SOURCES OF FOOD DETERIORATION AND FOOD SPOILAGE

Sources of food deterioration and food spoilage can be divided into biological,
chemical, and physical factors. Often, these factors do not operate in isolation.
Bacteria, insects, and light for example can all be operating simultaneously to spoil
food in the field or in a warehouse. Similarly,heat, moisture and air simultaneously
affect the multiplication and activites of bacteria, as well as the chemical activities
of food enzymes. At any one time, many forms of deterioration may take place,
depending on the food and environmental conditions. (N.Potter & H.Hotchkiss,
1995)
1. Bacteria, Yeast, and Moulds
There are thousands of genera and species of microorganisms. Several
hundred are associated in one way or another with food products. Not all cause
disease or food spoilage and the growth of several types is actually desirable
because they are used to make and preserve foods. The lactic-acid-producing
organisms used to make cheese, sauerkraut and certain types of sausage are
examples. Others are used for alcohol production in making wine or beer, or for
flavor production in other foods. However, except where these microorganism are
especially cultivated by selective inoculation or by controlled conditions to favor
their growth over the growth of less desirable types, microorganism multiplication
on or in foods frequently is the major cause of food deterioration. (N.Potter &
H.Hotchkiss, 1995)
Bacteria can grow in fresh foods (meat, fish, milk, vegetables) which are not
acidic. Some bacteria can cause infection and food poisoning as well as spoilage. A
number of bacteria can form spores, which are less easily destroyed by preservation
techniques; they can start to grow again after insufficient heat treatment. (fao.org)
Yeast are somewhat larger, of the order of 20 m or so in individual cell
length and about a third this size in diameter. Most yeast are spherical or ellipsoidal.
(N.Potter & H.Hotchkiss, 1995) Yeasts can be responsible for the decomposition of
food with a high sugar content. The same effect is useful in the production of
various types of food and beverages, such as bread, yogurt, cider, and alcoholic
beverages. (Tricket, Jill, 2001).

Molds are still larger and more complex in structure. They grow by a network
of hairlike fibers called mycelia and send up fruiting bodies that produce mold
spores refered to as conidia. The blackness of bread mold and the blue-coloured
veins of blue cheese are due to conidia; beneath the fruiting heads, the hairlike
mycelia anchor the mold to the food. Mycelia can penetrate the smallest opening; in
the case of a weakened fruit skin or egg shell, they can digest the skin and make
their own route of penetration.
Bacteria, yeasts and moulds like warm, moist conditions. Most bacteria
multiply best at temperature between 16C and 38C; these are termed mesophilic.
Some will grow at temperatures down to the freezing point of water and are called
psychrotrophic or psychrophilic. Others will grow at temperatures as high as 82C,
and we call these thermophilic. The spored of mny bacteria will survive prolonged
exposure to boiling water and then multiply when the temperature is lowered.
(N.Potter & H.Hotchkiss, 1995)
2. Food-borne disease
A special kind of food deterioration that may or may not alter a foods
organoleptic properties has to do with food-borne disease. Foodborne illness (also
foodborne disease and colloquially referred to as food poisoning) is any illness
resulting from the food spoilage of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses,
or parasites that contaminate food as well as chemical or natural toxins such as
poisonous mushrooms. (Wikipedia)
Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum produce bacterial

food

poisoning by intoxification through the production of specific bacterial toxins. In

fact, the toxin produced by C.botulinum is one of the most toxic substances known.
Certain moulds produce mycotoxins, the best known being the aflatoxins of
Aspergillus flavus.
Many bacteria can transmit food-borne infections capable of causing human
disease. These includes Clostridium perfringers, numerous members of the genus
Salmonella, Shigella dysenteriae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Streptococcus pyogens,
Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, and others.
3. Insects, parasites and rodents

Insects are particularly destructive so far as cereal grains, fruits and

vegetables are concerned. The loss of food due to insects destruction varies from 5
to 50 percent depending upon the care taken in the field and the storage. Insects
eggs may persists in the foods even after processing as, for examples, in flour. It is
virtually imposible to produce and transport grains and other food sommodities
completely devoid of insects and insect pests. Therefore, a certain level of insects
contamination in such foods is inevitable but it should be kept to a minimum by
controlling the level of insects infestation. Insects in grain, dried fruits and spices
are generally controlled by fumigation with fumigants like methyl bromide, ethylene
oxide and propylene oxide. Apart from the loss due to food eaten, insects cause
greater damage due to bruises and cuts they make in foods exposing them to
microbial attact resulting in decay. (Manay & Shadaksharaswamy, 2001)
An important food-borne parasite is the trichinosis nematode, Trichinells
spiralis which can enter hogs eating uncooked food wastes. The nematode
penetrates the hogs intestines and finds its way into the pork. If the meat is not
thoroughly cooked, the live worm can infect man. It also is possible to destry the
nematode by frozen storage. All pork and pork products are government inspected,
but as a further safeguard they should be thoroughly cooked before being
consumed. Fish may also may harbor parasiticworms. One kind that invades
saltwater types such as herring, cod, mackerel, and salmon belongs to the genus
Anisakis. The worm, which can infect man, survives normal refrigeration but can be
killed by heating or freezing. It has been a problem in Japan and the Netherkands
where eating raw fish is common. Another parasitic contaminant of foods that
causes much distress is Entamoeba histolytica, responsible for amoebic dysentery.
Cyst of this organism are transmitted in feces and may contaminate foods where
raw human excrement is used as fertilizers for crops. Infected water and poor
hygiene also spread the parasites. (N.Potter & H.Hotchkiss, 1995) Rodents
contribute substantially to food shortages in countries where they are not
controlled. Rats live up to 3 years and may have 3-8 litters. Apart from the fact that
they consume large quantities of food, they contaminate food. Rodents urine and
droppings harbor several kinds of disease producing bacteria, and rats spread such
human

disease

as

typhus

Shadaksharaswamy, 2001)

fever,

plague,

typhoid

fever,

etc.

(Manay

&

4. Food enzymes
Insufficient enzyme production is at the root of much "tummy trouble".
Digestive problems cost Americans $50 billion each year in both direct costs and
absence from work. It is a sad fact that 90 percent of the food Americans buy is
processed food. Diets heavy in cooked, processed, and sugary foods, combined with
overuse of pharmaceutical drugs such as antibiotics, deplete your body's ability to
make enzymes. Enzymes may be relatively large, but their protein structures are
fragile. The amino acids in the molecular chain link together to form certain patterns
and shapes, which give enzymes their unique characteristics and functions. When
something disrupts the chain's structure, the enzyme becomes "denatured"it
changes shape and loses its ability to perform. Heating your food above 116
degrees F renders most enzymes inactive. This is one of the reasons it's so
important to eat your foods raw. Raw foods are enzyme-rich, and consuming them
decreases your body's burden to produce its own enzymes. The more food that you
can eat raw, the better. Ideally, you should get 75 percent of your digestive
enzymes from your food. (mercola)
Just as microorganisms possess enzymes that ferment, rancidify, and putrefy
foods, healthy uninfected food plants and animal have their own enzymes
complement, the activity of which largely survives harvest and slaughter. Cereal
grains and seeds recovered after 60 years of storage still possessed the properties
of respiration, germination, and growth-all enzymes-controlled functions. Not only
can enzyme activity persists throughtout the entire useful life of many natural and
manufactured foods, but this activity often is intensified after harvest and slaughter.
This is because enzymatic reactions are delicately balanced in the normally
functional living plant and animal; but the balance is upset when the animal is killed
or the plant removed from the field. Thus, although pepsin helps digest protein in
the animal intestine, it does not digest the intestine itself in the healthy living
animal. However, when the body defenses cease a slaughter, pepsin does not
contribute to proteolysis of the organs containing it. A great many similar runaway
enzymatic reactions can be found in plants. (Potter, N.N, 1995)When temperatures
are not properly controlled, food can spoil. For example, for every 18F rise in
temperature within the moderate temperature range where most food is handled
(50F to 100F), the rate of chemical reaction is approximately doubled. As a result,

excessive heat will increase the rate of natural food enzyme reactions and the
reactions of other food constituents. As a result, protein will breakdown or denature;
emulsions will break; some vitamins will be destroyed; moisture will be lost and
foods will dry out; and the color, flavor and odor of some products may be affected.
Exposing foods to uncontrolled cold temperatures will also cause physical
spoilage. Fruits and vegetables that accidentally freeze and thaw have their texture
and appearance affected. Skins and surfaces of these products will often crack,
leaving them more susceptible to microbial contamination. Some foods that become
frozen may also be adversely affected. For example, if mayonnaise freezes, the
emulsion will break and the components will separate.
Action of enzymes in food resulting food spoilage. Enzymes speed up
chemical changes that result in loss of flavour, colour and texture. As enzymes are
mainly composed of protein, they are sensitive to heat. They are active in
temperatures found in a kitchen on a warm sunny day. They can remain very
slightly active at very low temperatures such as those found in the freezer. This is
why there is a limit to the time food can be stored in a freezer. The activity of these
enzymes stops when they are heated above 70 oC. Heat treatment by blanching
(i.e. pouring boiling water on the food) is recommended. Some enzymes remain
inactive until the food is harvested or slaughtered. Once activated, such enzymes
speed up the process of decay by breaking down the tissues and components of the
food in the various ways such as oxidation, browning and ripening. When Oxidation
occurs (i.e. when food comes into contact with oxygen) the enzymes cause the
destruction of certain nutrients e.g. vitamin c, thiamine and carotene. Enzymes
again cause browning in certain foods the moment they are exposed to air. When
you cut or bruise food such as apple or yam, the exposed surface will discolour and
turn brownish due to the activity of enzymes. Enzymes are involved in the process
that causes ripening in certain foods such as fruits and vegetables. Unripe bananas
for example contain starch which is gradually converted to sugars, until the banana
becomes very sweet, and its skin colour changes from green to yellow. Eventually,
the skin colour changes to dark brown and it is no longer fit to be consumed. The
activity of enzymes in food makes it easier for the micro-organisms responsible for
food spoilage to enter the food. (Wikipedia)

5. Heat and cold

When temperatures are not properly controlled, food can spoil. For example,
for every 18F rise in temperature within the moderate temperature range where
most food is handled (50F to 100F), the rate of chemical reaction is approximately
doubled. As a result, excessive heat will increase the rate of natural food enzyme
reactions and the reactions of other food constituents. As a result, protein will
breakdown or denature; emulsions will break; some vitamins will be destroyed;
moisture will be lost and foods will dry out; and the color, flavor and odor of some
products may be affected. (food safety site)
Cold damage to foods does not necessarily require the extreme of freezing.
Fruits and vegetables after harvest, like other living systems, have optimum
temperature requirements. (Potter, N.N et al, 1995)Exposing foods to uncontrolled
cold temperatures will also cause physical spoilage. Fruits and vegetables that
accidentally freeze and thaw have their texture and appearance affected. Skins and
surfaces of these products will often crack, leaving them more susceptible to
microbial contamination. Some foods that become frozen may also be adversely
affected. For example, if mayonnaise freezes, the emulsion will break and the
components will separate. (food safety site)
Spoilage is caused in many foods by temperatures that are not extreme. Cold
damage of several fruits and vegetables can occur at common refrigerator
temperatures (35-40F). Defects in produce exposed to cold temperatures include
the development of off-colors, surface pitting and a variety of decays. Uncut, fresh
fruits and vegetables such as bananas, lemons, squash and tomatoes are products
that should be held at temperatures no colder than 50F for best quality. (food
safety site)
6. Moisture and dryness
Excessive moisture pickup or loss causes substantial deteriorative changes in
foods. Moisture is required for chemical reactions and for microorganisms growth;
excessive moisture can accelerate these types of deterioration. Excessive loss of
moisture can also have detrimental affects particularly on appearance and texture.
Moisture need not be present throughout the food to exert major effects. (N.Potter &
H.Hotchkiss, 1995)

Perishable foods have a high water content. Leafy vegetables, young shoots,
juicy fruits, meats and milk deteriorate rapidly. Even if the moisture content is not
uniform throughout the food, it exerts its influence. Surface moisture changes due
to changes in relative humidity can cause lumping and caking, surface defects,
crystallization and stickiness in foods. Condensation of even small amounts of
moisture can result in the multiplication of bacteria and molds. This condensation
need not come from outside. Fruits and vegetables can give off moisture from
respiration and transpiration even when packed in a moisture-free package. This
moisture trapped within the package is enough for the microorganisms to grow.
Even nonliving foods in moisture-proof package. This moisture trapped within the
package is enough for the microorganism to grow. Even nonliving foods in moistureproof packages can give up moisture and change relative humidity in the enclosed
space, which can result in microbial growth. Control of moisture in foods is thus very
important

from

the

point

of

view

of

their

preservation.

((Manay

&

Shadaksharaswamy, 2001)
7. Oxygen
Oxygen makes up 20% in the air. It is quite reactive and causes substantial
deteriorative effects in many foods. Besides the destructive effects due to chemical
oxidation of nutrients (especially vitamins A and C), food colours, favours, and other
food constituents, oxygen is also essential for mold growth. All molds are aerobic
and this is why they are found growing on the surface of foods and other substances
or within cracks in these materials.
Oxygen

give

perfect

condition

for

microorganism

to

grow

well.

Microorganisms that are the primary concern to food processors include bacteria,
yeasts, molds, and viruses. Bacteria are associated with both food spoilage and
foodborne illness. Yeasts and molds are most often associated with food spoilage.
Viruses are a food safety issue. Microorganisms that cause food spoilage and
degrade food quality are not the same microorganisms that causes foodborne
illness. You cannot look at a food and know that it is not safe to eat. (Bacon, K.
2012)
Many food spoilage mould species have an absolute requirements for oxygen
and appear to be sensitive to high levels of carbon dioxide. Many yeasts are capable

of growing in the complete absence of oxygen and mosr are comparatively resistant
to carbon dioxide. (Blakiston, 1993)
8. Light
Light destroy some vitamins, notably riboflavin, vitamin A and vitamin C and
causes deterioration of many food colours. Milk in bottles exposed to the sun
develops sunlight flavor due to light-induced fat oxidation and changes in the
protein. Not all wavelengths making up natural or artificial light are equally
absorbed by food constituents or are equally destructive. Surface discolorations of
sausages and meat pigments are different under natural light and under fluorescent
light that may be encountered in display cases. Sensitive foods often can be
protected from light by opaque packaging or by incorporating compounds into glass
and transparent films that screen out light of specific wavelengths. (N.Potter &
H.Hotchkiss, 1995)
In liquid foods, light penetration can be greater and with mixing of the
products due to agitation, larger portions of food constituents may be deteriorated.
The light sensitivity of a food depends on many factors including the: light source
strength and type of light that it emits; distance of the light source form the food;
length of exposure optical properties of the packaging materials; oxygen
concentration of the food; and the temperature. (food safety site)
Photodegradation occurs when the absorption of light directly causes a
chemical reaction in a constituent in the food, or when light indirectly causes a
reaction in a second constituent by its effect on the first one. Photodegradation
usually affects specific components in food, such as pigments, vitamins, fats and
proteins. Absorption of light can cause food to develop off-flavors and lose or
change color. It can also cause vitamin loss. How sensitive a food is to
photodegradation depends on factors such as the strength and type of the light,
length of exposure, distance from the light, temperature, oxygen content of the
food, optical properties of the packaging, and whether the food is a solid or liquid.
Light usually penetrates only the outer layer in a solid food, typically causing
discoloration on its surface. Light can penetrate liquids more deeply and affect more
constituents because of mixing and agitation. When brightly-colored spices and
herbs, such as chili powder, have faded, their flavor and nutrient content have

suffered, too. In addition, water-soluble vitamins such as those in the B family are
very sensitive to photodegradation. For example, the riboflavin content in enriched
macaroni has been known to drop by 50 percent after exposure to light for one day,
according to MSNBC.com. In addition, antioxidant activity in olive oil can decrease
by 40 percent after six months when stored in the open. (livestrong)
9. Salt and sugar
Salt and sugar added to foods "tie" up water and lower the water activity.
When enough salt or sugar is added to a food, the water activity will be lowered to a
level that will prevent microorganisms from growing. In general, bacterial glowth is
inhibited by the addition of 5-15% salt. Yeasts and molds can tolerate up to 15%
salt. To inhibit mold growth, 65-70% sugar must be added. The addition of up to
50% sugar will inhibit bacteria and yeast growth.
Some microorganisms are tolerant of certain conditions. Halophilic (saltliking) microorganisms require salt to be present for the organism to grow.
Osmiophilic ( sugar-liking) microorganisms, usually yeasts, grow best at high
concentrations of sugar. Xerophilic (dry-liking) microorganisms can grow with limited
moisture. (food.unl)
10. Physical damage
Bruises and cracks on raw produce leave areas where microorganisms easily
may grow. Improperly packaged foods, dented cans and broken packages provide
places for microorganisms, air, light and creatures to enter. Gentle handling of food
items will help maintain food quality and safety longer. (food.unl)
11. Time
After slaughter, harvest or food manufacture there is a time when the quality
of food is the highest. In many products this quality peak can be passed in the field
in a day or two, or after harvest in a matter of hours. Fresh corn and peas are
notable examples. The growth of microorganisms, destruction by insects, action of
food enzymes, nonenzymatic interaction of food constituents, loss of favour
volatiles, and the effects of heat, cold, moisture, oxygen ang light all progress with
time. This is not to say that certain cheese, sausages, wines, and other fermented
foods are not improved with ageing up to a point. But for the vast majority of foods,

quality decreases with time and major goals of food-handling and preservation
practices are to capture and maintain freshness. Adequate processing, packaging,
and storage may prolong the shelf life of foods considerably but cannot extend it
indefinitely. Eventually, the quality of any food product decreases. (N.Potter &
H.Hotchkiss, 1995)
12. pH level
Another factor inducing the spoilage of food is pH level. Each organism has
an ideal level of pH that suits its growth. A pH imbalanced food is particularly prone
to fungal attacks as fungi have higher tolerance levels for acid than bacteria. For
example, even a pH level of 4.5 will not thwart the growth of fungus. Fungus are
known to survive even level lower than 4.5. But bacteria need the pH to be around
7. The food items that have a pH below 4.5 are classified as acid foods. Acid foods
are more susceptible to spoilage due to yeast and moulds. The pH level in any
natural food is an inherent property. So, this again is an intrinsic factor. (jottedlines)
13. food-handling method
The term food handler can be applied to anyone who touches or handles
food, and this includes people who process, transport, prepare, cook and serve food.
The presence of microorganisms on the hands and outer garments of food handlers
reflects the standard of hygiene in the environment and the individuals personal
hygiene (as you learned in earlier study sessions). The microorganisms transmitted
to foods by food handlers may come from the hides of animals, soil, water, dust,
gastrointestinal tracts and other environmental sources. In food preparation at
home, foodborne microorganisms can be introduced from the unwashed hands of
people who are infected by bacteria and viruses, and who cook and serve the food
to family members. ( open.edu)

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad379e/ad379e02.htm

https: http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2011/08/21/enzymesspecial-report.aspx//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodborne_illness
http://wikieducator.org/Lesson_8:_Food_Spoilage
http://www.foodsafetysite.com/educators/competencies/general/spoilage/spg1.html
http://food.unl.edu/food-poisoning-foodborne-illness
http://www.livestrong.com/article/523460-does-light-affect-how-fast-foods-spoil/
http://jottedlines.com/general/factors-that-cause-food-spoilage/
http://www.open.edu/openlearnworks/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=194&printable=1
Blakiston, B. (1993). Principles and Applications of Modified Atmoephere Packaging
of Foods. New York: Springer Science-Business Media, LLC.
Manay, N., & Shadaksharaswamy, N. (2001). Food Facts and Principles. New Delhi:
New Age Internantional(P) Limited Publishers.
N.Potter, N., & H.Hotchkiss, J. (1995). Food Science. USA: Library of Congress
Cataloging-in-Publication Data.
Tricket, & Jill. (2001). The Prevention of Food Poisoning.