Cartography

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Cartographer" redirects here. For other uses, see Cartographer (disambiguation).

A medieval depiction of the Ecumene (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver), constructed after the coordinates
in Ptolemy's Geography and using his second map projection. The translation into Latin and dissemination
of Geography in Europe, in the beginning of the 15th century, marked the rebirth of scientific cartography, after
more than a millennium of stagnation.

Cartography (from Greek kharts, "map"; and graphein, "write") is the study and
practice of making maps. Combiningscience, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the
premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.
The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to:[citation needed]

Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of
map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such
as toponyms or political boundaries.

Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map
projections.

Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose.
This is the concern of generalization.

Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of
generalization.

Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the
concern of map design.

Modern cartography is largely integrated with geographic information science (GIScience) and
constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Technological changes

3 Deconstruction

4 Map types
o

4.1 General vs. thematic cartography

4.2 Topographic vs. topological

5 Map design
o

5.1 Map purpose and selection of information

5.2 Naming conventions

5.3 Map symbology

5.4 Map generalization

5.5 Map projections

6 Cartographic errors

7 See also

8 References
o

8.1 Bibliography

9 Further reading

10 External links

History[edit]
Main articles: History of cartography and List of cartographers
See also: Surveying History, Cadastre History and Topographic mapping History

Valcamonica rock art (I), Paspardo r. 29, topographic composition, 4th millennium BC

The Bedolina Map and its tracing, 6th4th century BC

Copy (1472) of St. Isidore's TO mapof the world.

The earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the definition of "map" is not
sharp and because some artifacts speculated to be maps might actually be something else. A wall
painting, which may depict the ancient Anatolian city of atalhyk (previously known as Catal
Huyuk or atal Hyk), has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE. [1][2] Among the prehistoric
alpine rock carvings of Mount Bego (F) and Valcamonica (I), geometric patterns (dotted rectangles
and lines) are widely interpreted[3][4] in archaeological literature as a plan depiction of cultivated plots.
[5]
Defined as "topographic representations" and well dated to the 4th millennium BC, they witness the
introduction of the agriculture in the alpine territory.[6] Other known maps of the ancient world include
the Minoan "House of the Admiral" wall painting from c. 1600 BCE, showing a seaside community in
an oblique perspective and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from
the Kassite period (14th 12th centuries BCE).[7] The oldest surviving world maps are
the Babylonian world maps from the 9th century BCE.[8] One shows Babylon on the Euphrates,
surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu[9] and several cities, in turn surrounded

by a "bitter river" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it.[10] Another depicts Babylon as
being further north from the center of the world.[8]
Topographic compositions were also carved in the alpine rock art during the Iron Age. Best known is
the Bedolina Map, in Valcamonica, with a composition dated to the 6th-4th century BC.[11] The ancient
Greeks and Romans created maps, beginning at latest with Anaximander in the 6th century BC.[12] In
the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy produced his treatise on cartography, Geographia.[13] This
contained Ptolemy's world map the world then known to Western society (Ecumene). As early as
the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic.[14]
In ancient China, geographical literature spans back to the 5th century BC. The oldest extant
Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BC, during the Warring
States period. In the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su
Song, astar map on the equidistant cylindrical projection.[15][16] Although this method of charting seems
to have existed in China even prior to this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the
star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form.
Early forms of cartography of India included the locations of the Pole star and other constellations of
use.[17] These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of
navigation.[17]
Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi
are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating
manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents. [18]

The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Muhammad al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154

The Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154.
He incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East, gathered by Arab
merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the
most accurate map of the world up until his time. It remained the most accurate world map for the
next three centuries.[19]

Europa regina inSebastian Mnster's "Cosmographia", 1570

In the Age of Exploration, from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both
copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based
on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic
compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German
cartographer, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.[20]
Johannes Werner refined and promoted the Werner projection. In 1507, Martin
Waldseemller produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (Universalis
Cosmographia) bearing the first use of the name "America". Portuguese cartographer Diego
Ribero was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator
(1527). Italian cartographer Battista Agnese produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts.
Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material
from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most
famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the "Beaver Map", published in 1715
by Herman Moll. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer in turn
had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697,
and Franois Du Creux, in 1664. By the 18th century, map-makers started to give credit to the
original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work. [21]

Technological changes[edit]

A pre-Mercator nautical chart of 1571, from Portuguese cartographerFerno Vaz Dourado (c. 1520c. 1580). It
belongs to the so-called plane chartmodel, where observed latitudes and magnetic directions are plotted

directly into the plane, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were a plane (Portuguese National Archives of
Torre do Tombo, Lisbon).

Mapping can be done with GPS andlaser rangefinder directly in the field. Image shows mapping of forest
structure (position of trees, dead wood and canopy).

In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new
generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes
and parchment; therefore, varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic
devices, such as thecompass and much later, magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of
far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.
Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier, allowed for the
mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data.
Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed
for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by
measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon.
Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have
allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture
and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further shortened the time it takes to
make and reproduce maps.
In the 20th century, Aerial photography, satellite imagery, and remote sensing provided efficient,
precise methods for mapping physical features, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, watersheds,
and topography. Advancements in electronic technology ushered in another revolution in
cartography. Ready availability of computers and peripherals such as monitors, plotters, printers,
scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for
visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, democratized and
greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto
existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials.
See also digital raster graphic.
These days most commercial-quality maps are made using software that falls into one of three main
types: CAD, GIS and specialized illustrationsoftware. Spatial information can be stored in
a database, from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dynamic,
interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally.
With the field rugged computers, GPS and laser rangefinders, it is possible to perform mapping
directly in the terrain.

Deconstruction[edit]

There are technical and cultural aspects to the producing maps. In this sense, maps are biased. The
study of bias, influence, and agenda in making a map is what comprise a map's deconstruction. A
central tenet of deconstructionism is that maps have power. Other assertions are that maps are
inherently biased and that we search for metaphor and rhetoric in maps. [22]
It was the Europeans who promoted an epistemological understanding of the map as early as the
17th century.[22] An example of this understanding is that, "[European reproduction of terrain on maps]
reality can be expressed in mathematical terms; that systematic observation and measurement offer
the only route to cartographic truth".[22] 17th century map-makers were careful and precise in their
strategic approaches to maps based on a scientific model of knowledge. Popular belief at the time
was that this scientific approach to cartography was immune to the social atmosphere.
A common belief is that science heads in a direction of progress, and thus leads to more accurate
representations of maps. In this belief European maps must be superior to others, which necessarily
employed different map-making skills. "There was a 'not cartography' land where lurked an army of
inaccurate, heretical, subjective, valuative, and ideologically distorted images. Cartographers
developed a 'sense of the other' in relation to nonconforming maps." [22]
Though cartography has been a target of much criticism in recent decades, a cartographer's 'black
box' always seemed to be naturally defended to the point where it overcame the criticism. However,
to later scholars in the field, it was evident that cultural influences dominate map-making. [22] For
instance, certain abstracts on maps and the map-making society itself describe the social influences
on the production of maps. This social play on cartographic knowledge "produces the 'order' of
[maps'] features and the 'hierarchies of its practices.'" [23]
Depictions of Africa are a common target of deconstructionism.[24] According to deconstructionist
models, cartography was used for strategic purposes associated with imperialism and as
instruments and representations of power[25] during the conquest of Africa. The depiction of Africa and
the low latitudes in general on the Mercator projection has been interpreted as imperialistic and as
symbolic of subjugation due to the diminished proportions of those regions compared to higher
latitudes where the European powers were concentrated. [26]
Maps furthered imperialism and colonization of Africa through practical ways such as showing basic
information like roads, terrain, natural resources, settlements, and communities. Through this, maps
made European commerce in Africa possible by showing potential commercial routes, and made
natural resource extraction possible by depicting locations of resources. Such maps also enabled
military conquests and made them more efficient, and imperial nations further used them to put their
conquests on display. These same maps were then used to cement territorial claims, such as at
the Berlin Conference of 18841885.[25]
Before 1749, maps of the African continent had African kingdoms drawn with assumed or contrived
boundaries, with unknown or unexplored areas having drawings of animals, imaginary physical
geographic features, and descriptive texts. In 1748 Jean B. B. d'Anville created the first map of the
African continent that had blank spaces to represent the unknown territory.[25]This was revolutionary
in cartography and the representation of power associated with map making.

Map types[edit]
General vs. thematic cartography[edit]

Small section of an orienteering map.

Topographic map of Easter Island.

Relief map Sierra Nevada

In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories:
general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are
constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit
many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, the 1:24,000
scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are a standard as
compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The government of the UK produces the classic
1:50,000 (replacing the older 1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of the entire UK and with a
range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.
Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes, oriented toward specific
audiences. A couple of examples might be a dot mapshowing corn production in Indiana or a shaded
area map of Ohio counties, divided into numerical choropleth classes. As the volume of geographic
data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and
necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data.
An orienteering map combines both general and thematic cartography, designed for a very specific
user community. The most prominent thematic element is shading, that indicates degrees of difficulty
of travel due to vegetation. The vegetation itself is not identified, merely classified by the difficulty
("fight") that it presents.

Topographic vs. topological[edit]

A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including
(especially in the 20th and 21st centuries) the use ofcontour lines showing elevation. Terrain or relief
can be shown in a variety of ways (see Cartographic relief depiction).
A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind one might sketch on a napkin. It often
disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational
information. Beck's London Underground map is an iconic example. Though the most widely used
map of "The Tube," it preserves little of reality: it varies scale constantly and abruptly, it straightens
curved tracks, and it contorts directions. The only topography on it is the River Thames, letting the
reader know whether a station is north or south of the river. That and the topology of station order
and interchanges between train lines are all that is left of the geographic space. [27] Yet those are all a
typical passenger wishes to know, so the map fulfils its purpose. [28]

Map design[edit]

Illustrated map.

Map purpose and selection of information[edit]

Arthur H. Robinson, an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that a map
not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure." He also claimed, when considering all aspects
of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex."[29] Robinson codified the mapmaker's
understanding that a map must be designed foremost with consideration to the audience and its
needs.
From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set
of purposes".[30] The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the percipient
acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term percipient refers to the person receiving
information and was coined by Robinson.[31] The principle of figure-ground refers to this notion of
engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose
of the map. This will enhance the user's experience and keep his attention. If the user is unable to
identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be regarded as useless.
Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. Alan MacEachren explains that a well designed map
"is convincing because it implies authenticity" (1994, pp. 9). An interesting map will no doubt engage
a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate shows relationships within the map.
Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness of the map. This
also generates hypothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. In order to convey the
message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the reader in the overall
understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for
communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the
reader interprets it (Monmonier, 1993, pp. 93).

In the 21st century it is possible to find a map of virtually anything from the inner workings of
the human body to the virtual worlds of cyberspace. Therefore, there are now a huge variety of
different styles and types of map for example, one area which has evolved a specific and
recognisable variation are those used by public transport organisations to guide passengers,
namely urban rail and metro maps, many of which are loosely based on 45 degree angles as
originally perfected by Harry Beck and George Dow.

Naming conventions[edit]
Main articles: Toponymy and Cartographic labeling
Most maps use text to label places and for such things as the map title, legend and other
information. Although maps are often made in one specific language, place names often differ
between languages. So a map made in English may use the name Germany for that country, while a
German map would use Deutschland and a French map Allemagne. A non-native term for a place is
referred to as an exonym.
In some cases the correct name is not clear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its
name to Myanmar, but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use Burma.
Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain
in common use. Examples include the use of Saigon for Ho Chi Minh City,Bangkok for Krung
Thep and Ivory Coast for Cte d'Ivoire.
Difficulties arise when transliteration or transcription between writing systems is required. Some wellknown places have well-established names in other languages and writing systems, such
as Russia or Ruland for , but in other cases a system of transliteration or transcription is
required. Even in the former case, the exclusive use of an exonym may be unhelpful for the map
user. It will not be much use for an English user of a map of Italy to show Livorno only as "Leghorn"
when road signs and railway timetables show it as "Livorno". In transliteration, the characters in one
script are represented by characters in another. For example, the Cyrillic letter is usually written
as R in the Latin script, although in many cases it is not as simple as a one-for-one equivalence.
Systems exist for transliteration of Arabic, but the results may vary. For example, the Yemeni city
of Mocha is written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukh, Mocca and Moka.
Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is
the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of another. Chinese writing is now usually
converted to the Latin alphabet through the Pinyin phonetic transcription systems. Other systems
were used in the past, such as Wade-Giles, resulting in the city being spelled Beijing on newer
English maps and Peking on older ones.
Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national
geographic naming standard. In such cases, cartographers may have to choose between various
phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some
countries have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the
capital of Belgium is both Brussel and Bruxelles. In Canada, English and French are official
languages and places have names in both languages. British Columbia is also officially named la
Colombie-Britannique. English maps rarely show the French names outside of Quebec, which itself
is spelled Qubec in French.[32]
The study of placenames is called toponymy, while that of the origin and historical usage of
placenames as words is etymology.
In order to improve legibility or to aid the illiterate, some maps have been produced using pictograms
to represent places. The iconic example of this practice is Lance Wyman's early plans for the Mexico
City Metro, on which stations were shown simply as stylized logos. Wyman also prototyped such a
map for the Washington Metro, though ultimately the idea was rejected. Other cities experimenting
with such maps are Fukuoka, Guadalajara and Monterrey.[33]

Map symbology[edit]

A map of the southwest coast ofIreland created in the early 18th century. Notice the north arrow at the bottom
of the map. Also, colors are used in the map to distinguish different geographical areas.

The quality of a map's design affects its reader's ability to extract information and to learn from the
map. Cartographic symbology has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and
effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the
map, known as its symbology. The title indicates the region the map portrays; the map image
portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention only
dictates inclusion of some elements, while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements
includes the neatline (border), compass rose or north arrow, overview map, bar scale, map
projection and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication.
When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses and cars. Not so with a map.
Even such a simple thing as a north arrow is crucial. It may seem obvious that the top of a map
should point north, but this might not be the case.
Map coloring is also very important. How the cartographer displays the data in different hues can
greatly affect the understanding or feel of the map. Different intensities of hue portray different
objectives the cartographer is attempting to get across to the audience. Today, personal computers
can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time. This fact allows for a multitude of color options
for even for the most demanding maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to
give even more options. This is very beneficial, when symbolizing data in categories such as quintile
and equal interval classifications.
Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbol
represents and to symbolize this data on a map, there are two major classes of symbols used for
portraying quantitative properties. Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a
quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. Choropleth maps portray data
collection areas, such as counties or census tracts, with color. Using color this way, the darkness
and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or
concentration.

Map generalization[edit]
Main article: Cartographic generalization
A good map has to compromise between portraying the items of interest (or themes) in the right
place on the map, and the need to show that item using text or a symbol, which take up space on
the map and might displace some other item of information. The cartographer is thus constantly
making judgements about what to include, what to leave out and what to show in aslightly incorrect
place. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e. the map
shows a larger area) because the information shown on the map takes up more space on the
ground. A good example from the late 1980s was the Ordnance Survey's first digital maps, where
the absolute positions of major roads were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of metres away

from ground truth, when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250,000 and 1:625,000, because of
the overriding need to annotate the features.

Map projections[edit]
Main article: Map projection
The Earth being spherical, any flat representation generates distortions such that shapes and areas
cannot both be conserved simultaneously, and distances can never all be preserved. [34]The
mapmaker must choose a suitable map projection according to the space to be mapped and the
purpose of the map.

Cartographic errors[edit]
Some maps contain deliberate errors or distortions, either as propaganda or as a "watermark" to
help the copyright owner identify infringement if the error appears in competitors' maps. The latter
often come in the form of nonexistent, misnamed, or misspelled "trap streets".[35] Other names and
forms for this are paper townsites, fictitious entries, and copyright easter eggs.[36]
Another motive for deliberate errors is cartographic "vandalism": a mapmaker wishing to leave his or
her mark on the work. Mount Richard, for example, was a fictitious peak on the Rocky
Mountains' continental divide that appeared on a Boulder County, Colorado map in the early 1970s.
It is believed to be the work of draftsman Richard Ciacci. The fiction was not discovered until two
years later.
Sandy Island (New Caledonia) is an example of a fictitious location that stubbornly survives,
reappearing on new maps copied from older maps while being deleted from other new editions.

See also[edit]

History of cartography
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Fra Mauro map, one great medieval European map, was made around 1450 by the Venetian monk Fra
Mauro. It is a circular world map drawn on parchment and set in a wooden frame, about two meters in diameter

Cartography or mapmaking, has been an integral part of the human history for a long time, possibly
up to 8,000 years.[1] From cave paintings to ancient maps of Babylon, Greece, and Asia, through
the Age of Exploration, and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as
essential tools to help them define, explain, and navigate their way through the world. Maps began
as two-dimensional drawings but can also adopt three-dimensional shapes (globes, models) and be
stored in purely numerical forms.
The term cartography is modern, loaned into English from French cartographie in the 1840s, based
on Middle Latin carta "map".
Contents
[hide]

1 Earliest known maps

2 Ancient Near East

3 Ancient Greece
o

3.1 Early Greek literature

3.2 Early Greek maps

3.3 Spherical Earth and meridians

4 Roman empire
o

4.1 Pomponius Mela (c. 43)

4.2 5th-century Roman road map

5 China

5.1 Earliest extant maps from the Qin State

5.2 Earliest geographical writing

5.3 Earliest known reference to a map, or 'tu'

5.4 Han Dynasty and period of division

5.5 Pei Xiu, the 'Ptolemy of China'

5.6 Sui and Tang dynasties

5.7 Song Dynasty

5.8 Ming and Qing dynasties

5.9 People's Republic of China era

6 Mongol Empire

7 India

8 Arab cartography
o

8.1 Regional cartography

8.2 Book on the appearance of the Earth

8.3 Tabula Rogeriana

9 Piri Reis map

10 Pacific islands

11 European cartography
o

11.1 Medieval maps and the Mappa Mundi

11.2 The Majorcan cartographic school and the Normal Portolan Chart

11.3 Roger Bacon and the Italian cartography school

11.4 The Age of Exploration

11.5 First maps of the Americas

11.6 Diogo Ribeiro map (1527)

11.7 Gerardus Mercator (1569)

11.8 Ortelius and the first atlas

11.9 Enlightenment and scientific map-making

12 Modern cartography

13 Technological changes

14 See also
o

14.1 Related histories

15 Notes

16 References

17 External links

Earliest known maps[edit]

The earliest known maps are of the stars, not the earth. Dots dating to 16,500 BC found on the walls
of the Lascaux caves map out part of the night sky, including the three bright stars Vega,Deneb,
and Altair (the Summer Triangle asterism), as well as the Pleiades star cluster. The Cuevas de El
Castillo in Spain contain a dot map of the Corona Borealis constellation dating from 12,000 BC.[2][3][4]
Cave painting and rock carvings used simple visual elements that may have aided in recognizing
landscape features, such as hills or dwellings.[5] A map-like representation of a mountain, river,
valleys and routes around Pavlov in the Czech Republic has been dated to 25,000 BP,[6] and a
14,000 BP polished chunk of sandstone from a cave in Spanish Navarre may represent similar
features superimposed on animal etchings, although it may also represent a spiritual landscape, or
simple incisings.[7][8]
Another ancient picture that resembles a map was created in the late 7th millennium BC
in atalhyk, Anatolia, modern Turkey. This wall painting may represent a plan of this Neolithic
village;[9] however, recent scholarship has questioned the identification of this painting as a map. [10]
Whoever visualized the atalhyk "mental map" may have been encouraged by the fact that
houses in atalhyk were clustered together and were entered via flat roofs. Therefore, it was
normal for the inhabitants to view their city from a bird's eye view. Later civilizations followed the
same convention; today, almost all maps are drawn as if we are looking down from the sky instead
of from a horizontal or oblique perspective. The logical advantage of such a perspective is that it
provides a view of a greater area, conceptually. There are exceptions: one of the "quasi-maps" of
the Minoan civilization on Crete, the House of the Admiral wall painting, dating from c. 1600 BC,
shows a seaside community in an oblique perspective.

Ancient Near East[edit]

Maps in Ancient Babylonia were made by using accurate surveying techniques.[11]
For example, a 7.6 6.8 cm clay tablet found in 1930 at Ga-Sur, near contemporary Kirkuk, shows a
map of a river valley between two hills. Cuneiform inscriptions label the features on the map,

including a plot of land described as 354 iku (12 hectares) that was owned by a person called Azala.
Most scholars date the tablet to the 25th to 24th century BC; Leo Bagrow dissents with a date of
7000 BC.[page needed] Hills are shown by overlapping semicircles, rivers by lines, and cities by circles. The
map also is marked to show the cardinal directions.[1]
An engraved map from the Kassite period (14th12th centuries BC) of Babylonian history shows
walls and buildings in the holy city of Nippur.[12]
In contrast, the Babylonian World Map, the earliest surviving map of the world (c. 600 BC), is a
symbolic, not a literal representation. It deliberately omits peoples such as
the Persians andEgyptians, who were well known to the Babylonians. The area shown is depicted as
a circular shape surrounded by water, which fits the religious image of the world in which the
Babylonians believed.
Examples of maps from ancient Egypt are quite rare. However, those that have survived show an
emphasis on geometry and well-developed surveying techniques, perhaps stimulated by the need to
re-establish the exact boundaries of properties after the annual Nile floods. The Turin Papyrus Map,
dated c. 1160 BC, shows the mountains east of the Nile where gold and silver were mined, along
with the location of the miners' shelters, wells, and the road network that linked the region with the
mainland. Its originality can be seen in the map's inscriptions, its precise orientation, and the use of
colour.

Ancient Greece[edit]
Early Greek literature[edit]
In reviewing the literature of early geography and early conceptions of the earth, all sources lead
to Homer, who is considered by many (Strabo, Kish, and Dilke) as the founding father of Geography.
Regardless of the doubts about Homer's existence, one thing is certain: he never was a mapmaker.
The enclosed map, which represents the conjectural view of the Homeric world, was never created
by him. It is an imaginary reconstruction of the world as Homer described it in his two poems
the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is worth mentioning that each of these writings involves strong
geographic symbolism. They can be seen as descriptive pictures of life and warfare in the Bronze
Age and the illustrated plans of real journeys. Thus, each one develops a philosophical view of the
world, which makes it possible to show this information in the form of a map.
The depiction of the Earth conceived by Homer, which was accepted by the early Greeks,
represents a circular flat disk surrounded by a constantly moving stream of Ocean,[13]:22 an idea which
would be suggested by the appearance of the horizon as it is seen from a mountaintop or from a
seacoast. Homer's knowledge of the Earth was very limited. He and his Greek contemporaries knew
very little of the Earth beyond Egypt as far south as the Libyan desert, the south-west coast of Asia
Minor, and the northern boundary of the Greek homeland. Furthermore, the coast of the Black Sea
was only known through myths and legends that circulated during his time. In his poems there is no
mention of Europe and Asia as geographical concepts.[14] That is why the big part of Homer's world
that is portrayed on this interpretive map represents lands that border on the Aegean Sea. It is worth
noting that even though Greeks believed that they were in the middle of the earth, they also thought
that the edges of the world's disk were inhabited by savage, monstrous barbarians and strange
animals and monsters; Homer's Odyssey mentions a great many of them.
Additional statements about ancient geography may be found in Hesiod's poems, probably written
during the 8th century BC.[15] Through the lyrics of Works and Days and Theogony he shows to his
contemporaries some definite geographical knowledge. He introduces the names of such rivers
as Nile, Ister (Danube), the shores of the Bosporus, and the Euxine (Black Sea), the coast of Gaul,
the island of Sicily, and a few other regions and rivers.[16] His advanced geographical knowledge not
only had predated Greek colonial expansions, but also was used in the earliest Greek world maps,
produced by Greek mapmakers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus.

Early Greek maps[edit]

Further information: Ancient Greek geography
In classical antiquity, maps were drawn by Anaximander, Hecataeus of
Miletus, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, and Ptolemy using both observations by explorers and a
mathematical approach.
Early steps in the development of intellectual thought in ancient Greece belonged to Ionians from
their well-known city of Miletus in Asia Minor. Miletus was placed favourably to absorb aspects
of Babylonian knowledge and to profit from the expanding commerce of the Mediterranean. The
earliest ancient Greek who is said to have constructed a map of the world is Anaximander of Miletus
(c. 611546 BC), pupil of Thales. He believed that the earth was a cylindrical form, like a stone pillar
and suspended in space.[17] The inhabited part of his world was circular, disk-shaped, and
presumably located on the upper surface of the cylinder. [13]:24
Anaximander was the first ancient Greek to draw a map of the known world. It is for this reason that
he is considered by many to be the first mapmaker.[18]:23 A scarcity of archaeological and written
evidence prevents us from giving any assessment of his map. What we may presume is that he
portrayed land and sea in a map form. Unfortunately, any definite geographical knowledge that he
included in his map is lost as well. Although the map has not survived, Hecataeus of Miletus (550
475 BC) produced another map fifty years later that he claimed was an improved version of the map
of his illustrious predecessor.

The world according toHekatus, 500 BC

Hecatus's map describes the earth as a circular plate with an encircling Ocean and Greece in the
centre of the world. This was a very popular contemporary Greek worldview, derived originally from
the Homeric poems. Also, similar to many other early maps in antiquity his map has no scale. As
units of measurements, this map used "days of sailing" on the sea and "days of marching" on dry
land.[19]The purpose of this map was to accompany Hecatus's geographical work that was
called Periodos Ges, or Journey Round the World.[18]:24 Periodos Ges was divided into two books,
"Europe" and "Asia", with the latter including Libya, the name of which was an ancient term for all of
the known Africa.
The work follows the assumption of the author that the world was divided into two continents, Asia
and Europe. He depicts the line between the Pillars of Hercules through the Bosporus, and the Don
River as a boundary between the two. Hecatus is the first known writer who thought that the
Caspian flows into the circumference oceanan idea that persisted long into the Hellenic period. He
was particularly informative on the Black Sea, adding many geographic places that already were
known to Greeks through the colonization process. To the north of the Danube, according to
Hecatus, were the Rhipan (gusty) Mountains, beyond which lived the Hyperboreanspeoples of
the far north. Hecatus depicted the origin of the Nile River at the southern circumference ocean.
His view of the Nile seems to have been that it came from the southern circumference ocean. This

assumption helped Hecatus solve the mystery of the annual flooding of the Nile. He believed that
the waves of the ocean were a primary cause of this occurrence.[20] It is worth mentioning that a
similar map based upon one designed by Hecataeus was intended to aid political decision-making.
According to Herodotus, it was engraved upon a bronze tablet and was carried to Sparta by
Aristagoras during the revolt of the Ionian cities against Persian rule from 499 to 494 BC.

The world according toAnaximenes, c. 500 BC

Anaximenes of Miletus (6th century BC), who studied under Anaximander, rejected the views of his
teacher regarding the shape of the earth and instead, he visualized the earth as a rectangular form
supported by compressed air.
Pythagoras of Samos (c. 560480 BC) speculated about the notion of a spherical earth with a
central fire at its core. He is also credited with the introduction of a model that divides a spherical
earth into five zones: one hot, two temperate, and two coldnorthern and southern. [citation needed] It seems
likely that he illustrated his division in the form of a map, however, no evidence of this has survived
to the present.
Scylax, a sailor, made a record of his Mediterranean voyages in c. 515 BC. This is the earliest known
set of Greek periploi, or sailing instructions, which became the basis for many future mapmakers,
especially in the medieval period.[21]
The way in which the geographical knowledge of the Greeks advanced from the previous
assumptions of the Earth's shape was through Herodotus and his conceptual view of the world. This
map also did not survive and many have speculated that it was never produced. A possible
reconstruction of his map is displayed below.

The world according toHerodotus, 440 BC

Herodotus traveled very extensively, collecting information and documenting his findings in his books
on Europe, Asia, and Libya. He also combined his knowledge with what he learned from the people
he met. Herodotus wrote his Histories in the mid-5th century BC. Although his work was dedicated to
the story of long struggle of the Greeks with the Persian Empire, Herodotus also included everything
he knew about the geography, history, and peoples of the world. Thus, his work provides a detailed
picture of the known world of the 5th century BC.
Herodotus rejected the prevailing view of most 5th century BC maps that the earth is a circular plate
surrounded by Ocean. In his work he describes the earth as an irregular shape with oceans
surrounding only Asia and Africa. He introduces names such as the Atlantic Sea and the Erythrean
Sea. He also divided the world into three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa. He depicted the
boundary of Europe as the line from the Pillars of Hercules through the Bosporus and the area
between Caspian Sea and Indus River. He regarded the Nile as the boundary between Asia and

Africa. He speculated that the extent of Europe was much greater than was assumed at the time and
left Europe's shape to be determined by future research.
In the case of Africa, he believed that, except for the small stretch of land in the vicinity of Suez, the
continent was in fact surrounded by water. However, he definitely disagreed with his predecessors
and contemporaries about its presumed circular shape. He based his theory on the story of
Pharaoh Necho II, the ruler of Egypt between 609 and 594 BC, who had sentPhoenicians to
circumnavigate Africa. Apparently, it took them three years, but they certainly did prove his idea. He
speculated that the Nile River started as far west as the Ister River in Europe and cut Africa through
the middle. He was the first writer to assume that the Caspian Sea was separated from other seas
and he recognised northern Scythia as one of the coldest inhabited lands in the world.
Similar to his predecessors, Herodotus also made mistakes. He accepted a clear distinction between
the civilized Greeks in the centre of the earth and the barbarians on the world's edges. In
his Histories we can see very clearly that he believed that the world became stranger and stranger
when one traveled away from Greece, until one reached the ends of the earth, where humans
behaved as savages.

Spherical Earth and meridians[edit]

Whereas a number of previous Greek philosophers presumed the earth to be
spherical, Aristotle (384322 BC) is the one to be credited with proving the Earth's sphericity. Those
arguments may be summarized as follows:

The lunar eclipse is always circular

Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon

Some stars can be seen only from certain parts of the Earth.

A vital contribution to mapping the reality of the world came with a scientific estimate of the
circumference of the earth. This event has been described as the first scientific attempt to give
geographical studies a mathematical basis. The man credited for this achievement
was Eratosthenes (275195 BC). As described by George Sarton, historian of science, there was
among them [Eratosthenes's contemporaries] a man of genius but as he was working in a new field
they were too stupid to recognize him.[22] His work, including On the Measurement of the
Earthand Geographica, has only survived in the writings of later philosophers such
as Cleomedes and Strabo. He was a devoted geographer who set out to reform and perfect the map
of the world. Eratosthenes argued that accurate mapping, even if in two dimensions only, depends
upon the establishment of accurate linear measurements. He was the first to calculate the
circumference of the Earth (within 0.5 percent accuracy) by calculating the heights of shadows at
different points in Egypt at a given time. The first in Alexandria, the other further up the Nile, in the
Ancient Egyptian city of Swenet (known in Greek as Syene) where reports of a well into which the
sun shone only on the summer solstice, long existed. Proximity to the Tropic of Cancer being the
dynamics creating the effect. He had the distance between the two shadows calculated and then
their height. From this he determined the difference in angle between the two points and calculated
how large a circle would be made by adding in the rest of the degrees to 360. His great achievement
in the field of cartography was the use of a new technique of charting with meridians, his imaginary
northsouth lines, and parallels, his imaginary westeast lines.[23] These axis lines were placed over
the map of the earth with their origin in the city of Rhodes and divided the world into sectors. Then,
Eratosthenes used these earth partitions to reference places on the map. He also divided Earth into
five climatic regions: a torrid zone across the middle, two frigid zones at extreme north and south,
and two temperate bands in between.[citation needed] He was also the first person to use the word
"geography".

Claudius Ptolemy (90168) thought that, with the aid of astronomy and mathematics, the earth could
be mapped very accurately. Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the spherical earth on a map by
using perspective projection, and suggested precise methods for fixing the position of geographic
features on its surface using a coordinate system with parallels of latitude andmeridians of longitude.
[5][24]

Ptolemy's eight-volume atlas Geographia is a prototype of modern mapping and GIS. It included an
index of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, scale,
conventional signs with legends, and the practice of orienting maps so that north is at the top and
east to the right of the mapan almost universal custom today.
Yet with all his important innovations, however, Ptolemy was not infallible. His most important error
was a miscalculation of the circumference of the earth. He believed that Eurasia covered 180 of the
globe, which convinced Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic to look for a simpler and
faster way to travel to India. Had Columbus known that the true figure was much greater, it is
conceivable that he would never have set out on his momentous voyage.

Roman empire[edit]
Pomponius Mela (c. 43)[edit]

Reconstruction ofPomponius Melasworldwiew.

Main article: Pomponius Mela

Pomponius is unique among ancient geographers in that, after dividing the earth into five zones, of
which two only were habitable, he asserts the existence ofantichthones, inhabiting the southern
temperate zone inaccessible to the folk of the northern temperate regions from the unbearable heat
of the intervening torrid belt. On the divisions and boundaries of Europe, Asia and Africa, he repeats
Eratosthenes; like all classical geographers from Alexander the Great (except Ptolemy) he regards
the Caspian Sea as an inlet of the Northern Ocean, corresponding to the Persian Gulf and the Red
Sea on the south.

The RomanTabula Peutingeriana.

5th-century Roman road map[edit]

In 2007, the Tabula Peutingeriana, a 12th-century replica of a 5th-century map, was placed on the
UNESCO Memory of the World Register and displayed to the public for the first time. Although well

preserved and believed to be an accurate copy of an authentic original, the scroll media it is on is so
delicate now it must be protected at all times from exposure to daylight.[25]

China[edit]
Main article: Chinese geography
See also: Early Chinese cartography

Earliest extant maps from the Qin State[edit]

The earliest known maps to have survived in China date to the 4th century BC. [26]:90 In 1986, seven
ancient Chinese maps were found in an archeological excavation of a Qin State tomb in what is
now Fangmatan, in the vicinity of Tianshui City, Gansu province.[26]:90 Before this find, the earliest
extant maps that were known came from the Mawangdui excavation in 1973, which found three
maps on silk dated to the 2nd century BC in the early Han Dynasty.[26]:90, 93 The 4th century BCE maps
from the State of Qin were drawn with black ink on wooden blocks.[26]:91 These blocks fortunately
survived in soaking conditions due to underground water that had seeped into the tomb; the quality
of the wood had much to do with their survival.[26]:91 After two years of slow-drying techniques, the
maps were fully restored.[26]:91
The territory shown in the seven Qin maps overlap each other.[26]:92 The maps display tributary river
systems of the Jialing River in Sichuan province, in a total measured area of 107 by 68 km.[26]:92 The
maps featured rectangular symbols encasing character names for the locations of administrative
counties.[26]:92 Rivers and roads are displayed with similar line symbols; this makes interpreting the
map somewhat difficult, although the labels of rivers placed in order of stream flow are helpful to
modern day cartographers.[26]:92-93 These maps also feature locations where different types of timber
can be gathered, while two of the maps state the distances in mileage to the timber sites.[26]:93 In light
of this, these maps are perhaps the oldesteconomic maps in the world since they predate Strabo's
economic maps.[26]:93
In addition to the seven maps on wooden blocks found at Tomb 1 of Fangmatan, a fragment of a
paper map was found on the chest of the occupant of Tomb 5 of Fangmatan in 1986. This tomb is
dated to the early Western Han, so the map dates to the early 2nd century BC. The map shows
topographic features such as mountains, waterways and roads, and is thought to cover the area of
the preceding Qin Kingdom.[27][28]

Earliest geographical writing[edit]

In China, the earliest known geographical Chinese writing dates back to the 5th century BC, during
the beginning of the Warring States (481221 BC).[29]:500 This was the Yu Gong or Tribute of
Yu chapter of the Shu Jing or Book of Documents. The book describes the traditional nine provinces,
their kinds of soil, their characteristic products and economic goods, their tributary goods, their
trades and vocations, their state revenues and agricultural systems, and the various rivers and lakes
listed and placed accordingly.[29]:500 The nine provinces in the time of this geographical work were very
small in size compared to their modern Chinese counterparts. The Yu Gong's descriptions pertain to
areas of the Yellow River, the lower valleys of the Yangtze, with the plain between them and
the Shandong Peninsula, and to the west the most northern parts of the Wei River and the Han
River were known (along with the southern parts of modern day Shanxi province).[29]:500

Earliest known reference to a map, or 'tu'[edit]

The oldest reference to a map in China comes from the 3rd century BC. [29]:534 This was the event of
227 BC where Crown Prince Dan of Yan had his assassin Jing Ke visit the court of the ruler of
the State of Qin, who would become Qin Shi Huang (r. 221210 BC). Jing Ke was to present the
ruler of Qin with a district map painted on a silk scroll, rolled up and held in a case where he hid his
assassin's dagger.[29]:534 Handing to him the map of the designated territory was the first diplomatic act

of submitting that district to Qin rule.[29]:534 Instead he attempted to kill Qin, an assassination plot that
failed. From then on maps are frequently mentioned in Chinese sources. [29]:535

Han Dynasty and period of division[edit]

An early Western Han Dynasty (202 BC 9 AD) silk map found in tomb 3 ofMawangdui, depicting the Kingdom
ofChangsha and Kingdom of Nanyue in southern China (note: the south direction is oriented at the top, north at
the bottom).

The three Han Dynasty maps found at Mawangdui differ from the earlier Qin State maps. While the
Qin maps place the cardinal direction of north at the top of the map, the Han maps are orientated
with the southern direction at the top.[26]:93 The Han maps are also more complex, since they cover a
much larger area, employ a large number of well-designed map symbols, and include additional
information on local military sites and the local population. [26]:93 The Han maps also note measured
distances between certain places, but a formal graduated scale and rectangular grid system for
maps would not be usedor at least described in fulluntil the 3rd century (see Pei Xiu below). [26]:9394
Among the three maps found at Mawangdui was a small map representing the tomb area where it
was found, a larger topographical map showing the Han's borders along the subordinateKingdom of
Changsha and the Nanyue kingdom (of northern Vietnam and parts of
modern Guangdong and Guangxi), and a map which marks the positions of Han military garrisons
that were employed in an attack against Nanyue in 181 BC.[30]
An early text that mentioned maps was the Rites of Zhou.[29]:534 Although attributed to the era of
the Zhou Dynasty, its first recorded appearance was in the libraries of Prince Liu De (c. 130 BC),
and was compiled and commented on by Liu Xin in the 1st century AD. It outlined the use of maps
that were made for governmental provinces and districts, principalities, frontier boundaries, and even
pinpointed locations of ores and minerals for miningfacilities.[29]:534 Upon the investiture of three of his
sons as feudal princes in 117 BC, Emperor Wu of Han had maps of the entire empire submitted to
him.[29]:536
From the 1st century AD onwards, official Chinese historical texts contained a geographical section
(Diliji), which was often an enormous compilation of changes in place-names and local
administrative divisions controlled by the ruling dynasty, descriptions of mountain ranges, river
systems, taxable products, etc.[29]:508 From the time of the 5th century BC Shu Jing forward, Chinese
geographical writing provided more concrete information and less legendary element. This example
can be seen in the 4th chapter of the Huainanzi (Book of the Master of Huainan), compiled under the
editorship of Prince Liu An in 139 BC during the Han Dynasty (202 BC202 AD). The chapter gave
general descriptions of topography in a systematic fashion, given visual aids by the use of maps (di
tu) due to the efforts of Liu An and his associate Zuo Wu.[29]:507-508 In Chang Chu's Hua Yang Guo
Chi (Historical Geography of Szechuan) of 347, not only rivers, trade routes, and various tribes were

described, but it also wrote of a 'Ba June Tu Jing' ('Map of Szechuan'), which had been made much
earlier in 150.[29]:517
Local mapmaking such as the one of Szechuan mentioned above, became a widespread tradition of
Chinese geographical works by the 6th century, as noted in the bibliography of the Sui Shu.[29]:518 It is
during this time of the Southern and Northern Dynasties that the Liang Dynasty (502557)
cartographers also began carving maps into stone steles (alongside the maps already drawn and
painted on paper and silk).[29]:543

Pei Xiu, the 'Ptolemy of China'[edit]

In the year 267,Pei Xiu (224271) was appointed as the Minister of Works by Emperor Wu of Jin, the
first emperor of the Jin Dynasty. Pei is best known for his work in cartography. Although map making
and use of the grid existed in China before him,[29]:106-107 he was the first to mention a plotted
geometrical grid and graduated scale displayed on the surface of maps to gain greater accuracy in
the estimated distance between different locations.[29]:538-540 Pei outlined six principles that should be
observed when creating maps, two of which included the rectangular grid and the graduated scale
for measuring distance.[29]:539-540 Historians compare him to the Greek Ptolemy for his contributions in
cartography.[29]:540 However, Howard Nelson states that, although the accounts of earlier cartographic
works by the inventor and official Zhang Heng (78139) are somewhat vague and sketchy, there is
ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps
of Zhang Heng.[31]:359
Later Chinese ideas about the quality of maps made during the Han Dynasty and before stem from
the assessment given by Pei Xiu, which was not a positive one. [26]:96 Pei Xiu noted that the extant Han
maps at his disposal were of little use since they featured too many inaccuracies and exaggerations
in measured distance between locations.[26]:96 However, the Qin State maps and Mawangdui maps of
the Han era were far superior in quality than those examined by Pei Xiu. [26]:96 It was not until the 20th
century that Pei Xiu's 3rd century assessment of earlier maps' dismal quality would be overturned
and disproven. The Qin and Han maps did have a degree of accuracy in scale and pinpointed
location, but the major improvement in Pei Xiu's work and that of his contemporaries was expressing
topographical elevation on maps.[26]:97

Sui and Tang dynasties[edit]

In the year 605, during the Sui Dynasty (581618), the Commercial Commissioner Pei Ju (547627)
created a famous geometrically gridded map.[29]:543 In 610 Emperor Yang of Sui ordered government
officials from throughout the empire to document in gazetteers the customs, products, and
geographical features of their local areas and provinces, providing descriptive writing and drawing
them all onto separate maps, which would be sent to the imperial secretariat in the capital city.
[29]:518[32]:409-10

The Tang Dynasty (618907) also had its fair share of cartographers, including the works of Xu
Jingzong in 658, Wang Mingyuan in 661, and Wang Zhongsi in 747.[29]:543 Arguably the greatest
geographer and cartographer of the Tang period was Jia Dan (730805), whom Emperor Dezong of
Tang entrusted in 785 to complete a map of China with her recently former inland colonies of Central
Asia, the massive and detailed work completed in 801, called the Hai Nei Hua Yi Tu (Map of both
Chinese and Barbarian Peoples within the (Four) Seas).[29]:543The map was 30 ft long (9.1 m) and 33 ft
high (10 m) in dimension, mapped out on a grid scale of 1-inch (25 mm) equaling 100 li (unit) (the
Chinese equivalent of the mile/kilometer).[29]:543Jia Dan is also known for having described the Persian
Gulf region with great detail, along with lighthouses that were erected at the mouth of the Persian
Gulf by the medieval Iranians in theAbbasid period (refer to article on Tang Dynasty for more).

Song Dynasty[edit]

The Yu Ji Tu, or Map of the Tracks of Yu Gong, carved into stone in 1137, located in the Stele Forest of Xian.
This 3 ft (0.91 m) squared map features a graduated scale of 100 li for each rectangular grid. China's coastline
and river systems are clearly defined and precisely pinpointed on the map. Yu Gong is in reference to the
Chinese deity described in the geographical chapter of the Classic of History, dated 5th century BC.

During the Song Dynasty (9601279) Emperor Taizu of Song ordered Lu Duosun in 971 to update
and 're-write all the Tu Jing in the world', which would seem to be a daunting task for one individual,
who was sent out throughout the provinces to collect texts and as much data as possible. [29]:518 With
the aid of Song Zhun, the massive work was completed in 1010, with some 1566 chapters.[29]:518 The
later Song Shi historical text stated (Wade-Gilesspelling):

Yuan Hsieh (d. +1220) was Director-General of governmental grain stores. In p

maps.[29]:518

Like the earlier Liang Dynasty stone-stele maps (mentioned above), there were large and intricately
carved stone stele maps of the Song period. For example, the 3 ft (0.91 m) squared stone stele map
of an anonymous artist in 1137, following the grid scale of 100 li squared for each grid square. [29]:Plate
LXXXI
What is truly remarkable about this map is the incredibly precise detail of coastal outlines and
river systems in China (refer to Needham's Volume 3, Plate LXXXI for an image). The map shows
500 settlements and a dozen rivers in China, and extends as far as Korea and India. On the reverse,
a copy of a more ancient map uses grid coordinates in a scale of 1:1,500,000 and shows the
coastline of China with great accuracy.[33]
The famous 11th century scientist and polymath statesman Shen Kuo (10311095) was also a
geographer and cartographer.[29]:541 His largest atlasincluded twenty three maps of China and foreign
regions that were drawn at a uniform scale of 1:900,000. [34] Shen also created a threedimensionalraised-relief map using sawdust, wood, beeswax, and wheat paste, while representing
the topography and specific locations of a frontier region to the imperial court. [34] Shen Kuo's
contemporary, Su Song (10201101), was a cartographer who created detailed maps in order to
resolve a territorial border dispute between the Song Dynasty and the Liao Dynasty.[35]

Ming and Qing dynasties[edit]

The Da Ming Hun Yi Tu map, dating from about 1390, is in multicolour. The horizontal scale is 1:820,000 and
the vertical scale is 1:1,060,000.[citation needed]

The Da Ming hunyi tu map, dating from about 1390, is in multicolour. The horizontal scale is
1:820,000 and the vertical scale is 1:1,060,000. [33]
In 1579, Luo Hongxian published the Guang Yutu atlas, including more than 40 maps, a grid system,
and a systematic way of representing major landmarks such as mountains, rivers, roads and
borders. The Guang Yutu incorporates the discoveries of naval explorer Zheng He's 15th century
voyages along the coasts of China, Southeast Asia, India and Africa.[33]
From the 16th and 17th centuries, several examples survive of maps focused on cultural information.
Gridlines are not used on either Yu Shi'sGujin xingsheng zhi tu (1555) or Zhang Huang's Tushu
bian (1613); instead, illustrations and annotations show mythical places, exotic foreign peoples,
administrative changes and the deeds of historic and legendary heroes. [33] Also in the 17th century,
an edition of a possible Tang Dynasty map shows clear topographical contour lines.
[29]:546
Although topographic features were part of maps in China for centuries, a Fujiancounty
official Ye Chunji (15321595) was the first to base county maps using on-site
topographical surveying and observations.[36]
The Korean made Kangnido based on two Chinese maps, which describes the Old World.

People's Republic of China era[edit]

After the 1949 revolution, the Institute of Geography under the aegis of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences became responsible for official cartography and emulated the Soviet model of geography
throughout the 1950s. With its emphasis on fieldwork, sound knowledge of the physical environment
and the interrelation between physical and economic geography, the Russian influence
counterbalanced the many pre-liberation Western-trained Chinese geography specialists who were
more interested in the historical and culture aspects of cartography. As a consequence, China's main
geographical journal, the Dili Xuebao ( featured many articles by Soviet geographers.
[37]
As Soviet influence waned in the 1960s, geographic activity continued as part of the process of
modernisation until it came to a stop with the 1967 Cultural Revolution.

Mongol Empire[edit]
In the Mongol Empire, the Mongol scholars with the Persian and Chinese cartographers or their
foreign colleagues created maps, geographical compendium as well as travel accounts.Rashid-alDin Hamadani described his geographical compendium, "Suvar al-aqalim", constituted volume four
of the Collected chronicles of the Ilkhanate in Persia.[38] His works says about the borders of the
seven climes (old world), rivers, major cities, places, climate, and Mongol yams (relay stations).

The Great Khan Khubilai's ambassador and minister, Bolad, had helped Rashid's works in relation to
the Mongols and Mongolia.[39] Thanks to Pax Mongolica, the easterners and the westerners in
Mongol dominions were able to gain access to one another's geographical materials. [40]
The Mongols required the nations they conquered to send geographical maps to the Mongol
headquarters.[41][42]
One of medieval Persian work written in northwest Iran can clarify the historical geography
of Mongolia where Genghis Khan was born and united the Mongol and Turkic nomads as recorded
in native sources, especially the Secret History of the Mongols.[43]
Map of relay stations, called "yam", and strategic points existed in the Yuan Dynasty.[40] The Mongol
cartography was enriched by traditions of ancient China and Iran which were now under the
Mongols.
Because the Yuan court often requested the western Mongol khanates to send their maps, the Yuan
Dynasty was able to publish a map describing the whole Mongol world in c.1330. This is called "Hsipei pi ti-li tu". The map includes the Mongol dominions including 30 cities in Iran such
as Ispahan and the Ilkhanid capital Soltaniyeh, and Russia (as "Orash") as well as their neighbors,
e.g. Egypt and Syria.[44]

India[edit]

The pundit (explorer)cartographer Nain Singh Rawat (19th century) received a Royal Geographical Societygold
medal in 1876.

Main article: Cartography of India

Indian cartographic traditions covered the locations of the Pole star and other constellations of use.
[45]:330
These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of
navigation.[45]:330
Detailed maps of considerable length describing the locations of settlements, sea shores, rivers, and
mountains were also made.[45]:327 The 8th century scholar Bhavabhuti conceived paintings which
indicated geographical regions.[45]:328
Italian scholar Francesco Lorenzo Pull reproduced a number of ancient Indian maps in
his magnum opus La Cartografia Antica dell'India.[45]:327 Out these maps, two have been reproduced
using a manuscript of Lokaprakasa, originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra (Kashmir, 11th
century), as a source.[45]:327 The other manuscript, used as a source by Pull, is titled Samgrahani.
[45]:327
The early volumes of the Encyclopdia Britannica also described cartographic charts made by
the Dravidian people of India.[45]:330

Maps from the Ain-e-Akbari, a Mughal document detailing India's history and traditions, contain
references to locations indicated in earlier Indian cartographic traditions. [45]:327 Another map describing
the kingdom of Nepal, four feet in length and about two and a half feet in breadth, was presented
to Warren Hastings.[45]:328 In this map the mountains were elevated above the surface, and several
geographical elements were indicated in different colors.[45]:328

Arab cartography[edit]
Main article: Geography in medieval Islam
In the Middle Ages, Muslim scholars continued and advanced on the mapmaking traditions of earlier
cultures. Most used Ptolemy's methods; but they also took advantage of what explorers and
merchants learned in their travels across the Muslim world, from Spain to India to Africa, and beyond
in trade relationships with China, and Russia.[21]
An important influence in the development of cartography was the patronage of
the Abbasid caliph, al-Ma'mun, who reigned from 813 to 833. He commissioned several geographers
to remeasure the distance on earth that corresponds to one degree of celestial meridian. Thus his
patronage resulted in the refinement of the definition of the mile used by Arabs (ml in Arabic) in
comparison to the stadion used by Greeks. These efforts also enabled Muslims to calculate the
circumference of the earth. Al-Mamun also commanded the production of a large map of the world,
which has not survived,[46]:61-63 though it is known that its map projection type was based on Marinus of
Tyre rather than Ptolemy.[47]:193
Also in the 9th century, the Persian mathematician and geographer, Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi,
employed spherical trigonometry and map projection methods in order to convert polar
coordinates to a different coordinate system centred on a specific point on the sphere, in this
the Qibla, the direction to Mecca.[48] Ab Rayhn Brn (9731048) later developed ideas which are
seen as an anticipation of the polar coordinate system.[49] Around 1025, he describes a polar equiazimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.[50]:153 However, this type of projection had
been used in ancient Egyptian star-maps and was not to be fully developed until the 15 and 16th
centuries.[51]
In the early 10th century, Ab Zayd al-Balkh, originally from Balkh, founded the "Balkh school" of
terrestrial mapping in Baghdad. The geographers of this school also wrote extensively of the
peoples, products, and customs of areas in the Muslim world, with little interest in the non-Muslim
realms.[46] The "Balkh school", which included geographers such as Estakhri, al-Muqaddasi and Ibn
Hawqal, produced world atlases, each one featuring a world map and twenty regional maps.[47]:194
Suhrb, a late 10th-century Muslim geographer, accompanied a book of
geographical coordinates with instructions for making a rectangular world map, with equirectangular
projection or cylindrical equidistant projection.[46] The earliest surviving rectangular coordinate map is
dated to the 13th century and is attributed to Hamdallah al-Mustaqfi al-Qazwini, who based it on the
work of Suhrb. The orthogonal parallel lines were separated by one degree intervals, and the map
was limited to Southwest Asia and Central Asia. The earliest surviving world maps based on a
rectangular coordinate grid are attributed to al-Mustawfi in the 14th or 15th century (who used
invervals of ten degrees for the lines), and to Hafiz-i Abru (died 1430).[47]:200-01
Ibn Battuta (13041368?) wrote "Rihlah" (Travels) based on three decades of journeys, covering
more than 120,000 km through northern Africa, southern Europe, and much of Asia.

Regional cartography[edit]
Islamic regional cartography is usually categorized into three groups: that produced by the "Balkh
school", the type devised by Muhammad al-Idrisi, and the type that are uniquely foundin the Book of
curiosities.[46]

The maps by the Balkh schools were defined by political, not longitudinal boundaries and covered
only the Muslim world. In these maps the distances between various "stops" (cities or rivers) were
equalized. The only shapes used in designs were verticals, horizontals, 90-degree angles, and arcs
of circles; unnecessary geographical details were eliminated. This approach is similar to that used
in subway maps, most notable used in the "London Underground Tube Map" in 1931 by Harry Beck.
[46]:85-87

Al-Idrs defined his maps differently. He considered the extent of the known world to be 160 in
longitude, and divided the region into ten parts, each 16 wide. In terms of latitude, he portioned the
known world into seven 'climes', determined by the length of the longest day. In his maps, many
dominant geographical features can be found.[46]

The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Muhammad al-Idrisi forRoger II of Sicily in 1154. Note that the north is at the
bottom, and so the map appears "upside down" compared to moderncartographic conventions.

Surviving fragment of the first World Map of Piri Reis (1513) showing parts of the Americas.

Book on the appearance of the Earth[edit]

Muhammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm's Kitb s rat al-Ard ("Book on the appearance of the Earth") was
completed in 833. It is a revised and completed version of Ptolemy's Geography, consisting of a list
of 2402 coordinates of cities and other geographical features following a general introduction. [52]
Al-Khwrizm, Al-Ma'mun's most famous geographer, corrected Ptolemy's gross overestimate for the
length of the Mediterranean Sea[47]:188 (from the Canary Islands to the eastern shores of the
Mediterranean); Ptolemy overestimated it at 63 degrees oflongitude, while al-Khwarizmi almost
correctly estimated it at nearly 50 degrees of longitude. Al-Ma'mun's geographers "also depicted

the Atlantic and Indian Oceans as open bodies of water, not land-locked seas as Ptolemy had done.
"[53] Al-Khwarizmi thus set the Prime Meridian of the Old World at the eastern shore of the
Mediterranean, 1013 degrees to the east of Alexandria(the prime meridian previously set by
Ptolemy) and 70 degrees to the west of Baghdad. Most medieval Muslim geographers continued to
use al-Khwarizmi's prime meridian.[47]:188 Other prime meridians used were set by Ab Muhammad alHasan al-Hamdn and Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi at Ujjain, a centre of Indian astronomy, and by
another anonymous writer at Basra.[47]:189

Tabula Rogeriana[edit]
Main article: Tabula Rogeriana
The Arab geographer, Muhammad al-Idrisi, produced his medieval atlas, Tabula Rogeriana or The
Recreation for Him Who Wishes to Travel Through the Countries, in 1154. He incorporated the
knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East gathered by Arab merchants and explorers
with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the
world in pre-modern times.[54] With funding from Roger II of Sicily (10971154), al-Idrisi drew on the
knowledge collected at the University of Cordoba and paid draftsmen to make journeys and map
their routes. The book describes the earth as a sphere with a circumference of 22,900 miles
(36,900 km) but maps it in 70 rectangular sections. Notable features include the correct dual sources
of the Nile, the coast of Ghana and mentions of Norway. Climate zones were a chief organizational
principle. A second and shortened copy from 1192 called Garden of Joys is known by scholars as
the Little Idrisi.[21]
On the work of al-Idrisi, S. P. Scott commented:[54]
The compilation of Edrisi marks an era in the history of science. Not only is its historical information
most interesting and valuable, but its descriptions of many parts of the earth are still authoritative.
For three centuries geographers copied his maps without alteration. The relative position of the lakes
which form the Nile, as delineated in his work, does not differ greatly from that established by Baker
and Stanley more than seven hundred years afterwards, and their number is the same. The
mechanical genius of the author was not inferior to his erudition. The celestial and
terrestrial planisphere of silver which he constructed for his royal patron was nearly six feet in
diameter, and weighed four hundred and fifty pounds; upon the one side the zodiac and the
constellations, upon the otherdivided for convenience into segmentsthe bodies of land and
water, with the respective situations of the various countries, were engraved.
S. P. Scott, History of the Moorish Empire in Europe

Piri Reis map[edit]

Main article: Piri Reis map
The Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis published navigational maps in his Kitab- Bahriye. The work
includes an atlas of charts for small segments of the mediterranean, accompanied by sailing
instructions covering the sea. In the second version of the work, he included a map of the Americas.
[46]:106
The Piri Reis map drawn by the Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis in 1513, is one of the oldest
surviving maps to show the Americas.[55]:268- 272[56][57][58]

Pacific islands[edit]
Main article: Marshall Islands stick chart
The Polynesian peoples who explored and settled the Pacific islands in the first two millenniums AD
used maps to navigate across large distances. A surviving map from the Marshall Islandsuses sticks
tied in a grid with palm strips representing wave and wind patterns, with shells attached to show the

location of islands.[59] Other maps were created as needed using temporary arrangements of stones
or shells.[60]

European cartography[edit]

The Gough Map, a road map of 14th century Britain

Medieval maps and the Mappa Mundi[edit]

Medieval maps of the world in Europe were mainly symbolic in form along the lines of the much
earlier Babylonian World Map. Known as Mappa Mundi (cloth of the world) these maps were circular
or symmetrical cosmological diagrams representing the Earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and
surrounded by ocean.[5]

The Majorcan cartographic school and the Normal Portolan Chart [edit]

Detail of Catalan Atlas, the first compass rose depicted on a map. Notice the Pole Starset on N.

The Majorcan cartographic school was a predominantly Jewish cooperation

of cartographers, cosmographers and navigational instrument-makers in late 13th to the 14th and
15th Century Majorca. With their multicultural heritage unstressed by fundamentalistic academic
Christian traditions, the Majorcan cartographic school experimented and developed unique
cartographic techniques, as it can be seen in the Catalan Atlas. The Majorcan school was
(co-)responsible for the invention (c.1300) of the "Normal Portolan chart". It was a contemporary
superior, detailed nautical model chart, gridded by compass lines.

Catalan Atlas drawn and written in 1375 saved in the Bibliothque nationale de France

Roger Bacon and the Italian cartography school[edit]

Roger Bacon's investigations of map projections and the appearance of portolano and then portolan
charts for plying the European trade routes were rare innovations of the period. The Majorcan school
is contrasted with the contemporary Italian cartography school. The Carta Pisana portolan chart,
made at the end of the 13th century (12751300), is the oldest survivingnautical chart (that is, not
simply a map but a document showing accurate navigational directions). [61]

The Age of Exploration[edit]

World Map byJuan de la Cosa, the first map showing the Americas.

In the Renaissance, with the renewed interest in classical works, maps became more like surveys
once again, while the discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control
and divide those lands revived interest in scientific mapping methods. Peter Whitfield, the author of
several books on the history of maps, credits European mapmaking as a factor in the global spread
of western power: "Men in Seville, Amsterdam or London had access to knowledge of America,
Brazil, or India, while the native peoples knew only their own immediate environment" (Whitfield).
Jordan Branch and his advisor, Steven Weber, propose that the power of large kingdoms and nation
states of later history are an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century advances in map-making
technologies.[62][63]

15th century: The monk Nicholas Germanus wrote a pioneering Cosmographia. He added
the first new maps to Ptolemy's Geographica.[5] Germanus invented the Donis map projection
where parallels of latitude are made equidistant, but meridians converge toward the poles.

c.1485: Portuguese cartographer Pedro Reinel made the oldest known signed Portuguese
nautical chart.

1492: German merchant Martin Behaim (14591507) made the oldest surviving terrestrial
globe, but it lacked the Americas.[5]

1492: Cartographer Jorge de Aguiar made the oldest known signed and dated Portuguese
nautical chart.

Nautical chart by Pedro Reinel(c.1504), one of the first based on astronomical observations and to depict a
scale of latitudes.

First maps of the Americas[edit]

The Spanish cartographer and explorer Juan de la Cosa sailed with Christopher Columbus. He
created the first known cartographic representations showing both the Americas as well as Africa
and Eurasia.

1502: Unknown Portuguese cartographer made the Cantino planisphere, the first nautical
chart to implicitly represent latitudes.

1504: Portuguese cartographer Pedro Reinel made the oldest known nautical chart with a
scale of latitudes.

1507: Martin Waldseemller's World Map was the first to use the term America for the
Western continents (after explorer Amerigo Vespucci).[5]

1519 : Portuguese cartographers Lopo Homem, Pedro Reinel and Jorge Reinel made the
group of maps known today as the Miller Atlas or Lopo Homem Reinis Atlas.

Diogo Ribeiro map (1527)[edit]

World Map by Diogo Ribeiro.

Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese cartographer working for Spain, made what is considered the first
scientific world map: the 1527 Padrn real [64] The layout of the map (Mapamundi) is strongly
influenced by the information obtained during the Magellan-Elcano trip around the world. Diogo's
map delineates very precisely the coasts of Central and South America. The map shows, for the first

time, the real extension of the Pacific Ocean. It also shows, for the first time, the North
American coast as a continuous one (probably influenced by the Esteban Gmez's exploration in
1525). It also shows the demarcation of the Treaty of Tordesillas.

Mercator world map Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate (1569)

Gerardus Mercator (1569)[edit]

Gerardus Mercator (15121594) was a Flemish cartographer who in his quest to make the world
look right on the maps invented a new projection, called the Mercator projection. The projection
was mathematically based and the Mercator maps gave much more accurate maps for world-wide
navigation than any until that date. As in all cylindrical projections, parallels and meridians are
straight and perpendicular to each other. In accomplishing this, the unavoidable east-west stretching
of the map, is accompanied by a corresponding north-south stretching, so that at every point
location, the east-west scale is the same as the north-south scale, making the projection conformal.
The development of the Mercator projection represented a major breakthrough in the nautical
cartography of the 16th century. However, it was much ahead of its time, since the old navigational
and surveying techniques were not compatible with its use in navigation. The Mercator projection
would over time become the conventional view of the world that we are accustomed to today.

In 1570 Abraham Orteliuscreated the "first modern atlas".

Ortelius and the first atlas[edit]

1570: Antwerp cartographer Abraham Ortelius published the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, the
first modern atlas.[5]
1608: Captain John Smith published a map of Virginia's coastline.[65]
1670s: The astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini began work on the first
modern topographic map in France. It was completed in 1789 or 1793 by his grandson Cassini
de Thury.[66][67]

Enlightenment and scientific map-making[edit]

1715: Herman Moll published the Beaver Map, one of the most famous early maps of North
America, which he copied from a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer

17631767: Captain James Cook mapped Newfoundland.

Atlantic Neptune created by Colonel Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres (1777)

A survey of Boston Harbor from Atlantic Neptune by Colonel Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres

Modern cartography[edit]

A general map of the world bySamuel Dunn, 1794, containing star chart, map of the Solar System, map of the
Moon and other features along with Earth's both hemispheres.

The Vertical Perspective projection was first used by the German map publisher Matthias Seutter in
1740. He placed his observer at ~12,750 km distance. This is the type of projection used today by
Google Earth.[51]
The changes in the use of military maps was also part of the modern Military revolution, which
changed the need for information as the scale of conflict increases as well. This created a need for
maps to help with "...consistency, regularity and uniformity in military conflict." [68]
The final form of the equidistant conic projection was constructed by the French astronomer JosephNicolas Delisle in 1745.[51]
The Swiss mathematician Johann Lambert invented several hemisperic map projections. In 1772 he
created the Lambert conformal conic andLambert azimuthal equal-area projections.[51]
The Albers equal-area conic projection features no distortion along standard parallels. It was
invented by Heinrich Albers in 1805.[51][69]
In the United States in the 17th and 18th centuries, explorers mapped trails and army engineers
surveyed government lands. Two agencies were established to provide more detailed, large-scale

mapping. They were the U.S. Geological Survey and the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey(now the National Geodetic Survey under the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Association).
The Greenwich prime meridian became the international standard reference for cartographers in
1884.
During the 20th century, maps became more abundant due to improvements in printing and
photography that made production cheaper and easier. Airplanes made it possible to photograph
large areas at a time.
Two-Point Equidistant projection was first drawn up by Hans Maurer in 1919. In this projection the
distance from any point on the map to either of the two regulating points is accurate. [51]
The loximuthal projection was constructed by Karl Siemon in 1935 and refined by Waldo Tobler in
1966.[51]
Since the mid-1990s, the use of computers in mapmaking has helped to store, sort, and arrange
data for mapping in order to create map projections. [70]

Technological changes[edit]
More at Cartography Technological changes

A portrait of a mapmaker looking up intently from his charts and holding a caliper, 1714.

In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new
generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with
brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The
advent of the compass,printing press, telescope, sextant, quadrant and vernier allowed for the
creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions. Professor
Steven Weber of the University of California, Berkeley, has advanced the hypothesis that the
concept of the "nation state" is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century advances in mapmaking technologies.[62][63]
Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes,
have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist
moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time
it takes to make and reproduce maps.

In the mid-to-late 20th century, advances in electronic technology have led to further revolution
in cartography. Specifically computer hardwaredevices such as computer screens, plotters,
printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization,
image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly
expanded the making of maps, particularly with their ability to produce maps that show slightly
different features, without engraving a new printing plate. See also digital raster
graphic and History of web mapping.
Aerial photography and satellite imagery have provided high-accuracy, high-throughput methods
for mapping physical features over large areas, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, and
topography.

See also[edit]

In the geospatial domains, we can witness that more spatial data than ever is produced currently.
Numerous sensors of all kinds are available, measuring values; storing them in databases, which
are linked to other databases being embedded in whole spatial data infrastructures; following
standards and accepted rules. We can witness also that we are not short of ever more new modern
technologies for all parts of the spatial data handling processes, including data acquisition (e.g.,
unmanned aerial vehicles currently), data modeling (e.g., service-oriented architectures, cloud
computing), and data visualization and dissemination (e.g., location-based services, augmented
reality). So where are we now with all those brave, new developments?
Obviously, we are not short of data in many ways. Clearly, we can state that it is rather the
opposite. The problem is often not that we don't have enough data but rather too much. We need to
make more and more efforts to deal with all that data in an efficient sense, mining the relevant
information and linking and selecting the appropriate information for a particular scenario. This
phenomenon is being described as "big data." Often, application developments start there. Because
we have access to data, we make something with it. We link it, we analyze it, we produce
applications out of it. I call this a data-driven approach.
We are also not short of technologies. It is rather the opposite; while just being able to fully employ
the potential of a particular data acquisition, modeling, or dissemination technology, new
technologies come in and need to be considered. New technologies become available more and
more quickly and need to be evaluated, addressed, and applied. Often, application development
starts there. Because we have a new technology available, we make something with it. I call this a
technology-driven approach.
However, the particular need, demand, question, or problem of a human user is often taken into
account only when the data-driven or technology-driven application, product, or system has been
built. Often, this causes problems or leads to products, systems, and applications that are not
accepted, not efficient, or simply not usable. By starting from the question What are the demands,
questions, problems, or needs of human users in respect to location? we could eventually apply data
and technology in a sense that they serve such user-centered approaches rather than determine
the use.
But how can we better unleash the big potential of geoinformation in such truly interdisciplinary
approaches? How can we make sure that spatial data is really applicable for governments, for
decision makers, for planners, for citizens through applications, products, and systems, which are
not forcing them to adapt to the system but are easy to use and efficiently support the human user?

Maps can be seen as the perfect interface between a human user and big data.

In this respect, maps and cartography play a key role. Maps are most efficient in enabling human
users to understand complex situations. Maps can be understood as tools to order information by
their spatial context. Maps can be seen as the perfect interfacebetween a human user and all that
big data and thus enable human users to answer location-related questions, to support spatial
behavior, to enable spatial problem solving, or simply to be able to become aware of space.
Today, maps can be created and used by any individual stocked with just modest computing skills
from virtually any location on earth and for almost any purpose. In this new mapmaking paradigm,
users are often present at the location of interest and produce maps that address needs that arise
instantaneously. Cartographic data may be digitally and wirelessly delivered in finalized form to the
device in the hands of the user or the requested visualization derived from downloaded data in situ.
Rapid advances in technologies have enabled this revolution in mapmaking by the millions. One
such prominent advance includes the possibility to derive maps very quickly immediately after the
data has been acquired by accessing and disseminating maps through the Internet. Real-time data
handling and visualization are other significant developments, as well as location-based services,
mobile cartography, and augmented reality.
While the above advances have enabled significant progress on the design and implementation of
new ways of map production over the past decade, many cartographic principles remain
unchanged, the most important one being that maps are an abstraction of reality. Visualization of
selected information means that some features present in reality are depicted more prominently than
others, while many features might not even be depicted at all. Abstracting reality makes a map
powerful, as it helps to understand and interpret very complex situations very efficiently.
Abstraction is essential. Disaster management can be used as an example to illustrate the
importance and power of abstract cartographic depictions. In the recovery phase, quick production of
imagery of the affected area is required using depictions that allow the emergency teams to
understand the situation on the ground from a glance at the maps. Important ongoing developments
supporting the rescue work in the recovery phase are map derivation technologies, crowdsourcing
and neocartography techniques and location-based services. The role of cartography in the
protection phase of the disaster management cycle has always been crucial. In this phase, risk
maps are produced, which enable governors, decision makers, experts, and the general public alike
to understand the kind and levels of risk present in the near and distant surroundings. Modern
cartography enables the general public to participate in the modeling and visualizing of the risks

neighborhoods may suffer from on a voluntary basis. Modern cartography also helps to quickly
disseminate crucial information.
In this sense, cartography is most relevant. Without maps, we would be "spatially
blind." Knowledge about spatial relations and location of objects are most important to learn about
space, to act in space, to be aware of what is where and what is around us, or simply to be able to
make good decisions. Cartography is also most contemporary, as new and innovative technologies
have an important impact into what cartographers are doing. Maps can be derived automatically
from geodata acquisition methods, such as laser scanning, remote sensing, or sensor networks.
Smart models of geodata can be built allowing in-depth analysis of structures and patterns. A whole
range of presentation forms are available nowadays, from maps on mobile phones all the way to
geoinformation presented as augmented reality presentations.

The successful development of modern cartography

requiresintegrated, interdisciplinary approaches from such domains as computer science,
communication science, human-computer interaction, telecommunication sciences, cognitive
sciences, law, economics, geospatial information management, and cartography. It is those
interdisciplinary approaches that make sure that we work toward human-centered application
developments by applying innovative engineering methods and tools in a highly volatile
technological framework. A number of important technology-driven trends have a major impact on
what and how we create, access, and use maps, creating previously unimaginable amounts of
location-referenced information and thus putting cartographic services in the center of the focus of
research and development.
Where are we heading? What we can expect in the near future is that information is available
anytime and anywhere. In its provision and delivery, it is tailored to the user's context and needs. In
this, the context is a key selector for which and how information is provided. Cartographic services
will thus be widespread and of daily use in a truly ubiquitous manner. Persons would feel spatially
blind without using their map-based services, which enable them to see who or what is near them,
get supported and do searches based on the current location, and collect data on-site accurately
and timely. Modern cartography applications are already demonstrating their huge potential and
change how we work, how we live, and how we interact.
In this situation, it is of high importance that those who are interested in maps, mapping, and
cartography are working together on an international level. This is exactly the role of
the International Cartographic Association (ICA). ICA is the world authoritative body for
cartography and GIScience. It consists of national members and affiliate members. Basically, we
encourage every nation, company, government agency, or cartographer in the world to join the big

family of cartography and GIScience, which makes the voice of ICA even more important
(www.icaci.org).
I would like to summarize with three key messages:
1. Cartography is relevant!
Modern cartography is key to humankind. Without maps, we would be spatially blind.
Knowledge about spatial relations and location of objects are most important for enabling
economic development, for managing and administering land, for handling disasters and crisis
situations, or simply to be able to make decisions on a personal scale on where and how to go
to a particular place.
2. Cartography is modern!
New and innovative technologies have an important impact on what cartographers are doing.
Maps can be derived automatically from geodata acquisition methods, smart models of
geodata can be built, and a whole range of presentation forms is now available.
3. Cartography is attractive!
Maps and other cartographic products are attractive. Many people like to use maps; to play
around with maps, for instance, on the Internet; or simply to look at them. We can witness a
dramatic increase in the number of users and use of maps currently.

3.1 The Cartographic Process

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Today, maps can be produced easily through a wide range of online tools by anyone with access to
the Internet. Maps used in most activities (from urban planning, through geological exploration or
environmental management, to trip planning and navigation), however, are still typically produced by
professionals with expertise in mapping or in the phenomena being depicted on the maps. The
academic and professional field that focuses on mapping is called cartography. Cartography has
been defined by the International Cartographic Association as the discipline dealing with the
conception, production, dissemination and study of maps. One useful conceptualization of
cartography is as a process that links map makers, map users, the environment mapped, and the
map itself. One characterization of this process is depicted in Figure 3.4 below.

Figure 3.4: The Cartographic Process.

Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; Redesigned after lecture slide
provided by Barbara Buttenfield, University of Colorado, Department of Geography.

The cartographic process is a cycle that begins with a real or imagined environment. As map makers
collect data from the environment (through technology and/or remote sensing), they use their
perception to detect patterns and subsequently prepare the data for map creation (i.e., they think
about the data and its patterns as well as how to best visualize them on a map). Next, the map
maker uses the data and attempts to signify it visually on a map (encoding), applying generalization,
symbolization, and production methods that will (hopefully) lead to a depiction that can be
interpreted by the map user in the way the map maker intended (its purpose). Next, the map user
reads, analyzes, and interprets the map by decoding the symbols and recognizing patterns. Finally,
users make decisions and take action based upon what they find in the map. Through their provision
of a viewpoint on the world, maps influence our spatial behavior and spatial preferences and shape
how we view the environment.

In the cartographic process as outlined above, the fundamental component in generating a map to
depict the environment is itself a process the process of map abstraction. This is the topic we
discuss next.

Practice Quiz
Registered Penn State students should return now to the Chapter 3 folder in ANGEL (via the
Resources menu to the left) to take a self-assessment quiz about the Introduction.
You may take practice quizzes as many times as you wish. They are not scored and do not affect
your grade in any way.

3.1.1 Map Abstraction

It has become possible to map the world on the head of a pin, or even a smaller space, as shown
here: Art of Science: World on the Head of a Pin, but, most details get left out. Even to achieve a
screen-sized map of the world on your computer, map abstraction is fundamental to representing
entities in a legible manner. The process of map abstraction includes at least five major
(interdependent) steps: (a) selection, (b) classification, (c) simplification, (d) exaggeration, and (e)
symbolization (Muehrcke and Muehrcke, 1992).
3.1.1.1 Selection
Depending on a maps purpose, cartographers (map makers) select what information to include and
what information to leave out. As Phillip Muehrcke (an Emeritus Professor of Geography from the
University of Wisconsin) details, the cartographer must answer four questions: Where? When?
What? Why? As an example (Figure 3.5), a cartographer can create a map of San Diego (where)
showing current (when) traffic patterns (what) so that an ambulance can take the fastest route to an
emergency (why).

Figure 3.5: Screenshot of San Diego Real-Time Traffic Application; to try out the map, see: Dot.ca.gov
San Diego Map.
Credit: California Department of Transportation.

The map in Figure 3.5 shows how a cartographer selected specific highways to include along with a
few other features; these other features include a very generalized representation of the terrain, a
few major rivers and lakes, and an indication of the area included in each of several communities (in
pastel colors). The objective is to help drivers pick efficient routes by depicting the highways and
whether traffic is moving quickly (green) or stalled (red). Other information is kept to a minimum and
visually pushed to the background; that extra information is included to provide context for the
primary focus (the highways and traffic on them).
3.1.1.2 Classification
Classification is the grouping of things into categories, or classes. By grouping attributes into a few
discernible classes, new visual patterns in the data can emerge and the map becomes more legible.

In the example above, the highways are classified into those without traffic detectors (gray) and
those with traffic detectors (in color) and furthermore, within the latter, into slow (red), intermediate
(yellow), and fast (green) travel conditions. There are many kinds of data classification used on
maps; we will focus specifically on classification of numerical map data in more detail later on in the
chapter. As a preview of some of the things map readers must consider about classification, the
example below shows one dataset for the rate of prostate cancer by county in Pennsylvania mapped
using a different number of classes. As you can see, different patterns emerge depending upon how
many classes the cartographer chooses to visualize. One must be critical when looking at maps
because changing the map classification can change what appears to be true. In How to Lie With
Maps, Mark Monmonier discusses how mapmakers intentionally and unintentionally lie through
techniques such as map classification, among others.

Figure 3.6: Incidence rate of prostate cancer per 100,000 persons per county in Pennsylvania, visualized
using three classes (left) and five classes (right).
Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; Redesigned after PA Cancer Atlas
from Penn State University GeoVISTA Center.

3.1.1.3 Simplification
Cartographers also need to simplify the features on a map beyond the tasks of feature type selection
and feature classification in order to make a map more intelligible. This includes choosing to delete,
smooth, typify, and aggregate entities within feature types. In the process of deleting entities,
imagine creating a map of cities for the United States. As illustrated in Figure 3.7, attempting to
include every city in the U.S. would render the map illegible. Map makers must delete, for instance,
cities below a certain population (as done in the map on the right) in order to better serve the
purpose of the map. In this case, if the purpose was to show the most populous cities, a fixed
population threshold produces a very appropriate result. If, however, the purpose was to show the
most important cities in the region, then an arbitrary population threshold does not work since, for
example, Salt Lake City is just as important to Utah as Phoenix is to Arizona.

Figure 3.7: Simplification of cities in the western United States by deleting cities with populations below
500,000.
Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; Data from U.S.G.S. for cities and
state boundaries from U.S. Census Bureau.

Smoothing is the act of eliminating unnecessary elements in the geometry of features, such as the
superfluous details of a nations shoreline that can only be seen at a larger, zoomed-in regional
scale. Typification depicts just the most typical components of the mapped feature. The visibility
map above is a good example of typification in which the actual geographic shape of state
boundaries is replaced with what might be considered a caricature that retains only key aspects of
each states shape. Going beyond the simplification processes that act on one feature at a
time, aggregation combines multiple features into one. Imagine a river composed of numerous
meandering streams at a large scale (i.e., zoomed in), but when moving to a smaller scale (i.e.,

zooming out), the streams are merged into one larger river as it becomes impossible to maintain the
detail. If you visit Google Maps and zoom in to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, you will find the
Susquehanna River flowing through the middle of the capital. As you zoom out to a smaller scale,
you will view the various smaller streams of the Susquehanna begin to collapse into a single blue
line as the details of the river aggregate.

Try This: Practice Simplification in MapShaper

The purpose of this practice activity is to show you a visual example of simplification and smoothing
of geographic features in the online MapShaper application.
1.

Go to the MapShaper site at MapShaper.org.

2.

Choose one of their sample layers (World Countries or Provinces of Thailand) tab and select OK.

3.

Choose a simplification methods of your choice, and use the slider at the bottom of the page to
increase the level of simplification of the mapped features.

I encourage you to experiment with the various methods and settings to see how simplification
eliminates unnecessary elements as you move through different map scales.
3.1.1.4 Exaggeration
Deliberate exaggeration of map features is often performed in order to allow certain features to be
seen. For instance, on a standard paper highway map of Pennsylvania (the fold-up kind you might
have in the glove box of your car, thus about 3 feet across when unfolded), interstate highways are
printed at roughly 0.035 inches in width. That sounds pretty small, right? But, if the width of the
printed road relative to the map width was the same as the width of the actual highway relative to the
width of Pennsylvania, it would mean that the the Interstate was nearly 2000 feet wide! This is a
typical case of exaggeration to create an abstraction that is useful for travel.
3.1.1.5 Symbolization
In the final process of creating a map, the cartographer symbolizes the selected features on a map.
These features can be symbolized in visually realistic ways, such as a river depicted by a winding
blue line. But many depictions are much more abstract, such as a circle or star representing a city.
Map symbols are constructed from more primitive graphic variables,the elements that make up
symbols. Below, we provide a brief overview of these core graphic variables; then we focus on how
color in particular is used (or should be used).
3.1.1.5.1 Graphic Variables
Given the large variety of maps that exist, it might be surprising to learn that the visual appearance
of all maps starts from a very small set of display primitives from which all those variations can be
constructed. We call these primitives graphic variables because each represents a graphic (visible)
feature of a map symbol that can be varied. While different cartographers have identified a slightly
different set of primitives, most agree that there are somewhere between 7 and 12 of them from
which all maps symbolization can be constructed. The most commonly cited primitives that can be
varied for map symbols are: location, size, shape, orientation, texture, and three components of
color color hue (red, green, blue, etc.), color lightness (how light or dark the color is), color

saturation (how pure the color hue is). By convention, each of these "graphic variables" is used to
represent particular categories of data variation.

Figure 3.8: Common Graphic Variable Examples.

Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University.

3.1.1.5.2 Color Schemes

As you can see above, three of the graphic variables are components of color. Color is particularly
important for map symbolization today since so many maps are seen online where color is always
available and nearly always used. While most maps you will see use color to depict data (as well as
in aesthetic ways), many maps do not use color in the most logical ways in relation to the data being
depicted. Well designed maps use variations in the three color variables in ways that reflect the
kinds of variations in the underlying data they represent. Below, we provide a few simple guidelines
that will allow you to recognize maps that use color in logical as well as illogical ways. Recognizing
the latter is particularly important so that you are not misled by maps you encounter.
To help cartographers (and others) select good colors for maps, Dr. Cynthia Brewer and Dr. Mark
Harrower developed Color Brewer (ColorBrewer2.org), a web app designed to help users pick
colors based on data type, number of data classes, and mode of map presentation (i.e., printing,
photocopying). The color schemes have been tested with users who have color deficiency (about
8% of the population; difficulty distinguishing red from green is the most common). The web app
allows users to interact with a map template by changing colors, background, borders, and terrain.
There are three main color scheme forms a user can choose from: sequential, diverging, and
categorical. Each is appropriate for specific kinds of data as detailed below.
Sequential color schemes should be employed when data is arranged from a low to a high data
value (e.g., data for mean annual income by county in Pennsylvania). This sequential scheme aligns
colors from light (depicting low data values) to dark (depicting high data values) in a step-wise
sequence. Sequential schemes can rely on only color lightness as shown below (Figure 3.9) at left
or may add some color hue variation to enhance differences in categories will retaining the clear
visual ordering as shown at right. As an example, Figure 3.10 uses a 4-class purple sequential
scheme to depict Avian Influenza, with a focus on Eurasia.

Figure 3.9: Screenshot of a single hue sequential color scheme for 5 classes (left) and a multi-hue
sequential color scheme for 5 classes (right).

Credit: http://colorbrewer2.org.

Figure 3.10: Reported H5N1 Cases (Avian Flu) Per Country from January 1, 2003 to December 31, 2008.
Credit: Created by Paulo Rapolo.

Diverging color schemes highlight an important midrange or critical value of ordered data as well as
the maximum and minimum data values. Two contrasting dark hues converge in color lightness at
the critical value. This is the scheme used for the population change map in Figure 3.3 above in
which the critical dividing point is zero change.

Figure 3.11: Screenshot of a diverging color scheme for 5 classes.

Credit: http://colorbrewer2.org.

Unlike the ordered data mentioned in the previous color schemes, qualitative color schemes are
used to present categorical data, or data belonging to different categories. Different hues visually

separate each of the different classes, or categories. The map in Figure 3.13 employs a qualitative
color scheme of three different colors (red, blue, green) to represent different categories (coke, pop,
and soda respectively).

Figure 3.12: Screenshot of a qualitative color scheme for 5 classes.

Credit: http://colorbrewer2.org.

Figure 3.13: Popular term (coke, pop, or soda) by majority for each of the contiguous states.
Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; Data from www.popvssoda.com.

Cartography
Previous (Cartilage)
Next (Cartoon)

A celestial map from the seventeenth century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit.

Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis - map and graphein - write)

is the study and practice of making representations of the Earth on a flat
surface. The discipline of cartography combines science, aesthetics, and
technical ability to create a balanced and readable representation that is
capable of communicating information effectively and quickly.
Cartography, however mechanized it becomes, remains both a science and
an art. The aesthetics of any given map will always be a critical component
essential to the conveyance of information. A map must provide accuracy
and in the best of solutions, an inventive presentation of data or analysis of
data, but always in a form that is readily comprehensible and inviting to the
reader. A map is both more, and less, than simply geographical or physical
space. And it is always a result of artistic and technical judgments, creating
something both useful and, occasionally, beautiful.
One problem in creating maps is the simple reality that the surface of the
Earth, a curved surface in three-dimensional space, must be represented in
two dimensions as a flat surface. This necessarily entails some degree of
distortion, which can be dealt with by utilizing projections that minimize
distortion in certain areas. Furthermore, the Earth is not a regular sphere, but

its shape is instead known as a geoid, which is a highly irregular but exactly
knowable and calculable shape.
Maps of all scales have traditionally been drawn and made by hand, but the
use of computers has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial-quality
maps are now made with software that falls into one of three main
types: CAD, GIS, and specialized illustration software.

Contents
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Etymology
History
Technological changes
Map types
Map design
5.1 Naming conventions
5.2 Map symbolization
5.3 Map generalization
Notes
References
External links
Credits

Functioning as tools, maps communicate spatial information by making it

visible. Spatial information is acquired from measurement of space and can
be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of
purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods
of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive
maps that can be manipulated digitally.
Cartographic representation involves the use of symbols and lines to
illustrate geographic phenomena. This can aid in visualizing space in an
abstract and portable format. The cartographic process rests on the premise
that the world is measurable and that we can make reliable representations
or models of that reality.

Etymology
The term "Cartography" was coined in 1859, from the French, carta meaning
card and -graphie,from the Greek, meaning to write, or to draw.[1] A slightly
different version finds the term deriving from Old French carte, or map, with
its roots in Latin charta, or carta, meaning paper made from
papyrus. Graphie is the French for graphia, from the Greek for writing. [2]

History

Copy (1475) of St. Isidore's TO map of the world

Maps have been a large part of the human story for a long time (perhaps
8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words). They
were known to have existed in societies of Europe, the Middle East,
China, India, and others.
The earliest known map to date is a wall painting of the ancient Turkish city
of atal Hyk which has been dated to the late seventh
millennium B.C.E. [3] Other known maps of the ancient world include the
Minoan House of the Admiral wall painting from c. 1600 B.C.E. showing a
seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the
holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (fourteenth twelfth
centuries B.C.E.). [4] The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps beginning
with Anaximander in the sixth century B.C.E. In ancient China, although
geographical literature spans back to the fifth centuryB.C.E., the drawing of
true geographical maps was not begun in earnest until the first half of
the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.E.-202 C.E.), with the works of Prince Liu An
(179 B.C.E.-122 B.C.E.).
Mappa mundi is the general term used to describe Medieval European maps
of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have
survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating
manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents [5].
In the Age of Exploration from the fifteenth century to the seventeenth
century, cartographers copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed
down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and
new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass,
telescope, and sextant increased accuracy.
Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers
frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the
original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of
North America is unofficially known as the Beaver Map, published in 1715 by
Herman Moll. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de
Fer. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis
Hennepin, published in 1697, and Franois Du Creux, in 1664. By the 1700s,

map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the

phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work. [6]
Not all maps were drawn on paper. Well researched examples include the
navigational stick charts of the Marshall Islanders, interwoven sticks
arranged to depict distances across seas, wave fronts, and elevations of
islands. Native Alaskans carved intricate sculptures that recreated coastlines
and elevations in a portable, and quite accurate, three dimensional form. [7]

Technological changes
In cartography, new technology has been incorporated into the production of
the maps of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps
were manually constructed with brushes and parchment, were varied in
quality and of limited distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, like
the compass and, much later, magnetic storage devices, led to the creation
of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate those
maps digitally.
Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant, and
vernier calipers allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to
make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology,
such as the telescope, sextant, and other devices that use telescopes,
allowed for accurate surveying of land and gave the mapmakers and
navigators the ability to find theirlatitude by measuring angles to the North
Star at night or the sun at noon.
Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and
photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that are
finely detailed, do not distort in shape, and resist moisture and wear. These
advances eliminated the need for engraving, further shortening the time it
takes to make and reproduce maps.
In the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century, advances in
electronic technology led to another revolution in cartography. Specifically,
computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers,
scanners (remote and document), and analytic stereo plotters along with
visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have
democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to
superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses
for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials.

Map types
The field of cartography can be divided into two broad categories: general
cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those
maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety
of features, like topographic maps.Topographic maps depict natural and built

features of a place, with relief and elevation shown by drawn contours or

shading techniques. These relatively general maps exhibit many reference
and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, United
States Geological Survey (USGS) has produced a full series of 1:24,000 scale
topographic maps; Canada has the same, at 1:50,000 scale. The government
of the UK produces 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of
the entire UK and a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of
great detail.
Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented
toward specific audiences. Examples might be a dot map showing corn
production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into
numerical choropleth classes. As the volume of geographic data has
exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become
increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data.
Epidemiological data are represented on specialized maps, a particularly
useful way to illustrate exposure patterns, or occurrence. Most applied
cartography could be well be described as thematic mapping. Points of view
can be represented thematically as well, and the user of a given map must
be informed of the objectives of the cartographer in order to judge the value
of the presentation.

Map design

Illustrated map

Arthur H. Robinson, an American cartographer influential in thematic

cartography, stated that a poorly designed map "will be a cartographic
failure." He also declared that "map design is perhaps the most complex"
aspect of cartography. [8] Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding
that a map must be designed with consideration of the audience and its
needs foremost. A well designed map would address each of these basic
elements:

ease of use, with respect to the intended audience, both physically

and cognitively; *accuracy, meaning a minimum amount of distortion or
errors;

strong relationship between the object and the map, meaning that
the translation of physical space to a different medium should be readily
recognizable;

appropriate labeling and symbol use;

legibility and clarity - very important points. [9]

From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some
particular purpose or set of purposes." [10] The intent of the map should be
illustrated in a manner in which the 'percipient' acknowledges its purpose in
a timely fashion. The term percipient refers to the person receiving
information and was used by Robinson. The figure-ground principle refers to
this notion of engaging the user by clear presentation, leaving no confusion
concerning the purpose of the map. Clear presentation enhances the users
experience and keeps his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is
being demonstrated, the map may be useless.
Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. MacEachren explains that a
well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" [11]. A
thoughtfully designed, interesting map engages a reader. Information
richness or a map that is multivariate will show relationships within the map.
Showing several variables allows comparison, adding to the meaningfulness
of the map. This also generates hypotheses, stimulates ideas, and perhaps,
further research.
In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a
manner that will facilitate the overall understanding of its purpose. The title
of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that
message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the
reader interprets it [12]).

Naming conventions
Most maps use text to label places and for such things as a map title, legend,
and other information. Maps are typically created in specific languages,
though names of places often differ among languages. So a map made in
English may use the name Germany for that country, where a German map
would use Deutschland, and a French map Allemagne. A word that describes
a place using a non-native terminology or language is referred to as an
exonym.
In some cases, the 'correct' name is unclear. For example, the nation of
Burma officially changed its name to Myanmar, but many nations do not
recognize the ruling junta and continue to use Burma. Sometimes an official
name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain

in common use. Examples include the use of Saigon for Ho Chi Minh
City, Bangkok for Krung Thep, and Ivory Coast for Cte d'Ivoire.
Difficulties arise when transliteration or transcription between writing
systems is required. National names tend to have well established names in
other languages and writing systems, such as Russia for , but for
many placenames a system of transliteration or transcription is required. In
transliteration the symbols of one language are represented by symbols in
another. For example, the Cyrillic letter is traditionally written as R in the
Latin alphabet. Systems exist for transliteration of Arabic, but the results
may vary. For example, the Yemeni city of Mocha is written variously in
English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukh, Mocca, and Moka. Transliteration
systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while
transcription is the attempt to spell the phonetic sounds of one language in
another. Chinese writing is transformed into the Latin alphabet through
the Pinyin phonetic transcription systems, for example. Other systems were
used in the past, such as Wade-Giles, resulting in the city being
spelled Beijing on newer English maps and Peking on older ones.
Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not
have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases
cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of
local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names.
Some countries have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official
placenames. For example, the capital ofBelgium is
both Brussels and Bruxelles. In Canada, English and French are official
languages and places are named in both languages. British Columbia is also
officially named la Colombie-Britannique. English maps rarely show the
French names outside Quebec, which itself is spelled Qubec in French. [13]
The study of placenames is called toponymy, while that of the origin and
historical usage of placenames as words is etymology.

Map symbolization
The quality of a maps design affects its readers ability to comprehend and
extract information from the map. Cartographic symbolization has been
developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey
information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of
the map, or its symbolization. The title indicates the region the map portrays
or the map's intent; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although
every map element serves some purpose, convention dictates inclusion of
only certain elements while others are considered optional. A menu of map
elements includes the neatline (border), compass rose or north arrow,
overview map, scale bar, projection, and information about the map sources,
accuracy, and publication.

When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses, and
cars. Not so with a map. Thus a simple thing as a north arrow can be crucial;
the top of a map does not necessarily indicate north.
Color is equally important. How the cartographer uses color to display the
data can greatly affect the clarity or intent of the map. Different intensities of
hue portray the cartographer's various objectives. Computers can display up
to 16 million distinct colors at a time even though the human eye can
distinguish only a minimum number of these (Jeer, 1997). This allows for a
multitude of color options for even for the most complex maps. Moreover,
computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to give even more options. This
can be very useful when symbolizing data in categories like quintile and
equal interval classifications.
Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative
size/importance/number that a symbol represents. There are two major
classes of symbols used for portraying quantitative properties on a map:
Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a quantitative
property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. Choropleth maps
portray data collection areas (such as counties, or census tracts) with color.
Using color this way, the darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is
evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or concentration [14].

Map generalization
A good map is a compromise between portraying the items of interest (or
themes) in the right place for the map scale used, and the need to annotate
that item with text or a symbol, taking up space on the map medium and
very likely causing some other item of interest to be displaced. The
cartographer is thus constantly making judgments about what to include,
what to leave out, and what to show in a slightlyincorrect place - because of
the demands of the annotation. This issue assumes more importance as the
scale of the map gets smaller (i.e., the map shows a larger area), because
relatively, the annotation on the map takes up more space on the ground. A
good example from the late 1980s was the British Government Ordnance
Survey's first digital maps, where the absolute positions of major roads
shown at scales of 1:1250 and 1:2500 were sometimes a scale distance of
hundreds of meters away from ground truth, when shown on digital maps at
scales of 1:250000 and 1:625000, because of the overriding need to
annotate the features.

3.2 Thematic Maps

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As introduced above, unlike reference maps, thematic maps are usually made with a single purpose
in mind. Often, that purpose has to do with revealing the spatial distribution of one or two attribute
data sets (e.g., to help readers understand changing U.S. demographics as with the population
change map). Alternatively, thematic maps can have a decision-making purpose (e.g., to help users
make travel decisions as with the real-time traffic map).
In the rest of this chapter, we will explore different types of thematic maps and consider which type of
map is conventionally used for different types of data and different use goals. A primary distinction
here is between maps that depict categorical (qualitative) data and those that depict numerical
(quantitative) data.

3.2.1 Mapping Categorical Data

As mentioned in the section on color schemes, categorical data are data that can be assigned to
distinct non-numerical categories. For example, the category of a beach could not be described as
two times the value of a wetland; it is different in kind rather than amount. In mapping categorical
data, cartographers often focus on displaying the different categories or classes through shape or
color hue. The CrimeViz map application (CrimeViz) developed in the GeoVISTA Center at Penn
State visualizes violent crimes reported from the District of Columbia Data Catalog (DC Data
Catalog). Every crime location is displayed as a circular point, where each crime category is

differentiated through hue (arson: orange, homicide: purple, sexual abuse: blue). This interactive
map application allows map users to explore and find new patterns across space and time.

Figure 3.14: Screenshot of the features of CrimeViz.

Credit: http://www.geovista.psu.edu/CrimeViz/.

Aside from altering color to represent different categories on a map, changing the shape of a point
symbol can help map users differentiate different groups. The Ushahidi (signifying testimony in
Swahili) website developed an online crowd sourcing map application. Following the election in
2008, many Kenyans believed the new president manipulated votes in his favor, which led to
violence throughout the country. Users of the Ushahidi website were prompted to report acts of
violence in Kenya. Their map, automatically generated from the reports, displays different types of
incidents by varying the shape of the point feature (fire: all categories, push pin: specific type of
violence, dove: peace efforts, people: displaced people). In addition, each subcategory of violence
(represented by push pins) is contrasted by differing hues (blue: riots, orange: deaths, and so on).

The tools to create this mapping application have been distributed for free around the world and are
now used for a wide array of crisis mapping applications. One recent example is their application to
generate maps of sexual violence in Syria (Women Under Siege: Syria Crowdmap); and for those
who read Japanese, the tools were applied to the Japan Earthquake and subsequent nuclear
disaster.

Figure 3.15: Screenshot of the features of Ushahidi.

Credit: http://legacy.ushahidi.com/index.asp.

Categorical aspects of linear features can also be visualized on a map. In the figure below, different
gas pipelines owned by various companies are depicted in different color hues. The dashed pink line
in the top left of the figure represents a proposed gas line from Alaska that could send up to 4.5

billion cubic feet of natural gas a day to the conterminous United States. In this map, the
cartographer uses the process of map abstraction for the purpose of displaying the current and
proposed gas pipeline network. First, only necessary features (pipelines, territories and major cities)
are selected for display in order to produce a clean and legible map. Next, the linear pipeline
network is classified into several groups based upon distinct companies. The map is simplified by
visualizing only major cities important to the gas pipeline network. The width of the pipeline is
constant across the entire system, exaggerating the actual width (if the width of lines represented
real-world diameter of the pipes proportionally, the real pipes would be 16 miles across). Finally, the
classified/categorical data (the different pipeline companies) is symbolized by different color hues to
represent the qualitative difference among the categories.

Figure 3.16: Map of the Gas Pipline Network From Canada to the United States.
Credit: http://www.arcticgas.gov/Moving-Alaska-gas-from-Canada-to-the-Lower-48.

The maps above focus on depiction of specific discrete entities, things that have a label we use
when discussing them. Categorical maps can also represent characteristics of extended areas or

territories. In this case, rather than categorizing discrete entities, we categorize the characteristics of
the place, and those places may or may not have precise boundaries. A prototypical example is a
land use map in which all areas of the map fall into one of a set of distinct land use categories. The
most common method to depict this kind of data is to fill the area with a color or a texture. Below is
an example in which land use is depicted very abstractly. All places are assigned to one of only three
categories: agriculture, forest, or developed.

Figure 3.17: Map of land use in the Spring Creek Watershed in central Pennsylvania. In this map,
Developed is a broad category that includes commercial, residential, and all other land uses that are not
explicitly agriculture or forest.
Credit: This map was produced in Riparia, a Center in the Dept. of Geography at Penn State focused on wetlands and
watershed management: http://www.wetlands.psu.edu/ (map provided by Dr. Robert Brooks).

Practice Quiz
Registered Penn State students should return now to the Chapter 3 folder in ANGEL (via the
Resources menu to the left) to take a self-assessment quiz about Mapping Categorical Data.
You may take practice quizzes as many times as you wish. They are not scored and do not affect
your grade in any way.

3.2.2 Mapping numerical data

When data are numerical, the mapping focus is typically on representing at least relative rank order
among the entities depicted, with some maps trying to represent magnitudes in a direct way. A wide
array of map types has been developed over the years to represent numerical data. Here, we will
introduce some of the most common map types you are likely to encounter. There is a growing
number of online tools that you can use to generate these common map types yourself.
We begin by introducing one of the most common thematic map types for numerical data, the
choropleth map. This is followed by a brief discussion of the U.S. Census as an important source of
numerical data that is depicted on choropleth thematic maps as well as on other thematic map types.
We then introduce three important additional map types you are likely to encounter frequently:
proportional symbol maps, dot maps, and cartograms.

Try This: Thematic Mapping of Flu Trends

Google collects certain search terms that users input because they are key indicators of flu among
users. VisitGoogle Flu Trends and explore current flu trends around the world that have been
numerically classified from minimal to intense activity and mapped. Pick a country that has flu
activity. Do you see any geographic patterns within the country? How does this year compare to the
past?
3.2.2.1 Choropleth mapping
Choropleth maps are among the most prevalent types of thematic maps. Choropleth maps
represent quantitative data that is aggregated to areas (often called enumeration units). The units
can be countries of the world, states of a country, school districts, or any other regional division that
divides the whole territory into distinct areas. The term choropleth is derived from the Greek; khra
'region' + plthos 'multitude' (thus, be careful not to mix up choro, which has no l, with the chloro
of chlorophyll or chlorine). Choropleth maps depict quantities aggregated to their regions by filling
the entire region with a shade or color. Typically, the quantities are grouped into classes
(representing a range in data value) and a different fill is used to depict each class (see section 3.2.6
for more on data classification). The goal of choropleth maps is to depict the geographic distribution
of the data magnitudes; ideally the choice of fill will communicate the range from low data

magnitudes to high magnitudes through an obvious change from light to dark as in Figure 3.18
below. Choropleth maps should use either a sequential color scheme (as below) or a diverging color
scheme depending upon whether there is a meaningful break point in the data from which values
diverge or the data simply range from low to high (see section 2.1.5.2 above).

Figure 3.18: Hispanic population density in the U.S. by state, using a single hue sequential color scheme
that depicts the range of data values from low to high with light to dark color values.
Credit: Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

To generate eye-catching maps with easily distinguishable data classes, choropleth maps often
combine color hue differences with a change in color lightness (as with the yellow, through orange,
to dark red scheme depicted in Figure 3.18 above). But many maps get produced without following
that cartographic rule, leading to some very colorful but misleading maps as shown in the pair below.

Figure 3.19: Misleading population maps due to color choice. On the left, the data values diverge from no
change to large increases and decreases, but the fact that most of the US has increases is a lot harder to
determine from this map than from Figure 3.3, and regional clusters are harder to recognize as well. On
the right, the data are ordered, but the color scheme applied is not visually sequential, so geographic
patterns are very hard to identify.
Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; Data from U.S. Census Bureau.

Choropleth maps are most appropriate for representing derived quantities, as represented in Figure
3.18 above. Derived quantities relate a data value to some reference value. Examples include
density, average, rate, and percent. A density is acount divided by the area of the geographic unit
to which the count was aggregated (e.g., total population divided by number of square kilometers to
produce population/square mile, as in Figure 3.18). An average is a measure of central tendency,
specifically the mean value calculated as a total amount divided by the number of entities producing
the amount (e.g., average income for a county calculated by totaling the income of all people in the
country and dividing by the number of people). A rate is a quantity that tells us how frequently
something occurs, a value compared to a standard value (e.g., Bradford County, PA had a rate of
45.1/100,000 deaths due to colorectal cancer among women over the period of 1994-2002).
A percent is the proportion of a total (and can range from 0-100%). While choropleth maps are best
for these derived quantities, you will also encounter choropleth maps used for counts (e.g., number
of crimes committed, votes cast in an election, etc.). When you do, it is important to read the map
with caution because big regions are likely to have high totals just because they are big.

Figure 3.20: Total population count by state (left) and population density by state (right).
Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; Data from U.S. Census Bureau.

3.2.2.2 Census Data

Some of the richest sources of attribute data for thematic mapping, particularly for choropleth maps,
are national censuses. In the United States, a periodic count of the entire population is required by
the U.S. Constitution. Article 1, Section 2, ratified in 1787, states (in the last paragraph of the section
shown below) that Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states
which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers ... The actual
Enumeration shall be made [every] ten years, in such manner as [the Congress] shall by law direct."
The U.S. Census Bureau is the government agency charged with carrying out the decennial census.

Figure 3.21: A portion of the Constitution of the United States of America (preamble and first three
paragraphs of Article 1).
Credit: Obtained from: http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters_downloads.html.

The results of the U.S. decennial census determine states' portions of the 435 total seats in the U.S.
House of Representatives. The thematic map below (Figure 3.22) shows states that lost and gained
seats as a result of thereapportionment that followed the 2000 census. This map, focused on the
U.S. by state, is a variant on a choropleth map. Rather than using color fill to depict quantity, color
depicts only change and its direction, red for a loss in number of Congressional seats, gray for no
change, and blue for a gain in number of Congressional seats. Numbers are then used as symbols
to indicate amount of change (small -1 or +1 for a change of 1 seat and larger -2 or +2 for a change
of two seats). This scaling of numbers is an example of the more general application of size as a
graphic variable to produce proportional symbols the topic we cover in detail in the section on
proportional symbol mapping below.

Figure 3.22: Reapportionment of the U.S. House of Representatives as a result of the 2000 census.
Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; After figure in Chapter 3, DiBiase,
2012. (Data from U.S. Census Bureau, generalized in MapShaper and Alaska and Hawaii boundaries
fromwww.naturalearthdata.com).

Congressional voting district boundaries must be redrawn within the states that gained and lost
seats, a process calledredistricting. Constitutional rules and legal precedents require that voting
districts contain equal populations (within about 1 percent). In addition, districts must be drawn so as
to provide equal opportunities for representation of racial and ethnic groups that have been
discriminated against in the past. Further, each state is allowed to create its own parameters for
meeting the equal opportunities constraint. In Pennsylvania (and other states), geographic
compactness has been used as one of several factors. Article II, Section 16 of the Pennsylvania
Constitution says:

 16. Legislative districts.

The Commonwealth shall be divided into 50 senatorial and 203 representative districts, which
shall be composed of compact and contiguous territory as nearly equal in population as practicable.
Each senatorial district shall elect one Senator, and each representative district one Representative.
Unless absolutely necessary no county, city, incorporated town, borough, township or ward shall be
divided in forming either a senatorial or representative district. (Apr. 23, 1968, P.L.App.3, Prop.
No.1). Source: http://www.legis.state.pa.us/WU01/LI/LI/CT/HTM/00/00.002..HTM
Whether districts determined each decade actually meet these guidelines is typically a contentious
issue and often results in legal challenges. Below, the Congressional District map for PA that defines
the boundaries of districts for the 112th Congress illustrates how irregular districts can be. District 12
has a particularly interesting shape.

Figure 3.23: Congressional districts of Pennsylvania.

Credit: The National Atlas.

Beyond the role of the census of population in determining the number of representatives per state
(thus in providing the data input to reapportionment and redistricting), the Census Bureau's mandate
is to provide the population data needed to support governmental operations, more broadly including

decisions on allocation of federal expenditures. Its broader mission includes being "the preeminent
collector and provider of timely, relevant, and quality data about the people and economy of the
United States". To fulfill this mission, the Census Bureau needs to count more than just numbers of
people, and it does. We will discuss this in more detail later (in section 3.3, Thinking about
aggregated data: Enumeration versus samples).
3.2.2.3 Proportional Symbol Mapping
Besides reapportionment and redistricting, U.S. census counts also affect the flow of billions of
dollars of federal expenditures, including contracts and federal aid, to states and municipalities. In
2011, for example, some $486 billion of Medicaid funds were distributed according to a formula that
compared state and national per capita income. $93 billion worth of highway planning and
construction funds were allotted to states according to their shares of urban and rural population.
And $120 billion of Unemployment Compensation was distributed from the Federal level. The
thematic maps below (using historical data from 1995) illustrate the strong relationship between
population counts and the distribution of federal tax dollars using proportional symbols (symbols in
which the graphic variable of size is used to depict data magnitude).

Figure 3.24. Population and federal expenditures, by state, 1995.

Credit: Cartography by Thad Lenker. Data from U.S. Census Bureau, Federal Expenditures by
State,http://www.census.gov/prod/2/gov/fes95rv.pdf.

There are two types of point features that are typically depicted with proportional symbols: features
for which the data represents a geographic position directly (e.g., gallons of oil from individual oil
wells), and features that are geographic areas to which data are aggregated and the data
magnitudes are assigned to a representative point within the area (e.g., the geographic centroid of a
state as in the examples above). In either case, the area of the symbol is scaled to represent the
data magnitude, sometimes with a bit of exaggeration to adjust for a general tendency of human
vision to underestimate differences in area. A variant on this direct data-to-symbol scaling groups
values into categories first, then scales the symbol to represent the mean for the category, assigning
a symbol to each place to represent the category range that the mean for the place falls within (see
Figure 3.25 below).

Figure 3.25: Unemployment Percentages in 2000 in the United States, with each circle representing a
category with the percentage range specified in the legend at the right.
Credit: Cartography by Jennifer M. Smith.

One important characteristic of proportional symbols is that they can easily be designed to represent
more than one data value per location. Among the most common example is a pie chart map in
which a circle is scaled proportionally to some total, and the size of wedges within the circle is scaled
to depict a proportion of a total for two or more sub-categories. The map below uses circle size to
depict population totals in each state, and the pie slices then depict proportion of that total who
identify as Hispanic compared to those who are non-Hispanic.

Figure 3.26: A "pie chart " map that depicts rate percents of Hispanic population as percent of total
population.
Credit: Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

Practice Quiz
Registered Penn State students should return now to the Chapter 3 folder in ANGEL (via the
Resources menu to the left) to take a self-assessment quiz about Choropleth Mapping, Census
Data, and Proportional Symbol Mapping.
You may take practice quizzes as many times as you wish. They are not scored and do not affect
your grade in any way.
3.2.2.4 Dot Mapping
For data that represent an area, proportional symbols are a fairly extreme abstraction. They provide
a very simple overview of data magnitudes geographically, but hide any geographic variation that
might occur inside the enumeration units to which the data are aggregated. An alternative is the dot
map. Dot maps depict magnitude by frequency rather than size of symbol and add the depiction of
geographic distribution by use of the graphic variable of location. Specifically, dot maps assign one
to many dots per enumeration area to represent a specific count in each area. The difference
between a dot map and a simple map of point features is that each dot represents more than one
entity and the locations are representative of the distribution rather than being exact locations.

Specifically, dots that represent some count are placed within enumeration units to represent
generally where the feature or attribute occurs.
In the example below, the dot map depicts the size of the Hispanic population by number of dots per
state. Each dot represents 100,000 people in this case, and the general geographic distribution of
the Hispanic population within the state is signified by the position of the dots. Not surprisingly, dot
maps can vary substantially in how well the distribution of dots on the map represents the actual
distribution of the phenomena in the world. Cartographers typically use secondary sources of
information to help them decide on the appropriate locations for the dots (e.g., land use maps,
satellite images, or statistics collected for smaller geographic units like counties). But, the position of
dots usually is based on an educated estimate of distribution rather than on any direct measurement
of where the people (in this case) or automobiles or bushels of wheat (or the many other kinds of
things we can count) actually are.

Figure 3.28: A "dot density" map that depicts count data.

Credit: Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

3.2.2.5 Cartograms
A cartogram can be considered a special case of proportional symbol mapping. But, in this case, the
symbol that is scaled in proportion to a data magnitude is the geographic area for which data are

aggregated. Cartograms are unusual enough that they attract viewer attention, making them a
popular mapping method with the media, particularly during election years. Their primary weakness
(in addition to distorting geography so that no standard measurements such as distance among
places are accurate), is that they cannot be interpreted correctly unless the map reader knows the
actual geographic shapes of the map units so that sizes can be related to the places they represent.
The map below shows the results of the 2008 Presidential election, with a red state signifying a
majority of votes for John McCain, the republican candidate, and blue states a majority for Barack
Obama, the democratic candidate. This cartogram scales the areas of each shape to represent its
respective total population, visually showing how the majority of the United States voted.

Figure 3.29: Cartogram of election results with red signifying a republican majority state and blue a
democratic majority state.
Credit: Mark Newman at the University of Michigan, http://www-personal.umich.edu/~mejn/election/2008/.

The following maps illustrate the power that some cartograms can have in helping users visually
comprehend a phenomenon. While the map on the left depicts the majority vote results by county
(with a vast majority of counties for the republican candidate), the cartogram on the right shows the
areas again depicted by population (this time with country rather than state level data), revealing the
larger number of democratic support. The map on the left gives a distorted view (even though it does
not look distorted) because a majority of counties won by the republican candidate were low in
population and many were large in area.

Figure 3.30: Election results by county with red signifying a republican majority and blue a democratic
majority (left) and cartogram skewing the counties by their respective populations (right).
Credit: Mark Newman at the University of Michigan, http://www-personal.umich.edu/~mejn/election/2008/.

For more election cartogram examples, visit University of Michigan 2008 election site.

Try This: Practice Identifying Mapping Techniques

Visit the National Geographic Earthpulse map. On the left hand side, you will find numerous check
boxes for different thematic maps. Choose two thematic maps and identify at least two cartographic
techniques (any that have been discussed in the chapter) the cartographer used when creating this
map. For instance, in the map above (Figure 3.30), the cartographer used a qualitative color scheme
(blue and red) on a choropleth map to show different categories (democratic or republication majority
vote) for each U.S. state.

3.2.2.6 Numerical Data Classification

As discussed above (and in Chapter 1), all maps are abstractions. This means that they depict only
selected information, but also that the information selected must be generalized due to the limits of
display resolution, comparable limits of human visual acuity, and especially the limits imposed by the
costs of collecting and processing detailed data. What we have not previously considered is that
generalization is not only necessary, it is sometimes beneficial; it can make complex information
understandable.
Consider a simple example. The graph below (Figure 3.31) shows the percent of people who prefer
the term pop (not soda or coke) for each state. Categories along the x axis of the graph represent
each of the 50 unique percentage values (two of the states had exactly the same rate). Categories
along the y axis are the numbers of states associated with each rate. As you can see, it's difficult to
discern a pattern in these data; it appears that there is no pattern.

Figure 3.31: Unique percentage values for people who use the term pop by state.
Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; Data
fromhttp://www.popvssoda.com/.

The following graph (Figure 3.32) shows exactly the same data set, only grouped into 10 classes
with equal 10% ranges). It's much easier to discern patterns and outliers in the classified data than in
the unclassified data. Notice that people in a large number of states (23) do not really prefer the term
pop as they are distributed around 0 to 10 percent of users who favor that term. There are no
states at the other extreme (91-100%), but a few states whose vast majority (81-90% of their
population) prefer the term pop. Ignoring the many 0-10% states where pop is rarely used, the most
common states are ones in which about 2/3 favor the term; looking back to Figure 3.13, these are
primarily northern states, including Pennsylvania. All of these variations in the information are
obscured in the unclassified data.

Figure 3.32: Classed percentages of people who use the term pop by state.
Credit: Jennifer M. Smith, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University; Data
fromhttp://www.popvssoda.com/.

As shown above, data classification is a generalization process that can make data easier to
interpret. Classification into a small number of ranges, however, gives up some details in exchange
for the clearer picture, and there are multiple choices of methods to classify data for mapping. If a
classification scheme is chosen and applied skillfully, it can help reveal patterns and anomalies that
otherwise might be obscured (as shown above). By the same token, a poorly-chosen classification
scheme may hide meaningful patterns. The appearance of a thematic map, and sometimes
conclusions drawn from it, may vary substantially depending on the data classification scheme used.
Thus, it is important to understand the choices that might be made, whether you are creating a map
or interpreting one created by someone else.
Many different systematic classification schemes have been developed. Some produce
mathematically "optimal" classesfor unique data sets, maximizing the difference between classes
and minimizing differences within classes. Since optimizing schemes produce unique solutions,
however, they are not the best choice when several maps need to be compared. For this, data
classification schemes that treat every data set alike are preferred.

Figure 3.33: Portion of the ArcMap classification dialog box highlighting the schemes supported in ArcMap
8.2.
Credit: Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University.

Two commonly used classification schemes are quantiles and equal intervals. The following two
graphs illustrate the differences.

Figure 3.34: County population change rates divided into five quantile categories.
Credit: Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University.

The graph above groups the Pennsylvania county population change data into five classes, each of
which contains the same number of counties (in this case, approximately 20 percent of the total in
each). The quantiles scheme accomplishes this by varying the width, or range, of each class.
Quantile is a general label for any grouping of rank ordered data into an equal number of entities;
quantiles with specific numbers of groups go by their own unique labels ("quartiles" and "quintiles,"
for example, are instances of quantile classifications that group data into four and five classes
respectively). The figure below, then, is an example of quintiles.

Figure 3.35: County population change rates divided into five equal interval categories.
Credit: Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University.

In the second graph, the data range of each class is equivalent (8.5 percentage points).
Consequently, the number of counties in each equal interval class varies.

Figure 3.36: The five quantile classes mapped.

Credit: Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University.

Figure 3.37: The five equal interval classes mapped.

Credit: Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University.

As you can see, the effect of the two different classification schemes on the appearance of the two
choropleth maps above is dramatic. The quantiles scheme is often preferred because it prevents the
clumping of observations into a few categories shown in the equal intervals map. Conversely, the
equal interval map reveals two outlier counties that are obscured in the quantiles map. Due to the
potentially extreme differences in visual appearance, it is often useful to compare the maps
produced by several different map classifications. Patterns that persist through changes in
classification schemes are likely to be more conclusive evidence than patterns that shift. Patterns
that show up with only one scheme may be important, but require special scrutiny (and an
understanding of how the scheme works) to evaluate.

Practice Quiz
Registered Penn State students should return now to the Chapter 3 folder in ANGEL (via the
Resources menu to the left) to take a self-assessment quiz about Dot Mapping, Cartograms, and
Data Classification.
You may take practice quizzes as many times as you wish. They are not scored and do not affect
your grade in any way.

3.2.3 Thinking about aggregated data: Enumeration versus samples

Quantitative data of the kinds depicted by the maps detailed in the previous section come from a
diverse array of sources. In the U.S., one of the most important sources is the U.S. Bureau of the
Census (discussed briefly above). Here we focus in on one important distinction in data collected by
the Census and by other organizations, a distinction between complete enumeration (counting every
entity) and sampling.
Sixteen U.S. Marshals and 650 assistants conducted the first U.S. census in 1791. They counted
some 3.9 million individuals, although as then-Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson reported to
President George Washington, the official number understated the actual population by at least 2.5
percent (Roberts, 1994). By 1960, when the U.S. population had reached 179 million, it was no
longer practical to have a census taker visit every household. The Census Bureau then began to
distribute questionnaires by mail. Of the 116 million households to which questionnaires were sent in
2000, 72 percent responded by mail. A mostly-temporary staff of over 800,000 was needed to visit
the remaining households, and to produce the final count of 281,421,906. Using statistically reliable
estimates produced from exhaustive follow-up surveys, the Bureau's permanent staff determined
that the final count was accurate to within 1.6 percent of the actual number (although the count was
less accurate for young and minority residences than it was for older and white residents). It was the
largest and most accurate census to that time. (Interestingly, Congress insists that the
original enumeration or "head count" be used as the official population count, even though the
estimate calculated from samples by Census Bureau statisticians is demonstrably more accurate.)
As of this writing, some aspects of reporting from the decennial census of 2010 are still underway.
Like 2000, the mail-in response rate was 72 percent. The official 2010 census count, by state, was
delivered to the U.S. Congress on December 21, 2010 (10 days prior to the mandated deadline).
The total count for the U.S. was 308,745,538, a 9.7% increase over 2000.

In the first census, in 1791, census takers asked relatively few questions. They wanted to know the
numbers of free persons, slaves, and free males over age 16, as well as the sex and race of each
individual. (You can view replicas of historical census survey forms at Ancestry.com) As the U.S.
population has grown, and as its economy and government have expanded, the amount and variety
of data collected has expanded accordingly. In the 2000 census, all 116 million U.S. households
were asked six population questions (names, telephone numbers, sex, age and date of birth,
Hispanic origin, and race), and one housing question (whether the residence is owned or rented). In
addition, a statistical sample of one in six households received a "long form" that asked 46 more
questions, including detailed housing characteristics, expenses, citizenship, military service, health
problems, employment status, place of work, commuting, and income. From the sampled data the
Census Bureau produced estimated data on all these variables for the entire population.
In the parlance of the Census Bureau, data associated with questions asked of all households are
called 100% data and data estimated from samples are called sample data. Both types of data are
aggregated by various enumeration areas, including census block, block group, tract, place, county,
and state (see the illustration below). Through 2000, the Census Bureau distributes the 100% data in
a package called the "Summary File 1" (SF1) and the sample data as "Summary File 3" (SF3). In
2005, the Bureau launched a new project called American Community Survey that surveys a
representative sample of households on an ongoing basis. Every month, one household out of every
480 in each county or equivalent area receives a survey similar to the old "long form." Annual or
semi-annual estimates produced from American Community Survey samples replaced the SF3 data
product in 2010.
To protect respondents' confidentiality, as well as to make the data most useful to legislators, the
Census Bureau aggregates the data it collects from household surveys to several different types of
geographic areas. SF1 data, for instance, are reported at the block or tract level. There were about
8.5 million census blocks in 2000. By definition, census blocks are bounded on all sides by streets,
streams, or political boundaries. Census tracts are larger areas that have between 2,500 and 8,000
residents. When first delineated, tracts were relatively homogeneous with respect to population
characteristics, economic status, and living conditions. A typical census tract consists of about five or
six sub-areas called block groups. As the name implies, block groups are composed of several
census blocks. American Community Survey estimates, like the SF3 data that preceded them, are
reported at the block group level or higher. Figure 3.38 details the many geographic unit types that
are used to organize data and how they relate. The unit types down the center of the diagram nest,
with each higher type composed of some number of the lower type as outlined above for blocks,
block groups, and census tracts.

Figure 3.38: Relationships among the various census geographies.

Credit: (U.S. Census Bureau, American FactFinder, 2005,http://factfinder.census.gov/jsp/saff/SAFFInfo.jsp?
_pageId=gn7_maps. An updated source for the diagram can be found
athttp://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/using_factfinder5.xhtml).

Try This: Acquiring U.S. Census Data via the World Wide Web
The purpose of this practice activity is to guide you through the process of finding and acquiring
2000 census data from the U.S. Census Bureau data via the Web. Your objective is to look up the
total population of each county in your home state (or an adopted state of the U.S.).
1.

Go to the U.S. Census Bureau site at Census.gov.

2.

At the Census Bureau home page, hover your mouse cursor over the Data tab and select American
FactFinder. American FactFinder is the Census Bureau's primary medium for distributing census data
to the public.

3.

Click the SEARCH button, and take note of the three steps featured in the yellow rectangle. Thats
what we are about in this exercise.

4.

Click the Topics search option box. In the Select Topics overlay window, expand the People list. Next
expand theBasic Count/Estimate list. Then choose Population Total. Note that a Population Total
entry is placed in the Your Selections box in the upper left, and it disappears from the Basic
Count/Estimate list.
Close the Select Topics window.

5.

The list of datasets in the resulting Search Results window is for the entire United States. We want to
narrow the search to county-level data for your home or adopted state.
Click the Geographies search options box. In the Select Geographies overlay window that opens,
under Select a geographic type:, click County.
Next select the entry for your state from the Select a state list, and then from the Select one or more
geographic areas.... list select All counties within your state> .
Last click ADD TO YOUR SELECTIONS. This will place your All Counties choice in the Your
Selections box.
Close the Select Geographies window.

6.

The list of datasets in the Search Results window now pertains to the counties in your state. Take a
few moments to review the datasets that are listed. Note that there are SF1, SF2, ACS (American
Community Survey), etc., datasets, and that if you page through the list far enough you will see that
data from past years is listed. We are going to focus our effort on the 2010 SF1 100% Data.

7.

Given that our goal is to find the population of the counties in your home state, can you determine
which dataset we should look at?
There is a TOTAL POPULATION entry, probably on page 2. Find it, and make certain you have
located the 2010 SF1 100% Data dataset. (You can use the Narrow your search: slot above the
dataset list to help narrow the search.)
Check the box for it and click View.
In the new Results window that opens, you should be able to find the population of the counties in
your chosen state.
Note the row of Actions:, which includes Print and Download buttons.

I encourage you to experiment some with the American FactFinder site. Start slow, and just click
the BACK TO SEARCH button, un-check the TOTAL POPULATION dataset and choose a different
dataset to investigate. Registered students will need to answer a couple of quiz questions based on
using this site.
Pay attention to what is in the Your Selections window. You can easily remove entries by clicking
the red circle with the white X.
On the SEARCH page, with nothing in the Your Selections box, you might try typing QT or GCT in
the Narrow your search: slot. QT stands for Quick Tables, which are preformatted tables that show
several related themes for one or more geographic areas. GCT stands for Geographic Comparison
Tables, which are the most convenient way to compare data collected for all the counties, places, or
congressional districts in a state, or all the census tracts in a county.

3.2.4 Example Thematic Maps Produced at Penn State

Below you will find several thematic maps produced by graduate students or faculty in the
Department of Geography at Penn State to provide an idea of the variety that exists. Thematic maps
cover a virtually unlimited range of topics and goals since they can depict any theme that varies
from place to place. Thus, the examples below and the ones to follow in the rest of the chapter
provide just a hint of what is possible.
In the map below, size, or height of each column, is the key graphic variable used to represent the
total number of international passenger arrivals at each airport in Canada and the United States.
This is a very direct representation similar to thinking about piling up a stack of pennies, with one for
every airline passenger.

Figure 3.39: International Passenger Flight Arrivals to Canada and the United States in 2007.
Credit: Cartography by Paulo Raposo.

Figure 3.40: The Cost of Driving to or From East Lansing, Michigan.

Credit: Cartography by Joshua Stevens.

Figure 3.41: A Temporal Comparison of Vehicle Emission in Los Angeles on December 1, 2011, created
by Joshua Stevens. The emissions values were calculated based on current traffic speeds, the number of
vehicles that had passed over a sensor within a 30-second time frame, and EPA estimates for the amount
of CO2 produced by traveling vehicles. Since there are thousands of these sensors collecting data
over multiple lanes and directions, the maps would be very difficult to interpret without aggregating the
data. To do this, the measurements of nearby sensors were combined and averaged. Sensors were

considered 'nearby' if they fell within a 1 km-wide hexagon (which is about how far a vehicle would travel
based on the speeds and times used for the EPA calculations). Hexagons are a particularly convenient
shape for spatial aggregation since they tessellate perfectly without gaps, allowing full spatial coverage of
an area. Gaps or missing hexagons in the maps above reflect the irregular placement of the sensors and
areas were no sensors were present.
Credit: Cartography by Joshua Stevens.

Figure 3.42: Areas of Population Co-Density for Humans and Poultry to Determine Potential Areas for
Bird-Human Disease Transfer Such as Avian Flu.
Credit: Cartography by Paulo Raposo.

Figure 3.43: Map of average monthly frequency of jet contrail outbreaks over the United States during
April 2000, 2001, and 2002. The brighter orange and red colors highlight areas that experience more
outbreaks, specifically the Midwest in this instance.
Credit: Jase Bernhardt and Andrew Carleton.

Figure 3.44: Maps Visualizing the Travel Time to Reach a Health Facility in Niger for the Dry Season and
Wet Season, created by Justine Blanford. The reason that so many fewer people are within 1-2 hours of a
health facility in the wet season is that most of the roads are not paved, thus movement is much harder
then.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction
History of cartography
Maps and geography in the ancient world
The Middle Ages
The age of discovery and exploration
18th century to the present

o
o
o
o

Mapmaking
Elements
Types and uses of maps and charts
Modern mapmaking techniques

o
o
o

Map,
grap
hic representation, drawn to scale and usually on a flat surface, of featuresfor example,
geographical, geological, or geopoliticalof an area of the Earth or of any other celestial body.
Globes are maps represented on the surface of a sphere. Cartography is the art and science of
making maps and charts.

IMAGES

QUIZZES

LISTS

In order to imply the elements of accurate

relationships, and some formal method of projecting the spherical subject to a map plane, further
qualifications might be applied to the definition. The tedious and somewhat abstract statements
resulting from attempts to formulate precise definitions of maps and charts are more likely to
confuse than to clarify. The words map, chart, and plat are used somewhat interchangeably. The
connotations of use, however, are distinctive: charts for navigation purposes (nautical and
aeronautical), plats (in a property-boundary sense) for land-line references and ownership, and
maps for general reference.
Cartography is allied with geography in its concern with the broader aspects of the Earth and
its life. In early times cartographic efforts were more artistic than scientific and factual. As man
explored and recorded his environment, the quality of his maps and charts improved. These lines
of Jonathan Swift were inspired by early maps:
So geographers, in Afric maps,
With savage pictures fill their gaps,
And oer unhabitable downs
Place elephants for want of towns.

Topographic maps are graphic representations of natural and man-made features of parts of
the Earths surface plotted to scale. They show the shape of land and record elevations above sea
level, lakes, streams and other hydrographic features, and roads and other works of man. In short,
they provide a complete inventory of the terrain and important information for all activities
involving the use and development of the land. They provide the bases for specialized maps and
data for compilation of generalized maps of smaller scale.
Nautical charts are maps of coastal and marine areas, providing information for navigation. They
include depth curves or soundings or both; aids to navigation such as buoys, channel markers,
and lights; islands, rocks, wrecks, reefs and other hazards; and significant features of the coastal
areas, including promontories, church steeples, water towers, and other features helpful in
determining positions from offshore.
The terms hydrography and hydrographer date from the mid-16th century; their focus has
become restricted to studies of ocean depths and of the directions and intensities of oceanic
currents; though at various times they embraced much of the sciences now called hydrology
and oceanography. The British East India Company employed hydrographers in the 18th century,
and the first hydrographer of the Royal Navy, Alexander Dalrymple (17371808), was appointed
in 1795. A naval observatory and hydrographic office was established administratively in the
United States Navy in 1854. In 1866 a hydrographic office was established by statute, and in
1962 it was renamed the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office.
Interest in the charting of oceanic areas away from seacoasts developed in the second half of the
19th century, concurrently with the perfection of submarine cables. As knowledge of the
configuration of the ocean basins increased, the attention of scientists was drawn to this field of
study. A feature of marine science since the 1950s has been increasingly detailed bathymetric
(water-depth measurement) surveys of selected portions of the seafloor. Together with collection
of associated geophysical data and sampling of sediments, these studies assist in interpreting the
geologic history of the ocean-covered portion of the Earths crust.
Aeronautical charts provide essential data for the pilot and air navigator. They are, in effect,
small-scale topographic maps on which current information on aids to navigation have been
superimposed. To facilitate rapid recognition and orientation, principal features of the land that
would be visible from an aircraft in flight are shown to the exclusion of less important details.

History of cartography
Centuries before the Christian Era, Babylonians drew maps on clay tablets, of which the oldest
specimens found so far have been dated about 2300 BCE. This is the earliest positive evidence of
graphic representations of parts of the Earth; it may be assumed that mapmaking goes back much
further and that it began among nonliterate peoples. It is logical to assume that men very early
made efforts to communicate with each other regarding their environment by scratching routes,
locations, and hazards on the ground and later on bark and skins.
The earliest maps must have been based on personal experience and familiarity with local
features. They doubtless showed routes to neighbouring tribes, where water and other necessities
might be found, and the locations of enemies and other dangers. Nomadic life stimulated such
efforts by recording ways to cross deserts and mountains, the relative locations of summer and
winter pastures, and dependable springs, wells, and other information.
Markings on cave walls that are associated with paintings by primitive man have been identified
by some archaeologists as attempts to show the game trails of the animals depicted, though there
is no general agreement on this. Similarly, networks of lines scratched on certain bone tablets

could possibly represent hunting trails, but there is definitely no conclusive evidence that the
tablets are indeed maps.
Many nonliterate peoples, however, are skilled in depicting essential features of their localities
and travels. During Capt. Charles Wilkess exploration of the South Seas in the 1840s, a friendly
islander drew a good sketch of the whole Tuamotu Archipelagoon the deck of the captains
bridge. In North America the Pawnee Indians were reputed to have used star charts painted on
elk skin to guide them on night marches across the plains. Montezuma is said to have given
Corts a map of the whole Mexican Gulf area painted on cloth, while Pedro de Gamboa reported
that the Incas used sketch maps and cut some in stone to show relief features. Many specimens of
early Eskimo sketch maps on skin, wood, and bone have been found.

Maps and geography in the ancient world

The earliest specimens thus far discovered that are indisputably portrayals of land features are
the Babylonian tablets previously mentioned; certain land drawings found in Egypt and paintings
discovered in early tombs are nearly as old. It is quite probable that these two civilizations
developed their mapping skills more or less concurrently and in similar directions. Both were
vitally concerned with the fertile areas of their river valleys and therefore doubtless made
surveys and plats soon after settled communities were established. Later they made plats for the
construction of canals, roads, and templesthe equivalent of todays engineering plans.
A tablet unearthed in Iraq shows the Earth as a disk surrounded by water withBabylon as its
centre. Aside from this specimen, dating from about 1000 BCE, there appear to have been rather
few attempts by Babylonians and Egyptians to show the form and extent of the Earth as a whole.
Their mapmaking was preoccupied with more practical needs, such as the establishment of
boundaries. Not until the time of the Greek philosopher-geographers did speculations and
conclusions as to the nature of the Earth begin to take form.

GREEK MAPS AND GEOGRAPHY

The Greeks were outstanding among peoples of the ancient world for their pursuit and
development of geographic knowledge. The shortage of arable land in their ownregion led to
maritime exploration and the development of commerce and colonies. By 600 BCE Miletus, on
the Aegean, had become a centre of geographic knowledge, as well as of cosmographic
speculation.
Hecataeus, a scholar of Miletus, probably produced the first book on geography in about
500 BCE. A generation later Herodotus, from more extensive studies and wider travels, expanded
upon it. A historian with geographic leanings, Herodotus recorded, among other things, an early
circumnavigation of the African continent byPhoenicians. He also improved on the delineation of
the shape and extent of the then-known regions of the world, and he declared the Caspian to be
an inland sea, opposing the prevailing view that it was part of the northern oceans (Figure 1).
Although Hecataeus regarded the Earth as a flat disk surrounded by ocean, Herodotus and his
followers questioned the concept and proposed a number of other possible forms. Indeed, the
philosophers and scholars of the time appear to have been preoccupied for a number of years
with discussions on the nature and extent of the world. Some modern scholars attribute the first
hypothesis of a spherical Earth to Pythagoras (6th century BCE) or Parmenides (5th century). The
idea gradually developed into a consensus over many years. In any case by the mid-4th century
the theory of a spherical Earth was well accepted among Greek scholars, and about
350 BCE Aristotle formulated six arguments to prove that the Earth was, in truth, a sphere. From
that time forward, the idea of a spherical Earth was generally accepted among geographers and
other men of science.

About 300 BCE Dicaearchus, a disciple of Aristotle, placed an orientation line on theworld
map, running east and west through Gibraltar and Rhodes. Eratosthenes, Marinus of Tyre,
and Ptolemy successively developed the reference-line principle until a reasonably
comprehensive system of parallels and meridians, as well as methods of projecting them, had
been achieved.
The greatest figure of the ancient world in the advancement of geography and cartography was
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy; 90168 CE). An astronomer and mathematician, he spent many
years studying at the library in Alexandria, the greatest repository of scientific knowledge at that
time. His monumental work, theGuide to Geography (Gegraphik hyphgsis), was produced in
eight volumes. The first volume discussed basic principles and dealt with
map projection and globeconstruction. The next six volumes carried a list of the names of some
8,000 places and their approximate latitudes and longitudes. Except for a few that were made by
observations, the greater number of these locations were determined from older maps, with
approximations of distances and directions taken from travelers. They were accurate enough to
show relative locations on the very small-scale, rudimentary maps that existed.
The eighth volume was a most important contribution, containing instructions for preparing
maps of the world and discussions on mathematical geography and other fundamental principles
of cartography. Ptolemys map of the world as it was then known marked the culmination of
Greek cartography as well as a compendium of accumulated knowledge of the Earths features at
that time (Figure 2).

THE ROMAN PERIOD

Although Ptolemy lived and worked at the time of Romes greatest influence, he was a Greek
and essentially a product of that civilization, as was the great library at Alexandria. His works
greatly influenced the development of geography, which he defined in mapmaking terms:
representation in picture of the whole known world, together with the phenomena contained
therein. This had considerable influence in directing scholars toward the specifics of map
construction and away from the more abstract and philosophical aspects of geography.
One fundamental error that had far-reaching effects was attributed to Ptolemyan
underestimation of the size of the Earth. He showed Europe and Asia as extending over half the
globe, instead of the 130 degrees of their true extent. Similarly, the span of the Mediterranean
ultimately was proved to be 20 degrees less than Ptolemys estimate. So lasting was Ptolemys
influence that 13 centuries laterChristopher Columbus underestimated the distances to Cathay
and India partly from a recapitulation of this basic error.
A fundamental difference between the Greek and Roman philosophies was indicated by their
maps. The Romans were less interested in mathematical geography and tended toward more
practical needs for military campaigns and provincial administration. They reverted to the older
concepts of a disk-shaped world for maps of great areas because they met their needs and were
easier to read and understand.
The Roman general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, prior to Ptolemys time, constructed a map of the
world based on surveys of the then-extensive system of Roman military roads. References to
many other Roman maps have been found, but very few actual specimens survived the Dark
Ages. It is quite probable that the Peutinger Table, a parchment scroll showing the roads of the
Roman world, was originally based on Agrippas map and subjected to several revisions through
medieval times.

The tragic turn of world events during the first few centuries of the Christian Era wrought havoc
to the accumulated knowledge and progress of mankind. As with other fields of science
and technology, progress in geography and cartography was abruptly curtailed. After Ptolemys
day there even appears to have been a retrogression, as exemplified by the Roman trend away
from the mathematical approach to mapping.
Great accumulations of documents and maps were destroyed or lost, and the survival of a large
part of Ptolemys work was probably due to its great prestige and popularity. The only other
major work on mapping to survive was Strabos earlier treatise, albeit with some changes from
recopying. Few of the maps and related works of the ancient world have come down to us in
their original forms. The tendencies to revise and even recapitulate, when copying manuscripts,
are readily understood. Doubtless, the factual content was improved more often than not, but a
residual confusion remains when the specimen at hand may be either a true copy of an
ancient document or a medieval scholars version of the subject matter.

The Middle Ages

Progress in cartography during the early Middle Ages was slight. The medieval mapmaker seems
to have been dominated by the church, reflecting in his work the ecclesiastical dogmas and
interpretations of Scripture. In fact, during the 6th century Constantine of Antioch created a
Christian topography depicting the Earth as a flat disk. Thus the Roman map of the world,
along with other concepts, continued as authoritative for many centuries. A contemporary
Chinese map shows that country occupying most of the world, while the Roman Empire
dominates most other maps produced during early Christian times.
Later medieval mapmakers were clearly aware of the Earths sphericity, but for the most part,
maps remained small and schematic, as exemplified by the T and O renderings, so named from
the stylized T-form of the major water bodies separating the continents and the O as the
circumfluent ocean surrounding the world. The orientation with east at the top of the map was
often used, as the word (orientation) suggests.
The earliest navigators coasted from headland to headland; they did not requirecharts until
adoption of the magnetic compass made it possible to proceed directly from one port to another.
The earliest record of the magnetic compass in Europe(1187) is followed within a century by the
earliest record of a sea chart. This was shown to Louis IX, king of France, on the occasion of his
participation in the Eighth Crusade in 1270. The earliest surviving chart dates from within a few
years of this event. Found in Pisa and known as the Carta Pisana, it is now in the Bibliothque
Nationale, Paris. Thought to have been made about 1275, it is hand drawn on a sheepskin and
depicts the entire Mediterranean Sea. Such charts, often known as portolans named for
the portolano or pilot book, listing sailing courses, ports, and anchorages, were much in demand
for the increasing trade and shipping. Genoa,Pisa, Venice, Majorca, and Barcelona, among
others, cooperated in providing information garnered from their pilots and captains. From
repeated revisions, and new surveys by compass, the portolan charts eventually surpassed all
preceding maps in accuracy and reliability. The first portolans were hand drawn and very
expensive. They were based entirely on magnetic directions and map projections that assumed a
degree of longitude equal to a degree of latitude. The assumption did little harm in the
Mediterranean but caused serious distortions in maps of higher latitudes. Development of line
engraving and the availability, in the 16th century, of large sheets of smooth-surfaced paper
facilitated mass production of charts, which soon replaced the manuscript portolans.

Many specimens of portolan charts have survived. Though primarily of areas of the
Mediterranean and Black Sea, some covered the Atlantic as far as Ireland, and others the western
coast of Africa. Their most striking feature is the system ofcompass roses, showing directions
from various points, and lines showing shortest navigational routes.
Another phenomenon of the late Middle Ages was the great enthusiasm generated by the travels
of Marco Polo in the 1270s and 1280s. New information about faraway places, and the
stimulation of interest in world maps, promoted their sale and circulation. Marco Polos
experiences also kindled the desire for travel and exploration in others and were, perhaps, a
harbinger of the great age of discovery and exploration.
During Europes Dark Ages Islmic and Chinese cartography made progress. The Arabs
translated Ptolemys treatises and carried on his tradition. Two Islmic scholars deserve special
note. Ibn Haukal wrote a Book of Ways and Provincesillustrated with maps, and alIdrs constructed a world map in 1154 for the Christian king Roger of Sicily, showing better
information on Asian areas than had been available theretofore. In Baghdad astronomers used the
compass long before Europeans, studied the obliquity of the ecliptic, and measured a part of the
Earths meridian. Their sexagesimal (based on 60) system has dominated cartography since, in
the concept of a 360-degree circle.
Mapmaking, like so many other aspects of art and science, developed independently in China.
The oldest known Chinese map is dated about 1137. Most of the area that is now included in
China had been mapped in crude form before the arrival of the Europeans. The Jesuit
missionaries of the 16th century found enough information to prepare an atlas, and Chinese maps
thereafter were influenced by the West.

The age of discovery and exploration

REVIVAL OF PTOLEMY

The fall of
Byzantium sent many refugees to Italy, among them scholars who had preserved some of the old
Greek manuscripts, including PtolemysGeography, from destruction. The rediscovery of this
great work came at a fortunate time because the recent development of a printing industry
capable of handling map reproduction made possible its circulation far beyond the few scholars

who otherwise would have enjoyed access to it. This, together with a general reawakening of
scholarship and interest in exploration, created a golden era of cartography.

The Geogr
aphy was translated into Latin about 1405. Although it had not been completely lost (the Arabs
had preserved portions of it), recovery of the complete work, with maps, greatly stimulated
general interest in cartography. About 500 copies of the Geography were printed at Bologna in
1477, followed by other editions printed in Germany and Italy. The printing process, in addition
to permitting the widediffusion of geographic knowledge, retained the fidelity of the original
works. By 1600, 31 Latin or Italian editions had been printed.

MAPS OF THE DISCOVERIES

Progress in other technologies such as navigation, ship design and construction, instruments for
observation and astronomy, and general use of the compass tended continuously to improve
existing map information, as well as to encourage further exploration and discovery.
Accordingly, geographic knowledge was profoundly increased during the 15th and 16th
centuries. The great discoveries of Columbus, da Gama, Vespucci, Cabot, Magellan, and others
gradually transformed the world maps of those days. Modern maps were added to later
editions of Ptolemy. The earliest was a map of northern Europe drawn at Rome in 1427
by Claudius Claussn Swart, a Danish geographer. Cardinal Nicholas Krebs drew the first
modern map of Germany, engraved in 1491. Martin Waldseemller of St. Di prepared an edition
with more than 20 modern maps in 1513. Maps showing new discoveries and information were
at last transcending the classical treatises of Ptolemy.
The most important aspect of postmedieval maps was their increasing accuracy, made possible
by continuing exploration. Another significant characteristic was a trend toward artistic and
colourful rendition, for the maps still had many open areas in which the artist could indulge his
imagination. The cartouche, or title block, became more and more elaborate, amounting to a
small work of art. Many of the map editions of this age have become collectors items. The first
map printings were made from woodcuts. Later they were engraved on copper, a process that
made it possible to reproduce much finer lines. The finished plates were inked and wiped,
leaving ink in the cut lines. Dampened paper was then pressed on the plate and into the engraved

line work, resulting in very fine impressions. The process remained the basis of fine map
reproduction until the comparatively recent advent of photolithography.
The Cosmographiae, textbooks of geography, astronomy, history, and natural sciences, all
illustrated with maps and figures, first appeared in the 16th century. One of the earliest and best
known was that of Petrus Apianus in 1524, the popularity of which extended to 15 more editions.
That of Sebastian Mnster, published in 1544, was larger and remained authoritative and in
demand until the end of the century, reflecting the general eagerness of the times for learning,
especially geography.
The foremost cartographer of the age of discovery was Gerhard Kremer, known asGerardus
Mercator, of Flanders. Well educated and a student of Gemma Frisius of Leuven (Louvain), a
noted cosmographer, he became a maker of globes and maps. His map of Europe, published in
1554, and his development of the projection that bears his name made him famous. The Mercator
projection solved an age-old problem of navigators, enabling them to plot bearings as straight
lines.

Other well-known and productive cartographers

of the Dutch-Flemish school are Abraham Ortelius, who prepared the first modern world atlas in
1570; Gerard (and his son Cornelis) de Jode; and Jadocus Hondius. Early Dutch maps were
among the best for artistic expression, composition, and rendering. Juan de la Cosa, the owner of
Columbus flagship, Santa Mara, in 1500 produced a map recording Columbus discoveries, the
landfall of Cabral in Brazil, Cabots voyage to Canada, and da Gamas route to India. The first
map showing North and South America clearly separated from Asia was produced in 1507
by Martin Waldseemller. An immense map, 4 1/2 by 8 feet (1.4 by 2.4 metres), printed in 12
sheets, it is probably the first map on which the name America appeared, indicating that

Waldseemller was impressed by the account written by the Florentine navigator Amerigo
Vespucci.
In 1529 Diego Ribero, cosmographer to the king of Spain, made a new chart of the world on
which the vast extent of the Pacific was first shown. Survivors of Magellans circumnavigation
of the world had arrived in Sevilla (Seville) in 1522, giving Ribero much new information.

The first known terrestrial globe that has

survived was made by Martin Behaim at Nrnberg in 1492. Many others were made throughout
the 16th century. The principal centres of cartographic activity were Spain,Portugal, Italy,
the Rhineland, the Netherlands, andSwitzerland. England and France, with their growing
maritime and colonial power, were soon to become primary map and chart centres. Capt. John
Smiths maps of Virginia and New England, the first to come from the English colonies, were
published in Londonin 1612; many others depicting the New World would follow throughout the
17th century.

18th century to the present

A reformation of cartography that evolved during the 18th century was characterized by
scientific trends and more accurate detail. Monsters, lions, and swash lines disappeared and were
replaced by more factual content. Soon the only decorative features were in the cartouche and
around the borders. The map interiors contained all the increasing information available, often
with explanatory notes and attempts to show the respective reliabilities of some portions.
Where mapmakers formerly had sought quick, profitable output based on information obtained
from other maps and reports of travelers and explorers, the new French cartographers were

scientists, often men of rank and independent means. For expensive ventures, such as
the triangulation of two degrees of a meridian to determine the Earths size more accurately, they
were subsidized by the king or the French Academy. Similar trends were developing across
Europe.
The new cartography was also based on better instruments, the telescope playing an important
part in raising the quality of astronomical observations. Surveys of much higher accuracy were
now feasible. The development of the chronometer (an accurate timepiece) made the
computation of longitude much less laborious than before; much more information on islands
and coastal features came to the map and chart makers.

THE RISE OF NATIONAL SURVEYS

The development in Europe of power-conscious national states, with standing armies,
professional officers, and engineers, stimulated an outburst of topographic activity in the 18th
century, reinforced to some extent by increasing civil needs for basic data. Many countries of
Europe began to undertake the systematic topographic mapping of their territories. Such surveys
required facilities and capabilities far beyond the means of private cartographers who had
theretofore provided for most map needs. Originally exclusively military, national survey
organizations gradually became civilian in character. The Ordnance Survey of Britain,
the Institut Gographique National of France, and the Landestopographie of Switzerland are
examples.
In other countries, such as the United States, where defense considerations were not paramount,
civilian organizationse.g., the U.S. Geological Survey and the National Ocean
Service (originally Survey)were assigned responsibility for domestic mapping tasks. Only
when World War II brought requirements for the mapping of many foreign areas did the U.S.
military become involved on a large scale, with the expansion of the Oceanographic Office
(Navy), Aeronautical Chart Service (Air Force), and the U.S. Army Topographic command.
Elaborate national surveys were undertaken only in certain countries. The rest of the world
remained largely unmapped until World War II. In some instances colonial areas were mapped by
military forces, but except for the British Survey of India, such efforts usually provided
piecemeal coverage or generalized and sketchy data. Some important national surveys will be
outlined briefly.
The work in France was organized by the French Academy, and in 1748 the Carte gomtrique
de la France, comprising 182 sheets, was authorized. Most of the field observations were
accomplished by military personnel. The new map of France as a whole, drawn after the new
positions had been computed, caused Louis XV to remark that the more accurate data lost more
territory than his wars of conquest had gained. Napoleon, an ardent map enthusiast, planned a
great survey of Europe on a 1:100,000 scale, which was well under way when he was
overthrown.
During the 18th century Great Britain became the foremost maritime power of Europe, and the
Admiralty sponsored many developments in charting as well as improvements in navigation
facilities. Because of the Admiraltys prestige, other maritime nations accepted its proposal that
the prime meridian for longitude reference should pass through Greenwich. Other achievements
in early oceanography were Edmond Halleys magnetic chart, which has been continuously
revised from new data. Later similar charts for currents, tides, and prevailing winds were
developed.
French progress in mapping stimulated the British to undertake a national survey. The Ordnance
Survey was organized in 1791, and the first sheet (Kent), on a scale of one inch to the mile, was

published in 1801. By mid-century Ireland had been surveyed at six inches to the mile. In 1858 a
Royal Commission approved 1-inch, 6-inch, and 25-inch (1:2500) scales for British mapping. An
earlier first was John Ogilbys Britannia, published in 1675, an atlas of road strip maps plotted
by odometer and compass, presaging the modern road map.
A survey of Spain was started in the 18th century. Surveys of several German principalities were
combined after unification into the Reichskarte at 1:100,000 scale. A topographic survey of
Switzerland was begun in 1832. An Austrian series was started in 1806, from which
the Specialkarte, later considered the most detailed maps of Europe, were derived. In China,
under the Communist regime, survey and cartography groups have provided coverage of much of
the country with a new 1:50,000-scale map series. Japan established an Imperial Land Survey in
1888, and by 1925 topographic coverage of the home islands, at a scale of 1:50,000, was
complete.

INTERNATIONAL MAP OF THE WORLD (IMW)

The International Geographical Congress in 1891 proposed that the participating countries
collaborate in the production of a 1:1,000,000-scale map of the world. Specifications and format
were soon established, but production was slow in the earlier years since it was first necessary to
complete basic surveys for the required data, and during and after World War II there was little
interest in pursuing the project. The intention to complete the series was reestablished, however,
and many countries have returned to the task. By the mid-1980s the project was nearing
completion.

WORLD WAR II AND AFTER

World War I, and to a much greater extent World War II, brought great progress in mapping,
particularly of the unmapped parts of the Earth; an appraisal by the U.S. Air Force indicated that
in 1940 less than 10 percent of the world was mapped in sufficient detail for even the meagre
requirements of pilot charts. A major program ofaerial photography and reconnaissance mapping,
employing what became known as the trimetrogon method, was developed. Vast areas of the
unmapped parts of the world were covered during the war years, and the resulting World
Aeronautical Charts have provided generalized information for other purposes since that time.
Many countries have used the basic data to publish temporary map coverage until their more
detailed surveys can be completed.
The Cold War atmosphere of the 1940s and 50s promoted a continuation of militarily oriented
mapping. Both NATO and Warsaw Pact countries continued to improve their maps; NATO
developed common symbols, scales, and formats so that maps could be readily exchangeable
between the forces of member countries. Postwar economic development programs, in which
maps were needed for planning road, railroad, and reservoir constructions, also stimulated much
work. The United Nations provides advisory assistance in mapping to countries wishing it.
Among other collaborations, the Inter-American Geodetic Survey, in which the U.S. Army
provides instruction and logistic support for mapping, was organized. Although this cooperation
primarily involved Latin-American countries, similar arrangements were made with individual
countries in other parts of the world. Cooperation and exchange of data in hydrographic surveys,
aeronautical charting, and other fields has continued.
Although some terrain data are available for practically all of the world, the data for many
sectors remain sketchy. Surveys of Antarctica by the several countries active there are in
progress, but the continent will not be completely mapped for some years. The goal of most
countries is to achieve adequate coverage for general development needs. Much remains to be
done. Even in countries like the United States that have not yet completed the initial coverage,

many of the maps prepared in earlier years are already in need of revision. Thus, even when
mapping is completed, requirements for greater detail and revision will continue to make
demands upon the funds available.
Aerial photography, which permits accurate and detailed work within feasible cost ranges, has
dominated basic mapping in recent years. During World War I aerial photography was used for
reconnaissance mapping, and after the war rapid progress was made in optics, cameras, plotting
devices, and related equipment. By World War II much of the highly sophisticated equipment
now in use had been designed. Electronic distance-measuring devices have made field surveys
easier and more accurate, while much improved circle graduation has made theodolites(transits)
lighter as well as more precise. Computers and automation, which together have transformed the
mapping procedures of yesterday, are described below in the section Modern mapmaking
techniques.

Brief History of Maps

and Cartography

ES 551 -- James S. Aber

What is a Map?
A map is a graphic representation or scale model of spatial concepts. It is a means for
conveying geographic information. Maps are a universal medium for communication,
easily understood and appreciated by most people, regardless of language or culture.
Incorporated in a map is the understanding that it is a "snapshot" of an idea, a single
picture, a selection of concepts from a constantly changing database of geographic
information (Merriam 1996).
Old maps provide much information about what was known in times past, as well as
the philosophy and cultural basis of the map, which were often much different from
modern cartography. Maps are one means by which scientists distribute their ideas
and pass them on to future generations (Merriam 1996).

Early Maps
Cartography is the art and science of making maps. The oldest known maps are
preserved on Babylonian clay tablets from about 2300 B.C. Cartography was
considerably advanced in ancient Greece. The concept of a spherical Earth was well
known among Greek philosophers by the time of Aristotle (ca. 350 B.C.) and has been
accepted by all geographers since.
Greek and Roman cartography reached a culmination with Claudius
Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy, about A.D. 85-165). His "world map" depicted the Old World
from about 60N to 30S latitudes. He wrote a monumental work,Guide to Geography
(Geographike hyphygesis), which remained an authorative reference on world
geography until the Renaissance.

Ptolemy's map of the world.

(ca. 150, republished 1482)

Medieval Maps
During the Medieval period, European maps were dominated by religious views.
The T-O map was common. In this map format, Jerusalem was depicted at the center
and east was oriented toward the map top. Viking explorations in the North Atlantic
gradually were incorporated into the world view beginning in the 12th century.
Meanwhile, cartography developed along more practical and realistic lines in Arabic
lands, including the Mediterranean region. All maps were, of course, drawn and
illuminated by hand, which made the distribution of maps extremely limited.
Vesconte's world map (1321).
Hereford mappamundi (1290).
Northern regions map from S. Munster's Cosmographia (1588).
North Atlantic region is essentially a Viking view dating from the
12-14th centuries. One of the last wood-engraved maps, done in the
style of copper-plate engraving. Published posthumously by H.
Petri (son in law) in Basle, Switzerland. Original map in the
collection of the author.

al-Idrisi's world map (12th century).

Renaissance Maps
The invention of printing made maps much more widely available beginning in the
15th century. Maps were at first printed using carved wooden blocks (see above).
Among the most important map makers of this period was Sebastian Mnster in Basel
(now Switzerland). His Geographia, published in 1540, became the new global
standard for maps of the world.
Printing with engraved copper plates appeared in the 16th century and continued to be
the standard until photographic techniques were developed. Major advances in
cartography took place during the Age of Exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Map makers responded with navigation charts, which depicted coast lines, islands,
rivers, harbors, and features of sailing interest. Compass lines and other navigation
aids were included, new map projections were devised, and globes were constructed.
Such maps and globes were held in great value for economic, military, and diplomatic

purposes, and so were often treated as national or commercial secrets--classified or

proprietary maps.
The first whole-world maps began to appear in the early 16th century, following
voyages by Columbus and others to the New World. The first true world map is
generally credited to Martin Waldseemller in 1507. This map utilized an expanded
Ptolemaic projection and was the first map to use the name America for the New
World--see Waldseemller's world map.
Heart-shaped projection by Sylvanus (1511).
Fully expanded Ptolemaic projection.
Gerardus Mercator of Flanders (Belgium) was the leading cartographer of the mid16th century. He developed a cylindrical projection that is still widely used for
navigation charts and global maps. He published a map of the world in 1569 based on
this projection. Many other map projections were soon developed.
Mercator's world map (1569).
Mercator's polar projection (1595).

Modern Maps
Maps became increasingly accurate and factual during the 17th, 18th and 19th
centuries with the application of scientific methods. Many countries undertook
national mapping programs. Nonetheless, much of the world was poorly known until
the widespread use of aerial photography following World War I. Modern cartography
is based on a combination of ground observations and remote sensing.
Map of the Danish Kingdom, 1629, by Janssonius. A high level of
geographic accuracy is demonstrated along with marginal
illustrations that enhance the map. Reproduction of original map
from the Geodetical Institute of Denmark.

Geographic information systems (GIS) emerged in the 1970-80s period. GIS

represents a major shift in the cartography paradigm. In traditional (paper)
cartography, the map was both the database and the display of geographic
information. For GIS, the database, analysis, and display are physically and
conceptually separate aspects of handling geographic data. Geographic information
systems comprise computer hardware, software, digital data, people, organizations,
and institutions for collecting, storing, analyzing, and displaying georeferenced
information about the Earth (Nyerges 1993).

What is a Map?
Are maps realistic representations of the actual world? No--never! Field
measurements are subject to errors of accuracy and precision. Aerial photographs and
satellite images portray only certain portions of the light spectrum, as filtered through
the atmosphere and detection instruments. No map can depict all physical, biological,
and cultural features for even the smallest area. A map can display only a few selected
features, which are portrayed usually in highly symbolic styles according to some
kind of classification scheme. In these ways, all maps are estimations, generalizations,
and interpretations of true geographic conditions.
All maps are made according to certain basic assumptions, for example sea-level
datum, which are not always true or verifiable. Finally any map is the product of
human endeavor, and as such may be subject to unwitting errors, misrepresentation,
bias, or outright fraud. In spite of these limitations, maps have proven to be
remarkably adaptable and useful through several millennia of human civilization.
Maps of all kinds are fundamentally important for modern society.
The fool's cap world map, about 1590. Ptolemaic projection on the face of
a jester. Maker, date, and place of publication are unknown. Maps are
human representations of the world, as seen through the eyes of a clown
in this example. Widely reproduced to depict the human element of
cartography. Image adapted from Dalhousie University, Canada.

http://www.mobgenic.com/2013/11/23/40-peta-yang-akan-membantu-untukmemahami-dunia-lebih-baik/

Design principles for cartography

by abuckley on October 28, 2011

75 19 9178

By Aileen Buckley, Mapping Center Lead

Cartographers apply many design principles when compiling their maps and constructing page
layouts. Five of the main design principles are legibility, visual contrast, figure-ground, hierarchical
organization, and balance. Together these form a system for seeing and understanding the relative
importance of the content in the map and on the page. Without these, map-based communication
will fail. Together visual contrast and legibility provide the basis for seeing the contents on the map.
Figure-ground, hierarchical organization, and balance lead the map reader through the contents to
determine the importance of things and ultimately find patterns.
In this blog entry, we introduce these five principles and explain
their importance in cartography. Its worth noting that these
principles are not applied in isolation but instead are
complementary to each other. Collectively they help
cartographers create maps that successfully communicate
geographic information.
Visual Contrast
Visual contrast which relates to how map features and page elements contrast with each other and
their background. To understand this principle at work, consider your inability to see well in a dark
environment. Your eyes are not receiving much reflected light so there is little visual contrast
between features and you cannot easily distinguish objects from one another or from their
surroundings. Add more light and you are now able to contrast features from the background. This
concept of visual contrast also applies in cartography (figure 1). A well-designed map with a high
degree of visual contrast can result in a crisp, clean, sharp-looking map. The higher the contrast
between features, the more something will stand out, usually the feature that is darker or brighter.
Conversely, a map that has low visual contrast can be used to promote a more subtle impression.
Features that have less contrast will appear to belong together.

Figure 1. When there is no variation in visual contrast (A), the map reader has a hard time
distinguishing features from the background. For quantitative distributions (B), there must be enough
contrast between tones for the reader to distinguish unique classes. For qualitative distributions
(C),using variations of a single color hue (e.g., red) does not provide as much contrast as using a
variety of hues (e.g., red, green, blue, etc.)
Legibility
Legibility is the ability to be seen and understood. Many people work to make their map contents
and page elements easily seen, but it is also important that they can be understood. Legibility
depends on good decision-making for selecting symbols that are familiar and choosing appropriate
sizes so that the results are effortlessly seen and easily understood (figure 1). Geometric symbols
are easier to read at smaller sizes; more complex symbols require larger amounts of space to be
legible.

Visual contrast and legibility are the basis for seeing. In addition to being able to distinguish features
from one another and the background, the features need to be large enough to be seen and to be
understood in order for your mind to decipher what you eyes are detecting. Visual contrast and
legibility can also be used to promote the other design principles: figure-ground, hierarchical
organization, and balance.

Figure 2. Text and symbols (A and C) that are too small cannot be seen. Once able to be seen (B
and D), they must also be understood.
Figure-ground
Figure-ground organization is the spontaneous separation of the figure in the foreground from an
amorphous background. Cartographers use this design principle to help their map readers find the
area of the map or page to focus on. There are many to promote figure-ground organization, such as
adding detail to the map or using a white wash, a drop shadow, or feathering.

Figure 3. Using closed forms (A), a white wash (B) , a drop shadow (C), or feathering (D) will
promote figure-ground organization on your map.
Hierarchical Organization
One of the major objectives in map making is to separate meaningful characteristics and to portray
likenesses, differences, and interrelationships (Robinson, et al,. 1995, p. 327). The internal graphic
structuring of the map (and the page layout more generally) is fundamental to helping people read
your map. You can think of a hierarchy as the visual separation of your map into layers of
information. Some types of features will be seen as more important than other kinds of features, and
some features will seem more important than other features of the same type. Some page elements
(e.g., the map) will seem more important than others (e.g., the title or legend). This visual layering of
information within the map and on the page helps readers focus on what is important and enables
them to identify patterns.
Hierarchical organization on reference maps (those that show the location of a variety of physical

and cultural features, such as terrain, roads, boundaries, and settlements) works differently than on
thematic maps (maps that concentrate on the distribution of a single attribute or the relationship
among several attributes). For reference maps, many of the features should be no more important
than one another and so, visually, they should lie on essentially the same visual plane. In reference
maps, hierarchy is usually more subtle and the map reader brings elements to the forefront by
focusing attention on them. For thematic maps, the theme is more important than the base that
provides geographic context.
Balance
Balance involves the organization of the map and other elements on the page. A well-balanced map
page results in an impression of equilibrium and harmony. We can also use balance in different ways
to promote edginess or tension or create an impression that is more organic. Balance results
from two primary factors, visual weight and visual direction. If you imagine that the center of your
map page is balancing on a fulcrum, the factors that will tip the map in a particular direction include
the relative location, shape, size, and subject matter of elements on the page.

Graphic design principles for mapping: Figure-ground

Organization
by abuckley on February 15, 2011

0 0 1550

By Aileen Buckley, Mapping Center Lead

There are a number of design principles that are very useful to map makers. These can help your
map readers to recognize the symbols on your map and understand what they mean the very
basis for map use. One of these is called figure-ground organization. Your mind and eye work
together to organize what you see into two contrasting perceptual impressions: the figure on which
your eye settles, and the amorphous ground below or behind it. This spontaneous separation of a
visual array is one of the things you can promote to add visual
hierarchy to the various features on your map and elements on
your page. In fact, Dent et al. (1999, p. 215) state:
There is probably no perceptual tendency more important to
cartography design than figure and ground organization.

Without figure-ground organization, your map will appear flat and

your readers will find it hard to focus on the more important
things. In the figure below, can you tell what part of the map is the
focus?

There are a number of ways you can promote figure-ground organization. In this blog entry, I
illustrate a few of the easiest and perhaps most intuitive methods. In subsequent blog entries, Ill
describe three more advanced techniques using a whitewash, feathering, and a drop shadow. For
now, lets see how you can quickly and easily create this spontaneous visual organization of your
map.
Closed form
If your area of focus is a closed form (a polygon) then one way you can promote figure-ground
organization is simply to show only the enclosed area. Using a color for the figure that contrasts well
with the ground will force the eye to focus on the closed form. You will often see maps that use this
technique (country, state, county, or city maps, for example.)

Color Value
If you are mapping an area that is not a closed form or you want to show the geographic context for
your area of focus, then you can use a variation in value (lightness-darkness of color) to help
promote figure-ground organization. As with the example above, this will work whether you darken
the figure or the ground, as long as the difference in color value is easily distinguished.
TIP: You can do this a couple of ways in ArcMap. Either use the Categories renderer with an
attribute that will allow you to distinguish what all of the polygons are assign all polygons the
same color except the figure polygon which you can make distinguishably darker or lighter than the
others. Or add two copies of the feature class to the Table of Contents and for the layer on top, use
a Definitiion Query to draw only the figure assign this layer a different color from the features in
the background.

Land-Water Differentiation
If your mapped area includes both land and water areas, then you can use this to help your map
readers as well. If color is an option, blue fills are familiar as water symbols on maps. In most cases,
the land will be seen as figure and the water will be seen as the ground. Of course, certain maps,
such as charts for marine navigation, will promote the water as figure and the land as ground.
TIP: A simple way to do this is to set the background of the data frame to blue so that any area with
no land polygon appears blue.

To further aid with this distinction, you can use blue for shorelines and black or gray for boundary
lines.
TIP: On the Esri Data and Maps DVD you will often find a companion line feature class for polygonal
administrative areas. The type (or similar) attribute for the lines can be used with the Categories
renderer to assign different symbols to different types of lines.

To enhance the visual hierarchy even more, you could make the water either lighter or darker than
the land. In this example, they have about the same amount of color saturation (intensity of
pigment). You can check this if you click on the color patch and check the color definition using the
Hue-Saturation-Value (HSV) color model. Note that the blue and the green have very similar
Saturation (S) values and that the Value (V) values are also pretty similar. Setting one or the other
color to be more saturated and/or darker helps with the figure-ground issue.

Ill leave the colors as is for now so that you can see additional technique for enhancing figureground relative to the examples shown so far.
Detail
Another thing you can do to differentiate the figure from the ground is to add detail to the area of
focus. In the example below, simply adding the cities and their labels helps to focus the eye on the
center of the map. Note that the dark color of the point symbols and text also darken the figure, and
we already know that color value is one way to promote figure-ground organization.
TIP: to draw only the cities within the figure, use a Definition Query. Since only those features are
being drawn, only they will be labeled.

And you can also use many of the techniques together!

A slightly more advanced technique is to vary the line width within or around the figure. You will
sometimes see this technique used on maps of urban areas to reduce the amount of space for road
symbols within this congested area.
To do this, you need an attribute that distinguishes the lines within or around the figure from the rest
of the lines.
TIP: For the river features, use the Identity tool to assign the polygon attributes to the lines., The
lines will be split at the polygon boundaries where the attributes change. Then use a Definition
Query to draw only the line features the figure. Copy this layer to the Table of Contents and switch
the Definition Query to show only those features the figure. Assign this layer different symblogy from
the other.
For the boundary features, use the Selection tools to select those lines that make up the boundary
of the figure. Add an attribute to note which lines make up the boundary of the figure (e.g., a short
integer field in which 0 = not figure boundary and 1 = figure boundary). Then use a Definition
Query to draw only the line boundaries the figure. Copy this layer to the Table of Contents and

switch the Definition Query to show only those features the figure. Assign this layer different
symblogy from the other.

In the example below, the figure is darker than the background, blue is used for the water fill and the
shorelines, the cities are shown and labeled, the lines symbol for rivers is wider within the figure, and
the line symbol for boundaries is wider around it.

Figure-ground cartographic elements[edit]

Differentiation is described as the ability to easily discriminate the main figure from the ground. This
can be accomplished by designing the desired figure as visually heterogeneous and reducing the
level of distraction caused by the ground. By adding surface patterns or textures to the figure, visual
differentiation will lead to figure definition.[1]
Incorporation of closure on a map is important because percipients interpret the figure to be the
object or objects in the map that are closed.[2] Additionally, there is a tendency for the percipient to
complete or close unfinished objects. The location and shape of central figures on a map can be
adjusted by varying the scale, projection, and format.[3]
The figure of emphasis should be centrally located and surrounded by areas of a different
character with contrast that lessens ground importance visually and emphasized the main figure.
Both alignment and centering can be achieved through measurement or through visual
approximation.[4] The concept of centrality is important because the object located in the center of a
map is most often assumed to be the figure. Other map elements can be centered in the remaining
visual space after the figure has been centered.
Articulation utilizes texture to differentiate figure from ground. One common example of using
articulation on a map is differentiating a continent from the ocean. The ocean, in most cases, will be
the ground and the continent will be the figure.[5] By adding fine-textured shading to water, the
continent pops out visually as the figure.[6] Another method that can be employed for articulation
called is vignetting, or the inclusion of brightness gradients at the land-water edge.
Good contour on the map can be described as the viewers ability to continue the line throughout
the map. The figure is formed by a contour or outline (as opposed to an isometric contour line), the
common boundary between the figure and ground, usually through a brightness contrast. [7] If a figure
is not separated entirely from the ground, a simple black contour line can be drawn around the figure
enclosing it and thus differentiating it from the ground.[8]
Intellectual hierarchy, also known as a scale of concepts,[9] refers to the idea that some map
features are more important than others. The placement on a map or the ordering of information will
convey relative importance of map features to the percipient. If developed on the map correctly, the
intellectual hierarchy will correspond to the visual hierarchy established on the map. By developing a
visual hierarchy, the percipient can distinguish relative importance to map objects, drawing attention
to the most important objects first. By emphasizing the colors of important figures and fading out the
colors on less important figures, the perceived distance between the two is increased. Also by
employing color contrasts, contour sharpness can be adjusted. [10]

Research in figure-ground relationships[edit]

Fields other than cartography, such as psychology, neurology, and computer science, have studied
differentiation of figure from ground. Many studies have employed different experiments, varying the
shades, textures, and orientations of test pictures to determine the best method for figure-ground
design with mixed results. A current application of figure-ground research is the development
of computer vision for robots. By studying the way humans perceive figure and ground, methods can
be developed to improve computer vision algorithms.[11]

Cartographic Design Principles: Legibility

cartographic design principles
/

Cartographic Design team

/

0
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Cartography

We are just over halfway through our series of posts about our Cartographic
Design Principles. Last week we shone the spotlight on Simplicity and this
week we continue our series as we turn our attention to Legibility. In its
simplest definition, to be legible is to be easily read. It is extremely important
for a map to be legible as the user should be able to easily understand the
message that the cartographer was attempting to portray. Much in the same
way as a book, if a map is difficult to read then it is likely to fail in its
objective and not meet the user requirements.

OS Explorer Maps designed for usability and legibility

Legibility
All map elements need to be legible, meaning that they are readable,
understandable and recognisable. All need to be large enough and clear
enough relative to the viewing scale and the media on which the final map
will be displayed.
Legibility of most map features depends on colour and size which ultimately
make them noticeable and recognisable. Symbols need to be simple enough
to recognise and offer good contrast against the background.
Text can be made legible with a good choice of font, good colour contrast
against the background, suitable font size, character spacing and the use of
masks or halos. Like any other map feature text can also be made more

recognisable by choosing a representative colour, for example, blue text is

immediately recognised as being related to water.
The proximity of map elements to each other is also important to the overall
legibility. Overlapping symbols and text should be avoided where possible in
order to make the information clear to the user.
To achieve legibility a process of cartographic generalisation is often required
this can take many forms; from simplification to amalgamation and will be
dependant on the scale and use of the map.

Typography for cartography

Highly-esteemed Swiss cartographer Eduard Imhof was famed for his
fantastic work on shaded relief maps. He also wrote a set of four principles
regarding the placement of labels on a map, the first of which was, names
should be legible.
Legibility is a key, and much covered topic in the world of typography and
text is a fundamental element of most maps. This article covers some of the
basics of typography in cartography, explores some of the decisions a
cartographer must make and discusses legibility in detail:

Typography for Cartography can be more

complex than traditional typography because
of complex text placement and potential
density of features, visual hierarchy, overall
look and feel, the fact that text often
represent features as symbols in their own
right, and the interplay between text and
other multi-layered map features such as
symbols, background colors, and textures.

However, the overall goal of legibility and

readability remains the same.
This shows that a cartographer has many decisions to make during the map
creation process and demonstrates how all the principles must be considered
simultaneously.
Next week, in the fifth part of this series, we will focus on consistency in
map-making.

All map elements need to be legible, meaning that they are

readable, understandable and recognisable. All need to be
large enough and clear enough relative to the viewing scale
and the media on which the final map will be displayed.
Legibility of most map features depends on colour and size which ultimately
make them noticeable and recognisable. Symbols need to be simple enough
to recognise and offer good contrast against the background.
Text can be made legible with a good choice of font, good colour contrast
against the background, suitable font size, character spacing and the use of
masks or halos. Like any other map feature text can also be made more
recognisable by choosing a representative colour, for example, blue text is
immediately recognised as being related to water.
The proximity of map elements to each other is also important to the overall
legibility. Overlapping symbols and text should be avoided where possible in
order to make the information clear to the user.

To achieve legibility a process of cartographic generalisation is often required

- this can take many forms; from simplification to amalgamation and will be
dependant on the scale and use of the map.

Example
OS VectorMap District this is the backdrop colour style raster version of the
product which has a nominal viewing scale of 1:25,000.

We have chosen fonts based on their on-screen legibility and ensured that
the various fonts work in harmony yet are still distinguishable from one
another. Various text sizes and colours have been used to represent different
groups of features logically, for example, the spot height label colour
matches that of the corresponding point feature. We have set many rules
and used a complex, automated labelling system to ensure that symbols and
text dont overlap. Halos have been applied to text and symbols so that they
are clear and legible amongst the surrounding detail.

Make Maps People Want to Look At

Five primary design principles for cartography

By Aileen Buckley, Esri

This article as a PDF.

Cartographers apply many design principles when

compiling their maps and constructing page layouts. Five of the main design principles are legibility,
visual contrast, figure-ground organization, hierarchical organization, and balance. Together these
principles form a system for seeing and understanding the relative importance of the content in the
map and on the page. Without these, map-based communication will fail.
Visual contrast and legibility provide the basis for seeing the contents on the map. Figure-ground
organization, hierarchical organization, and balance lead the map reader through the contents to
determine the importance of things and ultimately find patterns.
This article introduces you to these five principles and explains their importance in cartography. It's
worth noting that these principles are not applied in isolation but instead are complementary.
Collectively, they help cartographers create maps that successfully communicate geographic
information.

Figure 1. Although black and white (A) provide the best visual contrast, this is not always the best color combination for maps.
When using colors of similar high (B) or low (C) saturation (brightness), the hues (blue and green, in this case) must be
distinguishable. If they are not, varying the saturation or value (lightness or darkness) of a color (as with the water in D) can create
the contrast that is missing. Operational overlays should contrast with the basemap (E and F).

1) Visual Contrast
Visual contrast relates how map features and page elements contrast with each other and their
background. To understand this principle at work, consider your inability to see well in a dark
environment. Your eyes are not receiving much reflected light, so there is little visual contrast
between the objects in your field of view and you cannot easily distinguish objects from one another
or from their surroundings. Increase illumination, and you are now able to distinguish features from

the background. However, the features will still need to be large enough to be seen and understood
so that your mind can decipher what your eyes are detecting.
The concept of visual contrast also applies in cartography (Figure 1). A well-designed map with a
high degree of visual contrast can result in a crisp, clean, sharp-looking map. The higher the contrast
between features, the more some features will stand out (usually features that are darker or
brighter). Conversely, a map that has low visual contrast can be used to promote a more subtle
impression. Features that have less contrast appear to belong together.

Figure 2. Symbols (A) and text (C) that are too small are illegible. Appropriately sized symbols (B) and text (D) can be easily
distinguished and read. Using familiar geometric icons, such as an airplane for airports (E), helps readers immediately understand
the meaning of the symbol. More complex symbols, such as a mortarboard for universities (F), need to be larger to be legible.

2) Legibility
Legibility is the ability to be seen and understood. Many people strive to make their map contents
and page elements easily seen, but it is also important that they can be understood. Legibility
depends on good decision making when selecting symbols. Choosing symbols that are familiar and
are appropriate sizes results in symbols that are effortlessly seen and easily understood (Figure 2).
Geometric symbols are easier to read at smaller sizes. More complex symbols require more space
to be legible.
Visual contrast and legibility can also be used to promote the other design principles: figure-ground
organization, hierarchical organization, and balance.

Figure 3. It is sometimes hard to tell what is the figure and what is the ground (A and B). Simply adding detail to the map (C) can
help map readers distinguish the figure from the ground. Using a whitewash (D), feathering (E), or a drop shadow (F) can also help.

3) Figure-Ground Organization
Figure-ground organization is the spontaneous separation of the figure in the foreground from an
amorphous background. Cartographers use this design principle to help map readers focus on a
specific area of the map. There are many ways to promote figure-ground organization, such as
adding detail to the map or using a whitewash, a drop shadow, or feathering.

Figure 4. When the symbols and labels are on the same visual plane (A), it is difficult for the map reader to distinguish among them
and determine which are more important. For a general reference map (B), using different sizes for the text and symbols (e.g., city
points and labels), different line styles (e.g., administrative boundaries), and different line widths (e.g., rivers) are some of the ways
you can add hierarchy to the map. When mapping thematic data (C), the base information (e.g., county boundaries and county
seats) should be kept to a minimum so that the theme (e.g., soils) is at the highest visual level in the hierarchy.

4) Hierarchical Organization

As noted in Elements of Cartography, Sixth Edition, one of the major objectives in mapmaking is to
"separate meaningful characteristics and to portray likenesses, differences, and interrelationships."
The internal graphic structuring of the map (and, more generally, the page layout) is fundamental to
helping people read your map. You can think of a hierarchy as the visual separation of your map into
layers of information. Some types of features will be seen as more important than other kinds of
features, and some features will seem more important than other features of the same type. Some
page elements (e.g., the map) will seem more important than others (e.g., the title or legend).
This visual layering of information within the map and on the page helps readers focus on what is
important and lets them identify patterns. The hierarchical organization of reference maps (those that
show the location of a variety of physical and cultural features, such as terrain, roads, boundaries,
and settlements) works differently than for thematic maps (those that concentrate on the distribution
of a single attribute or the relationship among several attributes). For reference maps, many features
should be no more important than one another and sovisuallythey should lie on essentially the
same visual plane. In reference maps, hierarchy is usually more subtle and the map reader brings
elements to the forefront by focusing attention on them. For thematic maps, the theme is more
important than the base that provides geographic context.

Figure 5. Positioning heavier elements together can make the page look top-heavy (A) or bottom heavy (B). Centering the map
slightly above center (C) ensures that it is in the most prominent position on the page. The position of elements can also cause the
eye to move in a desired direction. In D, the title is the first thing read, followed by the locator map, then the map of Africa, and
finally the legend.

Graphic communication & balance in map design

Published in : (July 2009)

Brig (Retd.) M.C. Dhamija, K.D Sood

Communication is the transfer of ideas, knowledge or information from one person to another though a medium
common and familiar form of medium is the audio & visual perception i.e. communication by spoken or written
term as graphics be they be language, pictures, sculptures & so on.

To be able to be understood a communication must have an order, though the order may not be always completel
How does this process of visual perception works in graphic communication, that we shall examine now.

The act of seeing by any person can be broadly classified in to 3 stages. The first is the entering of the light reflec
records the impression and sends it to brain. The third stage is the reaction of the brain, all the stages comprise th
types on visual perception which can be summed up in the Gessalts laws of organisation which are as follows:
Size - Smaller areas catch attention
Continuity - Mere continuous areas give better clarity
Closed figures - Closed figures gives better impression than open areas
Proximity - The images which are closer give the impression of being one entity
Symmetry - The symmetrical form of grid tends to dominate more random forms of other details.

From the above classification of visual variables following can be achieved: Form, Size, Orientation, Density, Va

Colour is a very complex subject. The use of colour is a subjective matter and this is the most widely used and cr
three primary subtractive viz Cyan, Magenta and Yellow.

The accepted theory is that we perceive colours by different wave lengths of visible light. Any absence of wave l
(hues). Any hue can be achieved by combination of different colours in proper proportions.

Use of colour in cartographic designs is a highly subjective matter but a few general conventions do exist. Colou
of clarify and legibility. This aspect is immensely useful while designing a graphic image.

Generalisation in a map is a basic thing. The very map itself is a generalised impression and all the symbols used
Generalisation. These are:1.
Scale: The scale of map is by far the most limiting factor for generalisation. The scale depends on the (i) p
The feasibility of actual field work such as in high mountainous or jungle areas the scale may have to be limite
2.
The Purpose of Map: The purpose of map is the main thing about which a map user is concerned and all t
give much more detailed information with respect to cultivation and types of soils where as a topo map of sam
A judicious combination of map purpose and map scale will evolve the generalisation policy. Since both the facto
help in fundamentally arriving at suitable conclusion about the scale of map within useful purpose of serving map

CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
Graphic design is a difficult subject, but like wiring with words communication with graphic language of maps c
each be planned carefully so that the reader will be able to obtain as easily as possible, the information being con
portrayal, choosing of lettering sizes and styles, specifying of width of lines, selection of colours and shadings, a

As already emphasized earlier, all maps are made with the object of communicating some spatial information to a
scale, and other Cartographic process like selection of lines, tones & patterns should always be in tune with the r
information he wants. If the map has not been properly designed it will be a cartographic failure. The aim of the c

integrated unit and so that each item included is clear and legible.

CLARITY AND LEGIBILITY

The communication by graphic image requires that the graphic elements be clear and legible. Although the vario
is to promote clarity and legibility.

Clarity & legibility are broad terms. A considerable portion of the test of achieving clarity and legibility will have
with unintelligible or horsy redressing in any manner.

Once the geographical concepts underiving the purpose and data of a map are clear and correct, then legibility an
precise and correct delineation. Lines must be clear, sharp and uniform.

CONTRAST
The fact that symbols, lines and other elements of a map are large enough to be seen does not in itself provide cla

No element of cartographic technique is so important as contrast. The degree to which a map appears precise and

Contrast is achieved by varying the visual characteristics sizes and shapes, pattern, value (relative darkness), and

CONTRAST OF LINES AND SHAPES

Most maps require the use of several kind of lines, each symbolising some geographical elements or concepts, su
from the rest it is necessary to vary their character, design or size in some map.

There are infinite variety of shapes available for the cartographer to change the graphic elements. It is up to the c
shape structure appear well designed in order to become familiar with the range of possibilities.
CONTRAST OF PATTERN
The patterns are composed of dots (stripling) lines, or combination. The possibilities are unlimited.

Every patter whether composed of dots / lines of a combination has several characteristics (i) Texture (or Density
finer the texture (ii) arrangement (iii) Orientation.
Cartographer may employ all these characteristics of pattern to obtain contrast. The important point in obtaining
constant.

CONTRAST OF VALUE
Value contrasts are the most important elements of seeing and every one is familiar with the ease with which it is
Since any thing that can be seen must have a value rating and because any thing must vary in value if it is to be e
visibility.

Any object or a group of units on a map has a value rating. Width of lines, areas with patterns, black or lettering i
within the map frame is a basic part of map designing. One of the most important ways in which the cartographer
as variations in rainfall, depth of oceans, elevation of land, density of population and so on, are usually depicted
contrasts.
FIGURE - GROUND

In any map, more so in small scale thematic maps, the immediate perception of the fundamental elements in the m
cartographer had as his objectives without fumbling and groping to find what he is supposed to be looking at. Th
ground relationship.

This is a complex field of study still under intensive investigation by students of perception. Nevertheless some o

4.1 Differentiation must be presented in order for one area to emerge as figure. The figure area must be homogen
4.2 Brightness or high value tends to lead towards figure differentiation on a map.

4.3 Closed figures, such as islands, entire peninsulas or countries, and other complete entities are more likely to b

4.4 Good contour is a catch-all term that includes the characteristics of continuous appearing symmetrical an

4.5 Texture, in the broad sense of it being a basic complex of articulated marks tends to lead towards the emergen

4.6 Area is important in leading to figure ground differentiation. Generally the tendency is for small areas to eme

COLOUR
Colour has important effects on the clarity and legibility of a man, since it effects the readers ability to distinguis

Even the small amount of colour seems to produce remarkable differences in legibility and emphasis on maps. A
It is an important element in the figure-ground relationship and it acts as a unifying element in the visual compos
it from matter.

For the various elements of cartographic design, colour is probably the most interesting and yet also most frustra
cartography that often lead to contradictions. Colour in mapping is a subject that will remain controversial for a l

HUE
Although man can see different colours side by side, it is difficult for him to recall colours, and we must conclud
by green, yellow, blue etc. In terms of its effect on the readers ability to distinguish fine detail, monochromatic l

Convection plays a large role in the employment of hues in cartography. One of the most firmly established conv
associated with hues: red, yellow and orange with warm temperatures, blue green and grey with cool yellow and

VALUE
Of the three dimensions of colour value is probably the most important in terms of fundamental perceptual aspec
effect of value contrast in definition. The basic precep is that the greater the value contrast the greater the definiti
magnitude.
In terms of graphic composition, it is well to use areas of extreme values with caption since extreme values tend
of a map.

BALANCE
Designing a visual composition requires a number of preliminary decisions involving what is called by the gener
the presentation. The basic shapes may include, the land water passes, legends, boxes, colour areas and so on.

Balance in graphic design is the positioning of the various visual components in such a way that their relationship
balanced design nothing is too light or too dark, too long or too short, or too small or too large, Layout is the proc

Visual balance depends primarily upon the relative position and visual importance of the basic parts of map and t
their visual weight. The aim of the cartographer is to balance his visual items so that they look right or appear na
The easiest way to accomplish this is to prepare thumbnail sketches of the main shapes and then arrange them in
fashion desired.

GRAPHIC OUTLINE
Organizing and outlining a graphic presentation is always an important part of cartographic design, but it is of pa
connotation, as well as, a visual meaning in the design sense.

After structuring of the major components has been decided upon, attention must be shifted to the second stage o
thematic, call for the preparation of one or more trial maps in order that primary decisions may be made regard
design elements. Many times the opinion of map users is taken into account before decisions are taken.

TITLE, LEGENDS AND SCALES

These elements have denotative function in identifying the place, subject matter, symbolisation, etc., but they als
fragmentation of the map should be avoided as much as possible.

EFFECTS OF REDUCTION
With the introduction of scribing technique many maps are constructed at the final reproduction scale, neverthele
scale larger than the publication scale, that is for reduction.

This is done for a variety of reasons, the most important of which is that it is often impossible to draft with precis
and the designing of each item so that when it is reduced and reproduced it will be right for the scale. A map m
- See more at: http://geospatialworld.net/Paper/Application/ArticleView.aspx?
aid=1488#sthash.T8EfV9Wn.dpuf

Balance of Map Elements

Lets start with one of the general rules:
Balance involves the visual impact of the arrangement of image units in the map frame. A bad

arrangement of map elements, which appear all on one side, can cause the map to "look heavy"
on the right or left, top or bottom.
An image space has two centres: a geometric centre and an optical centre. You should always
arrange the elements of the map to be balanced visually around the optical centre.
Beneath are rules concerning the cartographic balance, other rules exist. Two of these further
rules are called "Rule of The Golden Section" and "Rule of R. Arnheim". They are better for the
distribution of the whole map frame. Please find these rules in unit Definition and organisation
of map elements.

Optical

versus

Geometric
Source:

Centers,
IKA

according

ETH
to

This SVG animation shows the localisation of the two centres in an image. The geometric centre, that
is equal to the image's balance point, and the optical centre. You should arrange the map elements
around the optical centre rather than around the geometric centre. The reason for this has a cognitive-

(Dent 1999)

psychological foundation.

Positioning
Elements

Map

The position of map elements in the image affects the balance of the map. The draft, exemple shown
beneath, is a map where details do not extend over the whole map-face. Move the base map element by
clicking on the arrows to get an impression of balance and imbalance. France will appear in green
when the optical centre is reached.

http://www.gitta.info/LayoutDesign/en/html/ReadabiliRul_learningObject1.html

Advantages of Information Mapping[edit]

Information Mapping offers these advantages:[5]

Easier and quicker writing of technical materials.

Easier management and analysis of writing tasks in large projects.

Better learning materials and better referencing of technical materials.

Replaces the paragraph(in prose)or frame (in programmed learning) with information blocks
and information map.

Provides a simple, comprehensive, modular, expandable classification system of information

maps and blocks.

Can be used for different purposes with minimal changes.

Provides ready-to-use consistent formats for different types of presentations.

Disadvantages of Information Mapping[edit]

The disadvantages of Information Mapping are:[6]

The format, particularly the table structure, looks outdated and distracts from the content.

The block line that separate paragraphs take too much of space

Its not always possible to fit all types of documentation into the Information Mapping format
like-