.Eq. 19
x = -a
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x=0
x=a
Jan-Mar 2007
p
w
P = 2 p aw
.Eq. 20
p=
dx =
o
o'
exp (a x )dx
a
h
.Eq. 21
x 2 x3
exp x = 1 + x +
+
+ ...
2! 3!
.Eq. 22
Since is usually small (<1) we can approximate exp x as (1+x) for small x.
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Jan-Mar 2007
y = o' 1 +
2 (a x )
.Eq. 23
p=
2 (a x )
1+
dx
a
h
o'
.Eq. 24
p=
'
o
x +
a
2ax x
h
h 0
2
.Eq. 25
a
p = o' 1 +
.Eq. 26
We can see that as the ratio a/h increases, the forming pressure p and
hence the forming load rises rapidly.
Suranaree University of Technology
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Example:
The flash has high deformation resistance than in the die (due to
much higher a/h ratio), therefore the material completely fills the
cavity rather than being extruded sideward out of the die.
Suranaree University of Technology
Tapany Udomphol
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ax
1
h
y = o'
.Eq. 27
p = o'
+ 1
2h
_
.Eq. 28
Under these conditions, the forming load is dependent on the flow stress
of the material and the geometry of the workpiece.
For example: if the a/h ratio is high, say a/h = 8, then p = 5o. The local
stress on the tooling can therefore be very high indeed and 5o is probably
high enough to deform the tooling in most cold forming operation.
Solutions:
reducing to ensure that sticking friction conditions do not apply.
changing the workpiece geometry.
reducing o by increasing the temperature.
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Tapany Udomphol
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In the case of sticky friction, if we replace the force y with k (the average
shear stress of the material) in Eq.14
d y
y
then we have
2
=
dx
h
.Eq. 14
2 o dx
2k
dx
d y =
dx =
= o'
h
h
3 h
Integrating
y= o'
Since y = o at x = a,
then
.Eq. 29
x
+C
h
.Eq. 30
a
h
.Eq. 31
C = o' + o'
y = o'
x
a
ax
+ o' + o' = o'
+ 1
h
h
h
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Or Eq. 27
Jan-Mar 2007
Example:
max =
2(0.25)
(50 0) = 435MPa
exp
3
6.25
2(6.9)
Likewise, at 25 and 50 mm, the stress distribution will be 58.9 and 8.0 MPa
respectively.
Suranaree University of Technology
Tapany Udomphol
Jan-Mar 2007
The mean forging load (in the sticky friction condition) from Eq.28 is
_
p=
_
p=
2
3
+ 1
2h
2(6.9) 50
+ 1 = 39.8MPa
3 12.5
We calculate the forging load on the assumption that the stress distribution
is based on 100 percent sticky friction. Then
The forging load is P
= stress x area
= (39.8x106)(100x10-3)(150x10-3)
= 597 kN
= 61 tonnes.
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grain structure resulting from (a) forging, (b) machining and (c) casting.
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Forming textures
Redistribution of metal structures occurring during forming
process involves two principle components; 1) redistribution of
inclusions and 2) crystallographic orientation of the grains
Redistribution
during forming of
(a) soft inclusions
(b) hard inclusions
Suranaree University of Technology
Tapany Udomphol
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Forming textures
2) Crystallographic orientation of the grains
Castings
Forgings
Mainly epitaxial,
dendritic or
equiaxed grains
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Redistribution of grains
in the working directions
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Jan-Mar 2007
files.bnpmedia.com
Fluorescence penetrant
reveals Forging laps
Die misalignment.
Forging laps.
Incomplete forging penetration- should
forge on the press.
Microstructural differences resulting in
pronounced property variation.
Hot shortness, due to high sulphur
concentration in steel and nickel.
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See simulation
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Buckling
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Internal cracking
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Summary
Mainly hot forging Blacksmith, now using water power, steam,
electricity, hydraulic machines.
Heavy forging
- Hydraulic press = slow, high force squeeze.
- Pieces up to 200 tonnes with forces up to 25,000 tonnes.
- Simple tools squeeze metal into shape (open-die forging).
- Sufficient deformation must be given to break up the as cast
structure.
- Reheating is often needed to maintain sufficient temperature
for hot working.
- Forging is costly but eliminates some as-cast defects
- Continuous grain flow in the direction of metal flow is
revealed by etching.
- Impurities (inclusions and segregation) have become
elongated and (unlike casting) gives superior properties in the
direction of elongation.
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Jan-Mar 2007
References
Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,
McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
Edwards, L. and Endean, M., Manufacturing with materials,
1990, Butterworth Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-2754-9.
Beddoes, J. and Bibbly M.J., Principles of metal manufacturing
process, 1999, Arnold, ISBN 0-470-35241-8.
Lange, K., Handbook of metal forming, 1919, McGraw-Hill Book
company, ISBN 0-07-036285-8.
Lecture note, Sheffield University, 2003.
Metal forming processes, Prof Manus.
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Jan-Mar 2007