Essential Mathematics

Table of contents
Table of Contents
Module Guide Description ......................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
Learning outcomes .................................................................................................................... 1
Subject Structure and Organization .......................................................................................... 2
Recommended Text .................................................................................................................. 2
Course Regulations ................................................................................................................... 2
Algebra ................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 4

Addition and Subtraction of like terms ..................................................................................... 5
Multiplying Algebraic Expressions and Expanding Brackets .................................................. 7
Multiplication ............................................................................................................................ 7
Expanding Brackets .................................................................................................................. 8
Difference of Two Squares ..................................................................................................... 10
Squares .................................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Factorizing Algebraic Expressions ................................................................................... 11
Simple Factorization ............................................................................................................... 11
Factorizing Quadratic Expressions ......................................................................................... 13
Quadratic Expressions where the coefficient of x2 is 1.......................................................... 13
Difference of Two Squares ..................................................................................................... 14
Quadratic Expressions where the coefficient of x2 is not 1 .................................................... 15
1.5 Algebraic Fractions ............................................................................................................ 17
Cancelling Common Factors ................................................................................................... 17
Multiplication and Division of Algebraic Fractions ............................................................... 20
Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Fractions ................................................................... 23
1.6 Surds .................................................................................................................................. 26
Operations with surds .............................................................................................................. 27
Rationalizing the denominator ................................................................................................ 29
1.8 Indices .................................................................................................................................. 32
Equations and
Inequalities ..................................................................................................................... 37
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 38

Equations in one variable ........................................................................................................ 38
2.2 Linear Equations ............................................................................................................... 39
2.3 Quadratic Equations ......................................................................................................... 46
Table of contents
Type I: Solving quadratic equation of the form
ax 2 c 0 .......................................... 46
Type II: Solving quadratic equation of the form
ax 2 bx 0 ........................................ 47
Type III: Solving quadratic equation of the form
ax 2 bx 0 .................................... 48
Solution by Factorizing ........................................................................................................... 48

Solution by Completing the Square ........................................................................................ 54
Perfect Square ......................................................................................................................... 54
Quadratic Formula .................................................................................................................. 59
Discriminant of a Quadratic equation ..................................................................................... 61
Disguised Quadratic equations................................................................................................ 63
Sketching the Graph of a quadratic function........................................................................... 65
2.4 Simultaneous Equations .................................................................................................... 70
Linear Simultaneous Equations. ............................................................................................. 70
Elimination .............................................................................................................................. 70
Substitution ............................................................................................................................. 72
Graphical Method.................................................................................................................... 73
One Linear and One Quadratic Equation .............................................................................. 74
2.5 Inequalities .......................................................................................................................... 76
Solving Linear Inequalities ..................................................................................................... 76
Solving Quadratic Inequalities ................................................................................................ 79
Polynomials................................................................................................................................................... 85
3.1 Polynomials .......................................................................................................................... 86

3.2 Algebraic operation of polynomials................................................................................... 87
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials ............................................................................... 87
Multiplication of Polynomials ................................................................................................ 88
Dividing Polynomials ............................................................................................................. 90
Long Division ......................................................................................................................... 92
Synthetic division .................................................................................................................... 97
3.3 The Remainder and Factor Theorem ................................................................................ 99
Remainder Theorem ................................................................................................................ 99
Factor Theorem ..................................................................................................................... 101
Coordinate
Geometry ........................................................................................... 107
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 108

4.2 The equation of a straight line ......................................................................................... 108
Table of contents
4.3 Gradient of the line joining two points............................................................................ 111

4.4 Equation of a straight line with gradient m and passing through a point
( x1 , y1 )
................................................................................................................................................... 113
4.5 Parallel and perpendicular lines ...................................................................................... 115
4.6 The mid-point of a line segment ....................................................................................... 120
4.7 The distance between two points ..................................................................................... 122
4.8 Equation of a circle ........................................................................................................... 127
Functions & Curve Sketching ...................................................................................................................... 132
5.1 The Idea of a Function ..................................................................................................... 133

5.2 Curve Sketching ............................................................................................................... 134
Cubic Functions .................................................................................................................... 134
Sketching graphs with equations
y (ax p)(bx q)(cx r) ............................... 136
Sketching graphs with equations y (ax p) (bx q) ................................................. 139

2
Sketching graphs with equations

The reciprocal graph
y (ax p) 3 ................................................................ 141
k
, k
x
is constant. ................................................................ 143
5.3 Transformation of graphs ................................................................................................ 144

Translation (shifting) ............................................................................................................. 145
Stretch (expansion and compression).................................................................................... 149
Reflections............................................................................................................................. 150
Intersection points ................................................................................................................. 156
5.3 Exponential and Logarithms ............................................................................................ 160
The Exponential function and its graph ................................................................................ 160
Logarithms ............................................................................................................................ 162
Solving Equations with Logarithms ...................................................................................... 169
Sequence & Series ................................................................................................................................. 173
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 174

nth term of a sequence........................................................................................................... 176
6.2 Arithmetic sequence and series ........................................................................................ 180
nth term of an arithmetic series ............................................................................................. 181
Sum to n terms of an arithmetic series .................................................................................. 184
6.3 Geometric sequence and series ........................................................................................ 190
Sum to n terms of a geometric series .................................................................................... 195
Table of contents
Sum to infinity of a geometric series .................................................................................... 198

Trigonometry ......................................................................................................................................... 208
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 209

7.2 Angles ................................................................................................................................. 209
Degree Measure .................................................................................................................... 209
Radian Measure ..................................................................................................................... 210
7.3 Sketching angles ............................................................................................................... 213
7.4 Arc Length and Area of a Sector ..................................................................................... 215
Length of Arc ........................................................................................................................ 215
Area of a Sector ..................................................................................................................... 215
7.5 Trigonometric functions for any angle............................................................................ 220
Quadrants .............................................................................................................................. 221
7.6 Symmetry properties of trigonometric functions .......................................................... 224
7.7 Evaluating trigonometric functions ................................................................................. 226
Evaluating Trigonometric functions with a calculator .......................................................... 230
7.8 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs .................................................................. 231
The sine function
y sin .............................................................................................. 232
The cosine function

The tangent function
y cos
......................................................................................... 232
y tan
....................................................................................... 233
7.9 Simple transformations ................................................................................................... 234

Reflection in the x-axis : Graphing sin x, - cos x and tan x .......................................... 234
Reflection in the y-axis: Graphing sin(-x), cos(-x) and tan(-x) ....................................... 235
Horizontal Stretch : Graphing sin nx , cos nx and tan nx .................................................. 237
Vertical Stretch: Graphing n sin x, n cos x and
n tan x ............................................... 238
Graphing n + sin x, n + cos x and n + tan x ...................................................................... 239

Graphing sin(x+n), cos(x+n) and tan(x+n) ........................................................................ 240
7.10 Trigonometric Identities and Simple Equations ......................................................... 245
Trigonometric identities ........................................................................................................ 245
Trigonometric Equations ....................................................................................................... 248
Equations involving factors and multiple angles .................................................................. 254
Equation involving quadratics............................................................................................... 256
Differentiation ....................................................................................................................................... 265
8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 266
Table of contents
8.2 Gradients of curves ........................................................................................................... 266

8.3 Differentiation rules .......................................................................................................... 267
Second derivative .................................................................................................................. 270
8.4 Tangents and normals to a curve .................................................................................... 272
8.5 Increasing decreasing functions ...................................................................................... 277
8.6 Maximum, minimum and point of inflexion. ................................................................ 279
8.7 Applications of differentiation ......................................................................................... 282
Integration .......................................................................................................................................... 289
9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 290

9.2 Indefinite Integration: the Reverse of Differentiation .................................................. 290
Notation ................................................................................................................................. 290
9. 3 Definite Integrals ............................................................................................................. 297
9.4 Area Under Curves ........................................................................................................... 300
Finding areas when all lie above the x-axis. ......................................................................... 300
Finding areas when some or all lie below the x-axis. ........................................................... 302
9.4 Area Bounded by Lines and Curve ................................................................................. 305
Answers ...................................................................................................................................................... 310
References .................................................................................................................................................. 375
Unit Outline
Module Guide Description

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what
the course is about and how you can work your way through the course material. Please keep on
referring to Course Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
Introduction
This is one of mathematics modules offered in the Bachelor of Education course. The aim of this
mathematics module is to emphasis on the understanding of the basic mathematical concepts. A
conceptual foundation and understanding of mathematical ideas and theorems is essential for the
learning and teaching of mathematics. This understanding can be enhanced when the teaching of
mathematics is linked to familiar concepts and situations. Further, the mode of delivery must be
student-centred so as to make mathematics more meaningful to learners.
The mathematical content taught in this subject will follow from familiar concepts of basic and
advanced algebra, sequence, trigonometry, functions and calculus. It is envisaged that the style
and level of mathematics taught will provide student teachers with a deeper understanding and a
better appreciation of the continuous development of abstraction and complexity in mathematics.
It is also hoped that such a stance in teaching would help change the students perception of
learning mathematics for understanding and enhancing their ability to make meaningful
mathematical connections, rather than as a preparation for examination purposes
Learning outcomes
By the end of this course, students should be able to:
find the nth term of a series
find the sum of arithmetic series, geometric series and the sum to infinity (geometric
series).
understand the basic concepts of Algebra
simplify Algebraic fractions
add, subtract, multiply and divide one polynomial by another.
factorize polynomials and trinomials
use factor theorem and the remainder theorem along with long division and partial
fractions.
factorize quadratic functions using completing the square method
solve quadratic equations by using the factor method, completing the square method and
using the quadratic formula
solving simultaneous equations
use sin, cos and tan ratios to find angles and sides of right angle triangles.
use trigonometrical identities
find the equation of a straight line when 2 points are given.
use parallel and perpendicular lines.
find the mid-point of a line.
Unit Outline
find the equation of a circle.

sketch and transform graphs of functions.
use laws of logarithm to simplify expressions involving exponential and logarithms.
solve exponential and logarithmic equations.
differentiate power functions
apply product rule, chain rule and quotient rule for differentiation.
find intervals on which a function is increasing and decreasing.
find turning points and classify them as maximums and minimums.
find equation for tangents and normals to curves.
integrate power functions.
find definite and indefinite integrals.
find the area of region bounded by curves and lines.
Subject Structure and Organization

This subject consists of four hours weekly sessions; 3 lectures and one tutorial. The objectives of
these sessions are to emphasize on understanding the basic mathematical concepts and provide an
alternative learning style to rote learning, which students have accustomed to in their school life.
It is hoped that as a result of these sessions students will be able to take responsibility for their
own learning process. The teaching strategies used will all be student centred.
Weekly problem sets (challenging problems because most of the contents covered in this syllabus
is Alevel standard) of mathematical tasks and tutorials will be set to encourage independent
learning and self-assessment.
Recommended Text
Core Mathematics 1&2: Heinemann Modular Mathematics for EDEXCEL AS and A-Level. Bath:
The Bath Press
Ric Pimentel & Terry Wall, IGCSE Mathematics :John Murray
A.Greer, New Comprehensive Mathematics for OLevel (2nd edition) : Stanley Thornes
(Publisher) Ltd.
Course Regulations
This will be provided by the faculty. These regulations will be regarding policies on attendance,
late assignments, and plagiarism.
Assistance will be provided on request and monitoring will be made every fortnight by the course
leader.
Chapter 1: Algebra
1
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to
Simplify expressions and collect like terms

apply the rules of indices
multiply out brackets
factorise expressions including quadratics
simplify algebraic fractions
manipulate surds
use Rules of indices
Chapter outline
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Addition and subtraction of like terms
1.3
Multiplying algebraic expressions and

expanding brackets
1.4
Factorising algebraic expressions
1.5
Algebraic Fractions
1.6
Surds
1.7
Indices
This is one of the most important

topics in Mathematics. This chapter
provides foundation for many
concepts in the other topics.
Factorising equations will enable us
to solve equations and sketching
functions. Rules of indices will be
very
important
in
studying
differentiation and integration.
Chapter 1: Algebra
1.1 Introduction
In order to extend the techniques of arithmetic so that they can be more useful in applications we
introduce letters or symbols to represent quantities of interest. Algebra is the use of letters and
symbols to express generalizations. For example, we know that 4 4 2 4 and 5 5 2 5 ;
these are particular examples of the fact that any number added to itself is the same as twice that
number. Using a letter to represent any number, this general fact can be written very concisely as
x x 2 x . This is an example of an algebraic expression.
Letters such as x and y in mathematical expressions are known as variables. Variables are
symbols that are used to represent unspecified numbers. Any letter may be used as a variable.
The number in front of the letter is known as coefficient. An algebraic expression consists of one
or more numbers and variables along with one or more arithmetic operations. An algebraic
expression that is a number, a variable, or a product or quotient of numbers and variables is called
a term. Example of terms are:
7
2x
4 2
y
7
0.75a 4b3
2 2/3
x
3
Arithmetic of algebraic terms is defined as follows;

Addition ( ): If the letters x and y stand for two numbers, their sum is written as x y . Note
that x y is the same as y x just as 3 + 6 is the same as 6 + 3.
Subtraction ( ): The quantity x y is called the difference of x and y , and means the number
y subtracted from the number x . Note that x y is the not the same as y x .
Multiplication ( ): Five times the number x is written as 5 x . We usually omit the multiplication
sign. The quantity xy is called the product of x and y .
Division ( ): x y or
x
is called quotient of the two numbers x and y . This is also known as
y
an algebraic fraction.
Frequently we shall need to multiply a number by itself several times, for example
a a a a a a a a a. To abbreviate such a quantity, we use the notation a 9 , which means
the number a is multiplied itself by 9 times. In the quantity x y , x is called the base and y is the
power or index. Note that the plural of index is indices.
Chapter 1: Algebra
Example 1
The following are some example of verbal and their algebraic expressions.
Verbal Expression
Algebraic Expression
2 less than the product of 5 and a

number y.
5y 2
the product of 4 and a divided by the

product of 3 and b .
4a 3b
nine feet shorter than the height of the

tree (T = tree height).
T 9
one-third as costly as a first-class

ticket (f = price of first class ticket).
f
3
a number x is multiplied 5 times by

itself.
x x x x x x5
Addition and Subtraction of like terms

Like terms contain the same combination of letters. For example, 3 y,72 y and 0.5 y are all
1
multiples of y and so are like terms. Similarly, 5x 2 ,3x 2 and x 2 are all multiples of x 2 and so
2
are like terms. Like terms can be collected together and added or subtracted in order to simplify
them.
Example 2
Simplify 3x 7 x 2 x .
SOLUTION:
3x 7 x 2 x 8x
All three terms are multiples of
and so are like terms.
Example 3
Simplify 3x 2 y .
SOLUTION:
3x 2 y 3 x 2 y
3x and 2 y are not like terms. One is a multiple of x and

the other is a multiple of y . The expression 3x 2 y
cannot be simplified.
Chapter 1: Algebra
Example 4
Simplify x 7 x x 2
SOLUTION:
x 7 x x 2 8x x 2
The like terms are x and 7 x . These can be simplified to 8 x .

Note that 8 x and x 2 are not like terms and so this
expression cannot be simplified.
Example 5
Simplify ab a 2 7b 2 9ab 8b 2
SOLUTION:
ab a 2 7b 2 9ab 8b 2
ab 9ab a 2 7b 2 8b 2
10ab a 2 b 2
EXERCISE 1A
The terms ab and 9ab are like and they simplify to

10ab . The terms 7b 2 and 8b 2 are also like and they
simplify to b 2 .
Chapter 1: Algebra
Multiplying Algebraic Expressions and Expanding Brackets
Multiplication
The multiplication sign is usually omitted, so that, for example,
2 x means 2 x and x y can be simplified to xy
If a string numbers and letters are multiplied, the multiplication can be done in any order, for
example
2 x 3 y 2 x 3 y 6 xy
Powers can be used to simplify expressions such as x x x x 3 and

x 2 x3 x5
Rules for determining the sign of the answer when multiplying positive and negative algebraic
expressions are the same as those used for multiplying numbers.
positive positive = positive
positive negative = negative
negative positive = negative
negative negative = positive
positive positive = positive
Example 6
Simplify 4 xy 5
2
SOLUTION:
4 xy 2 5
4 xy 4 xy 5
4 x y 4 x y5
80 x 2 y 2
Example 7
Simplify the following algebraic expressions
(a) 4 x 2 7 x 5
SOLUTION:
(b) (a) (b)
(c) 3ab 2 c (12c 2 d )
Chapter 1: Algebra
(a) 4 x 2 7 x 5
Note that when multiplying, the

order in which we write down the
terms does not matter.
4 7 x 2 x5
28 x 7
(b) (a) (b)
Here we have the product of a

positive and a negative quantity.
The result will be negative.
ab
(c) 3ab 2 c (12c 2 d )

3ab 2 c (12c 2 d )
3 12 a b 2 c c 2 d
Here we have the product of a

negative and a negative quantity.
The result will be positive.
36abc 3 d
EXERCISE 1B
Expanding Brackets
Expanding an expression means multiplying it out.
To expand brackets from expressions of the form a(b c) and a(b c) , multiply a with all
bracketed terms:
a(b c) ab ac
a(b c) ab bc
Chapter 1: Algebra
Example 8
Expand the brackets from
(a) 6( x 5)
(b) 8(2 x 4)
(c)
( x y)
SOLUTION:
(a) 6( x 5)
6 x 65
6 x 30
In the expansion here, it is

intended that the 6 multiplies
both terms in the brackets.
(b) 8(2 x 4)
8 2 x 8 (4)
16 x 32
(c)
( x y)
In the expansion here 8 multiplies

both terms in the brackets.
The expression ( x y) means

1( x y) . So -1 multiplies to
both the terms in the bracket.
x y
Expanding brackets from expressions of the form (a b)(c d ).

In the expansion (a b)(c d ) it is intended that the quantity (c d ) multiplies to both the a and
the b in the second bracket. Therefore
(a b)(c d ) a(c d ) b(c d ) ac ad bc bd
Example 9
Expand the brackets
(a) (3 x)(2 y)
(b) ( x 6)( x 3)
(c) (1 x)(2 x)
SOLUTION:
(a)
(3 x)(2 y)
(b) ( x 6)( x 3)
3(2 y ) x(2 y )
x( x 3) 6( x 3)
6 3 y 2 x xy
x 2 3x 6 x 18
x 2 3x 18
Chapter 1: Algebra
(c)
10
(1 x)(2 x)
1(2 x) x(2 x)
2 x 2x x2
2 3x x 2
Difference of Two Squares

Consider the expansion
( x 4)( x 4) x( x 4) 4( x 4)
x 2 4 x 4 x 16
x 2 16
This is known as difference of two squares. In general we have
(a b)(a b) a 2 b 2
Squares
(2 x 3) 2 means (2 x 3)(2 x 3)
(2 x 3) 2 (2 x 3)(2 x 3)
2 x(2 x 3) 3(2 x 3)
(first term)2 + 2(first)(second

term) + (second term)2
4x 2 6x 6x 9
4 x 2 12 x 9
In general
(ax b) 2 (ax) 2 2(ax)(b) (b) 2

a 2 x 2 2abx b 2
and
(ax b) 2 (ax) 2 2(ax)(b) (b) 2 a 2 x 2 2abx b 2
Chapter 1: Algebra
11
EXERCISE 1C
1.4 Factorizing Algebraic Expressions

A number is factorized when it is written as a product. For example, 15 may be factorized into
3 5 . We say that 3 and 5 are factors of 15. Algebraic expressions can also be factorized.
Consider the expression 5x 20 y . Both 5 x and 20 y have the number 5 common to both terms.
We say that 5 is a common factor of both 5 and 20. Thus 5x 20 y 5( x 4 y) . Removal of the
brackets will result in the original expression and can always be used to check your answer. We
can think of factorizing as the reverse of expanding brackets.
Simple Factorization
Example 10
Factorise these expressions completely.
(a) 3x 12
(b) 8x 2 12 x
(d) 9 x 2 15xy 2
(e) 3x 2 9 xy
(c) 6 x 3x 2 9 xy
SOLUTION:
(a)
3x 12 3( x 4)
(b)
8x 2 12 x
4 2 x 4 3 x
4 x(2 x 3)
2
3 is a common factor of 3x and 12
4 and x are common factors of the two terms.

Factor out 4 and x
Chapter 1: Algebra
(c)
6 x 3x 2 9 xy
3 x( 2 x 3 y )
(d)
(e)
9 x 2 y 15 xy 2
3xy (3x 5 y )
3x 2 9 xy
3 x( x 3 y )
EXERCISE 1D
12
Note that 3 and x are both factors of the three
terms in the expression. So take the common factor
out and write the remaining inside the bracket.
3, x and y are common factors of 9 x 2 y and
15xy 2 . So take 3xy outside the bracket.
Chapter 1: Algebra
13
Factorizing Quadratic Expressions

Expression of the form ax 2 bx c , where a , b and c are numbers , are called quadratic
expressions. The numbers b or c may equal to zero but a must not be zero. The number a is called
the coefficient of x 2 , b is the coefficient of x , and c is called the constant term.
We see that
2 x 2 3x 1, x 2 3x 2, x 2 7 and 2 x 2 x
are all quadratic expressions.

To factorize such an expression means to express it as a product of two terms.
Quadratic Expressions where the coefficient of x2 is 1

Consider the expression ( x m)( x n) . Removing the brackets we find
( x m)( x n) x( x n) m( x n)
x 2 mx nx mn
x 2 (m n) x mn
Note that the coefficient of the x term is the sum m n and the constant term is the product mn .
Using this information several quadratic expressions can be factorized by careful inspection. For
example, suppose we wish to factorize x 2 5x 6 . We know that x 2 (m n) x mn can be
factorized to ( x m)( x n) . We seek values of m and n so that
x 2 5x 6 x 2 (m n) x mn
Comparing the coefficients of x on both sides we require

5 mn
Comparing the constant terms on both sides we require

6 mn
By inspection we see that m 3 and n 2 have this property and so

x 2 5x 6 ( x 3)( x 2)
Example 11
Factorize the quadratic expression x 2 8x 12.
SOLUTION:
The factorization of x 2 8x 12 will be of the form ( x m)( x n) . This means that mn must
equal 12 and m n must equal 8. The two numbers must therefore be 2 and 6. So
Chapter 1: Algebra
14
x 2 8 x 12 x 2 6 x 2 x 12
x( x 6) 2( x 6)
( x 6)( x 2)
Factorise the first two terms and the second two

terms separately and then factorise again.
Example 12
Factorise x 2 10 x 25
SOLUTION:
x 2 10 x 25
Here a 1, b 10 and c 1 .
x 2 5 x 5 x 25
You need to find two brackets ( x m)( x n) that
x( x 5) 5( x 5)
multiply together to give x 2 10 x 25 .

1. Work out mn . Here mn 25
2. Work out two factors of mn which add to
give you b .
3. Rewrite bx term using these two factors.
4. Factorise first two terms and last two terms
5. ( x 5) is a common factor, so take that
outside the bracket. This now completely
factorised.
( x 5)( x 5)
( x 5) 2
Difference of Two Squares

The expression x 2 y 2 is called the difference of two squares. Factorising such expressions will
give the following results.
x 2 y 2 ( x y)( x y)
Note that x 2 y 2 ( x y)( x y) .
Example 13
Factorise x 2 121
Chapter 1: Algebra
15
SOLUTION:
x 2 121
x 11
2
( x 11)( x 11)
This difference of two squares and so we

can use the result above.
Example 14
Factorise 4 x 2 9 y 2
SOLUTION:
4 x 2 9 y 2 2 2 x 2 32 y 2
(2 x) 2 (3 y ) 2
(2 x 3 y )(2 x 3 y )
Example 15
Factorise x 2 5x 6
SOLUTION:
x 2 5 x 6 x 2 3x 2 x 6
x( x 3) 2( x 3)
( x 3)( x 2)
Quadratic Expressions where the coefficient of x2 is not 1

These expression are little harder to factorise. All possible factors of the first and last terms must
be found, and various combinations of these should be attempted until the required answer is
found. This involves trial and error along with educated guesswork and practice.
Example 16
Factorise, if possible, the expression 2 x 2 11x 12
SOLUTION:
Chapter 1: Algebra
2 x 2 11x 12
2 x 2 3x 8 x 12
x(2 x 3) 4(2 x 3)
(2 x 3)( x 4)
16
Here the coefficient of x 2 is not 1. In order to factorise, follow the
steps below.
1. Multiply the coefficient of x 2 ( which is 2) by the constant
term ( which is 12) to get 24.
2. Work out all possible factors of 24 in pairs such as (1, 24)
(2, 12) (3, 8) (4, 6) (-1, -24) (-2, -12) (-3, -8) and
(-4, 6)
3. Pick the pair which when added gives the coefficient of x ,
which is 11. The two factors are 3 and 8. Now write 11x as
3x 8 x .
4. Factorise the first two and the last two
5. Take the common bracket out.
Example 17
Factorise 4 x 2 6 x 2
SOLUTION:
Step 1. Multiply 4 by 2 to give 8.
Step 2. Work out the factors of 8 in pairs: (1,8) (2,4) (-1, -8) (-2, -4).
Step 3. The two factors which when added to give 6 are 2 and 4.
Step 4: Split the x term and rewrite the expression as 4 x 2 2 x 4 x 2 .
Step 5: Now factorise the first two terms and the second two terms separately to yield
4 x 2 2 x 4 x 2 2 x(2 x 1) 2(2 x 1)
Step 6: Take the common factor out and write
2 x(2 x 1) 2(2 x 1) (2 x 1)(2 x 2)
Step 7: Note that the last bracket has a common factor of 2. Take that out to completely
factorise.
(2 x 1)(2 x 2) 2(2 x 1)( x 1) .
Chapter 1: Algebra
17
EXERCISE 1E
1.5 Algebraic Fractions

The value of a fraction is unaltered when the numerator and denominator are each multiplied or
divided by the same number.
e.g.
4 2 6 14

...
10 5 15 35
and
ax x 2 x x p q

...
ay y 2 y y p q
Cancelling Common Factors

When simplifying algebraic expressions, it is sensible to factorise numerators and denominators
where possible; look both for common factors and for factors of quadratic expressions.
Example 18
Simplify
24 xy
18 x
Chapter 1: Algebra
18
SOLUTION:
24 xy 4 y
18 x
3
Top and bottom are divided by 6 and by x
Example 19
Simplify the following.
(a)
2x 2
4x
7y2
(b)
3
x 1
x2 x2
SOLUTION:
(a)
2x 2
2x 2
1
4x
2
2
4x
7y
7y
take the reciprocal of the second term
2x 2
28y 2 x
x
14 y 2
(b)
3
x 1
3
( x 2)
x 2 x 2 ( x 2) ( x 1)
3
x 1
Notice that we use brackets to enclose two

terms. This makes it easier to see what
cancels.
Example 20
Simplify the following algebraic fractions
2a 2 2ab
(a)
6ab 6b 2
(b)
x2 4
x2
(c)
x y
x2 y2
SOLUTION:
(a)
2a 2 2ab 2a(a b)
6ab 6b 2 6b(a b)
a
3b
2a is a common factor of the numerator and 6b is a

common factor of the denominator. So factorise both
numerator and denominator.
a b is a factor for both numerator and denominator.

So, cancel it out.
Chapter 1: Algebra
(b)
(c)
19
x2 4 x2 4
x 2 ( x 2)
( x 2)( x 2)
( x 2)
x2
Factorise the numerator and cancel out the common

factors.
x y
x y
2
2
( x y )( x y )
x y
1
x y
Factorise the denominator, and cancel out the

common factors.
Example 21
Simplify
(a)
x
2x x 2
(d)
3x xy
x 2 5x
(b)
x4
( x 4) 2
(e)
x 2 1
x 2 3x 2
(c)
x2
x 3x 2
2
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
(c)
x
x
2
x(2 x)
2x x
1
2 x
The denominator factorises to x(2 x) . Also note that
1( x 4)
x4
2
( x 4)( x 4)
( x 4)
1
x4
There is a factor of x 4 in both numerator and denominator.
1( x 2)
x2
x 3x 2 ( x 2)( x 1)
1
x 1
numerator can be written as 1 x .
(d)
3x xy x(3 y )
x 2 5 x x( x 5)
3 y
5 x
Note that the denominator is a quadratic expression which

factorises to give ( x 2)( x 1) . Now, ( x 2) is a common
factor to both numerator and denominator. So cancel it out.
x is a factor common to both numerator and denominator.

This is cancelled.
Chapter 1: Algebra
(e)
20
( x 1)( x 1)
x 2 1
2
x 3x 2 ( x 1)( x 2)
x 1
x2
Numerator is a difference of two squares which gives

factorises to give ( x 1)( x 1) and denominator factorises to
give ( x 1)( x 2) . So ( x 1) is a factor common to both
numerator and denominator.
EXERCISE 1F
Multiplication and Division of Algebraic Fractions

To multiply two algebraic fractions together we multiply their numerators together and multiply
their denominators together.
a c a c ac

b d b d bd
To divide two algebraic fractions together, take the reciprocal (invert) of the second fraction and
multiply.
a c a d ad

b d b c bc
Any common factor in the result should be cancelled.
Example 22
Simplify
Chapter 1: Algebra
(a)
4 x
5 y
21
(b)
4 3y
x 16
x 3
(f) 5
25
4 x 2 3x 3
(e)
y
yz
(c)
1
x
2
(g)
x 2 4x 3 x 4
2x 8
x 1
(d)
1
( a b)
2
SOLUTION:
(a)
4 x 4x

5 y 5y
(b)
4 3y 4 3y
x 16
16 x
12 y
16 x
3y
4x
(c)
(d)
(e)
1
1 x
x
2
2 1
x
2
1
1 ab
( a b)
2
2
1
ab
4 x 2 3x 3 4 x 2 3x 3
y
yz
y yz
12 x 5
2
y z
(f)
x 3 5 x 3
5

25 1 25
5( x 3)
25
x3
We multiply the numerators together and multiply denominators

together.
numerators together and denominators are multiplied together

and the common factors are cancelled.
Write x as
x
.
1
Write a b as
ab
.
1
We multiply the numerators together and multiply denominators

together. No common factor.
A common factor of 5 can be cancelled from numerator and

denominator.
Chapter 1: Algebra
(g)
22
x 2 4x 3 x 4
2x 8
x 1
( x 3)( x 1) ( x 4)
2( x 4)
( x 1)
( x 3)( x 1)( x 4)
2( x 4)( x 1)
x3
Before multiplying the two fractions together we should try to

factorise if possible so that common factors can be identified.
Example 23
10a a 2
(a)
b
3b
(b)
x 2 3x 6
x 4 x 2 16
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
10a a 2 10a 3b
b
3b
b a2
30ab
2
a b
30
x 2 3x 6
x 4 x 2 16
x 2 x 2 16
x 4 3x 6
x 2 ( x 4)( x 4)
x4
3( x 2)
( x 2)( x 4)( x 4)
3( x 4)( x 2)
x4
The second fraction is inverted and then multiplied by the

first.
First take the reciprocal of the second fraction . Second,

factorise all expressions if possible. Multiply the numerators
together and denominators together. Lastly, cancel the
common factors.
Chapter 1: Algebra
23
EXERCISE 1G
Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Fractions

The method is the same as that for adding or subtracting numerical fractions. Note that it is not
correct to simply add or subtract the numerator and denominator. The lowest common
denominators must first be found. This is the simplest expression that contains all original
denominators as its factors. Each fraction is then written with this common denominator. The
fractions then can be added or subtracted by adding or subtracting just the numerators, and
dividing the result by the common denominator.
Example 24
Simplify the numerical fractions
1 3
3 4
SOLUTION:
Here the LCM of the denominators 3 and 4 is 12. So the common denominator is 12.
1 4 3 3 4 9

3 4 4 3 12 12
Since we have a common denominator now, add the numerators to get
Chapter 1: Algebra
24
1 3 13
.
3 4 12
Note that this last fraction has no common factor to cancel.
Example 25
Simplify
(a)
3 1
4 x
(b)
3 4
x x2
(d)
1
1
x 4 ( x 4) 2
(e)
3
4x
2
x 1 x 1
(c)
2
5
x 3 x 1
SOLUTION:
(a)
3 1 3x 4

4 x 4x 4x
3x 4
4x
First rewrite the fractions to ensure they have a

common denominator. The common denominator is
4 x here.
Write
3
3x
1
4
as
as
.
, and
4
4x
x
4x
Add the two numerators.

Note that no further simplification is possible.
(b)
3 4 3x 4
x x2 x2 x2
3x 4
x2
The expression
3x
3
is written as 2 , which makes
x
x
the denominators of both terms x 2 but leaves the

value of the expression unaltered. Note that both
the original denominators, x and x 2 , are factors of
the new denominator. The fractions are then added
by adding just the numerators. No further
simplification is possible.
Chapter 1: Algebra
(c)
(d)
25
2
5
x 3 x 1
2( x 1)
5( x 3)
( x 3)( x 1) ( x 3)( x 1)
2( x 1) 5( x 3)
( x 3)( x 1)
2 x 2 5 x 15
( x 3)( x 1)
7 x 13
( x 3)( x 1)
The LCM of the denominators is ( x 3)( x 1) . So write
1
1
x 4 ( x 4) 2
LCM of denominators is ( x 4) 2 .
( x 4)
1
2
( x 4)
( x 4) 2
x 4 1
( x 4) 2
x 3
( x 4) 2
2( x 1)
5( x 3)
2
5
as
and
as
. Now
( x 3)( x 1)
( x 3)( x 1)
x 1
x3
add the numerators and simplify.
(e)
3
4x
2
x 1 x 1
3( x 1)
4x
( x 1)( x 1) ( x 1)( x 1)
3( x 1) 4 x
( x 1)( x 1)
3x 3 4 x
( x 1)( x 1)
3 x
( x 1)( x 1)
Write
( x 4)
1
1
as
and
is unchanged.
2
x4
( x 4)
( x 4) 2
Add the two numerators and simplify the numerator. See

that there is no further simplification possible.
We can write x 2 1 as ( x 1)( x 1) .

The LCM of the denominators is ( x 1)( x 1) .
Write
3( x 1)
4x
3
as
and 2
is unchanged.
x 1
( x 1)( x 1)
x 1
Now, subtract 4 x from 3( x 1) and simplify the

numerator. See if that there is factor common to both
numerator and denominator. So no further simplification is
possible.
Chapter 1: Algebra
26
EXERCISE 1H
1.6 Surds
At first numbers were used only for counting, and 1, 2, 3, . . . . were all was needed. These are
natural numbers, or positive integers.
Then it was found that numbers could also be useful for measurement
A rational number is a number which can be written in the form
p
where p and q are integers
q
and q 0 . All proper fractions, improper fractions, mixed numbers and integers are rational
numbers. So are terminating and recurring decimals fractions.
An irrational number is one that is not rational. If an irrational number is written as a decimal
fraction, the decimal is infinite and has no repeating pattern.
A surd is an expression containing one or more irrational roots of numbers.
The square root of a number may be rational or irrational. The square root of every square number
is rational. The square root of very prime number is irrational.
Expressions such as
4,
25 have exact numerical values, but expressions such as
2,
3,
5 , . . . cannot be written as numerically exact quantities.
Expressions such as
2 or
9 are called surds. This section is about calculating with surds.
To simplify surds, use these rules:
Chapter 1: Algebra
27
ab a b and
a
a
b
b
To simplify other roots use these rules:
ab n a n b
and
a na
b nb
When two irrational number are multiplied together, the result may be rational or irrational. Since
a b ab , ab will rational if and only if ab is a rational square number.
Example 26
Which of these numbers are irrational?
(a)
35
63
(b)
(c)
1
32
SOLUTION:
(a)
35 5 7 5 7
irrational
(b)
63 9 7 9 7 3 7
irrational
(c)
1
1
1
1
1
32
32
16 2
16 2 4 2
irrational
5
1
1
1
1
5
5
5
32
2
32
2
rational
(d)
5
Operations with surds

If a, b, c , and d are integers then:
Multiplication:
a b c d ac bd
Division:
a b
c d
a b
c d
(c, d 0)
(d)
1
32
Chapter 1: Algebra
28
Addition:
a b c b ( a c) b
Subtraction:
a b c b ( a c) b
Example 27
Simplify the following leaving your answer in surd form:
(c) 8 2 5 2
(b) 4 15 2 5
(a) 2 3 5 7
(d) 7 3 2 12
SOLUTION:
(a)
2 3 5 7 2 5 3 7
(b)
4 15 2 5
10 21
4 15
2 5
2 3
(c)
8 2 5 2 (8 5) 2
7 3 2 12 7 3 2 4 3
(d)
7 3 2 4 3
13 2
7 34 3
(7 4) 3
3 3
Example 28
Expand and simplify
(a)
2 2 7 5 7
SOLUTION:
(a)
4 3 4 3
(b)
2 2 7 5 7 2(5
7) 2 7 5 7
10 2 7 10 7 2 7 7
10 (2 10) 7 2 7
10 8 7 14
4 8 7
Chapter 1: Algebra
29
4 3 4 3 44 3 34 3
(b)
16 4 3 4 3 3 3
16 3
13
EXERCISE 1I
Rationalizing the denominator

A fraction whose denominator contains a surd is more awkward to deal with than one where a
surd occurs in the numerator. There is a technique for transferring the surd expression from the
denominator to the numerator. Removing the surd from the denominator is called rationalizing the
denominator.
To rationalize the denominator of:
the fraction
, multiply by
. That is
a
b a b
b
b
b
the fraction
a
bk c
b k
, multiply by
bk c
bk c
. That is
b k c ab k c
c b k c (b) (k c )
a bk c
b2 k 2c
Chapter 1: Algebra
30
Example 29
Write down each of these fractions with a rational denominator.
2 5
(a)
(b)
32
SOLUTION:
2 5
(a)
2 5
(b)
32
2 5 7
77
7
4
2 3
2 35
7
2 3 42 3 8 4 3 8 4
43
3 2 3 2 3
Example 30
Simplify
1 2 1 2
2
SOLUTION:
1
1 2 1 2
2
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2
1
3 2 2
1
3 2
1
3 2 2
3 2 2 1 3 2 2
2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2
3 2 2 3 2 2
98
98
3 2 2 3 2 2
4 2
Example 31
Simplify the expression
SOLUTION:
3 2 2 3
3 2 2 3
Chapter 1: Algebra
3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
3 2 6 6 6 6 2 3
3 2 2 3
3 22 3
3 2 2
31
18 12 6 12
6
30 12 6
6
5 2 6
Example 32
Simplify (a)
16
(b)
12 3 18
SOLUTION
(a)
16 3 2 8 3 8 3 2 2 3 2
EXERCISE 1J
(b)
12 3 18 3 12 18 3 216 6
Chapter 1: Algebra
32
1.8 Indices
In an expression such as 3 4 , the base is 3 and the 4 is called the power or index (the plural is
indices). Working with indices involves using some properties which apply to any base, so we
express these rules in terms of a general base a (i.e. a stands for any number).
In general, the symbol a m stands for the result of multiplying m as together:
mofthese
a a a a a
m
Another way of describing this is a raised to the m th power, or more shortly a to the power
m . When this notation is used, expressions can often be simplified by using a few simple rules
known as Rules of Indices.
Special powers such as zero and one are defined as
Rule 1 :
Rule 2 :
a0 1
a1 1
The multiplication rule.

m n of these
mofthese
nofthese

a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a m n .
m
Rule 3 :
a m a n a mn
Closely linked with this is the division rule.
mofthese
a a a a a a
m
m n of these
nofthese

a a a a a a a a a m n .
provided that m n .
Rule 4 :
a m a n a mn
Another rule is the power-on-power rule.
Chapter 1: Algebra
m n
33
of these brackets
n
m of these
m n of these
mofthese
mofthese

a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a mn
Rule 5 :
m n
a mn
The factor rule, has two bases but one index:
a b
of these brackets
m of these
m of these
m

( a b ) ( a b ) ( a b) ( a b) a a a a b b b b
am bm.
Rule 6 :
( a b) m a m b m
Negative Power rule.

Rule 7 :
a m
1
am
Rational Power rule.
Rule 8 :
m
a n n am
a
n
Summarising all the rules we have

Rules of Indices
1.
2.
3.
4.
a0 1
a1 a
a m a n a m n
a m a n a m n
5.
6.
a bm a m a n
m n
7. a m
m
n
a mn
1
am
8. a n a m
a
n
Chapter 1: Algebra
34
Example 33
Simplify
(a)
2a b 4a b
(b) 4a b 3ab
(d)
(e)
2 7
23 27
(c)
43
1 2
a b b a
1/ 3
x 3
SOLUTION:
(a)
2a b 4a b 2 a b 4a b
8a b 4a b
8 4 a a b
2
2 3
23
Factor rule
2a 6 4 b 31
b1
Power-on-power
Rearranging
2a 2 b 2 .
Division rule
(b)
(d)
4a 2 b 3ab 1
2 7
4a 2 b
3a
b
1
4a 2 b
1
9a 2 2
b
2
b
4a 2 b 2
9a
4
b 1 2
9
4
b3
9
1
x3
1
x 14 3
x
14 3
x
x 3 x 27
11
(c)
1
2
23 27 23 27
2
43
22
2 3 7
2 2 3
210
6
2
210 6
24
(e)
a b b a
a b b a
b
a
1/ 3
4/3
4 / 3 1
a1 / 3b 2
5/3
1/ 3
5 / 3 1 / 3
Chapter 1: Algebra
35
Example 34
1
Simplify (a) 9 2
(b) 16
3
4
3
4
25
(c)
9
3 / 2
SOLUTION:
1
(a)
92 9 3
25
(c)
9
3 / 2
9

25
EXERCISE 1K
(b) 16
3/ 2
24
3
3
4
1
2 4 4 / 4 2 3 .
8
9 3 3 27

5 125
25
Chapter 1: Algebra
36
Chapter 2: Equations and Inequalities
37
Objectives

Solve linear equations
Solve quadratic equations by factor method, completing the square method, and the
formula method
Solve simultaneous equations using the elimination and substitution method.
Solve simultaneous equations involving one linear and one nonlinear equation.
Solve linear and quadratic inequalities.
Chapter outline
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Linear Equations
2.3
Quadratic Equations
2.4
Simultaneous Equations
2.5
Inequalities
This chapter will look at one of the standard topics in

Algebra. The ability to solve equations and/or
inequalities is very important in many of the topics
in this module. We will cover a wide variety of
solving topics in this chapter that should cover most
of the basic equations/inequalities/techniques that are
involved in solving.
38
2.1 Introduction
Consider the following problem:
Find the number which, when added to 5, give 3.
The first step in solving a problem mathematically is to make the unknown items general by using
a letter for each of them. In this case only one number is unknown, but it could be any number so
we represent it by x (or any other letter).
For the next stage the given information is translated into statements containing letters and
symbols. This problem states that x is added to 5: this translates to x 5 , now, this is known as
an algebraic expression. Next, we know that this sum gives an answer of 3: that is x 5 3 . This
equality is known as an equation. An equality is valid only for certain values in an equation.
So, in this problem, x 2 will make the equality valid. The process of finding the values of the
unknown is called solving the equation. The symbol = means is equal to and is always used in
an equation. There is another symbol , which means is equivalent to or is identical to , and
strictly speaking we should use it in identities.
Problems that can be translated into mathematical terms usually result in equations that need to be
solved. It is important that you know the difference between equations and expressions, and the
key terms such as solve for equations and simplify for expressions.
This chapter explains how to solve equations that are linear, quadratic and simultaneous
equations.
Equations in one variable

Some algebraic equations contain only one variable. To solve an equation in one variable you
have to find the value or values of the variable for which the equation is true. A solution of an
equation is said to satisfy that equation.
To check a solution, substitute the value in the equation. Left-hand side (LHS) and right-hand side
(RHS) should be equal.
Example 1
Is x 3 a solution of 2 x 3 11 ?
SOLUTION:
2 x 3 11
Original equation
2(3) 3 11
6 3 11
Substitute 3 for x
False equation
39
3 is not a solution of 2 x 3 11
Example 2
Is x 4 a solution of 2 x 3 11 ?
SOLUTION:
2 x 3 11
Original equation
2(4) 3 11
Substitute 3 for x
8 3 11
False equation
4 is a solution of 2 x 3 11
Addition property of equations
If a b , then a c b c and a c b c
That is, the same number can be added or subtracted from each side of an equation without
changing the solution of the equation.
Multiplication property of equations
If a b and c 0 , then ac bc and
a b
c c
That is, the same number can be multiplied or divided (not zero) from each side of an equation
without changing the solution of the equation.
2.2 Linear Equations

A linear equation in one variable can be expressed in the form ax b 0 . For example, each of
the following equations can be rearranged into the form ax b 0 :
x49
3( x 2) 7 x 1
x
7 4( x 2)
3
The following equations cannot be rearranged into the form ax b 0 :

x2 3 5
3
x 8
x
( x 2) 2 5 20
40
A solution of a linear equation in one variable, say x , is a real number which, when substituted
for the variable in the equation, makes the equation true.
To solve a linear equation, follow the steps

1. Simplify both sides of the equation.
2. Use the addition and subtraction property to get the all variable terms on
the left hand side and all constant terms on the right-hand side.
3. Simplify both sides of the equation.
4. Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the variable.
Example 3
Solve the equation 3x 7 x 3.
SOLUTION:
3x 7 x 3
3x 7 7 3 7
Original equation
3 x x 10
3 x x x x 10
2 x 10
Add 7 to both sides to obtain

Subtract x from each side
Divide both sides by 2
2 x 10
2
2
x5
Solution
Example 4
Solve the equation 4( x 1) 3( x 5) 17
SOLUTION:
4( x 1) 3( x 5) 17
4 x 4 3x 15 17
x 19 17
x 19 19 17 19
x 2
Example 5
Solve the equation
x 5 3x 11
2
5
Original equation
Remove the brackets and simplify
Subtract 19 from each side
The solution
41
SOLUTION:
x 5 3 x 11
2
5
x 5
3 x 11
10
10
2
5
5( x 5) 2(3 x 11)
5 x 25 6 x 22
Original equation
Since the LCM of the denominators, 2 and 5, is 10,
multiply throughout by 10
Expand the brackets
5 x 6 x 22 25
x 3
Rearrange to obtain all variables on the LFH and

all other terms in the RHS.
x3
Solution
Alternatively, the technique of cross-multiplication can be used with the equation

x 5 3 x 11
2
5
5( x 5) 2(3 x 11)
Cross multiply
5 x 25 6 x 22
5 x 6 x 22 25
x 3
x3
Example 6
Solve the equation
2
3
,
x 1 5
SOLUTION:
2
3
x 1 5
Cross-multiply and expand the bracket to obtain
3( x 1) 10
3x 3 10
Rearranging gives
3x 7
x
7
3
42
Example 7
Solve the equation 2 x
x 7 4 x 19
3
5
SOLUTION:
Cross multiplication as used in example xxxx is not possible in this case because of the additional
2 x term on the LHS.
So, we find the LCM of 3 and 5 (the denominators), which is 15, and multiply through by 15:
x7
4 x 19
15(2 x) 15
15
3
5
Simplifying gives
30 x 5( x 7) 3(4 x 19)
30 x 5 x 35 12 x 57
30 x 5 x 12 x 57 35
23 x 92
x 4
Example 8
Solve the equation
1
5x 4 1 x 2 13 x
3
7
SOLUTION:
Since the LCM of the denominators 3, 7 and 1 is 21, multiply throughout by 21:
21
1
5x 4 21 1 x 2 21(31 x)
3
7
Simplifying this gives
7(5 x 4) 3( x 2) 21(31 x)
35 x 28 3x 6 273 21x
35 x 3x 21x 273 6 28
59 x 295
x5
The solution is therefore x 5
43
Example 9
Solve the equation
6 x 1 3x 2
2x 5
x 1
SOLUTION:
Cross-multiply and expand the brackets:
(6 x 1)( x 1) (2 x 5)(3x 2)
6 x( x 1) 1( x 1) 2 x(3x 2) 5(3x 2)
6 x 2 6 x x 1 6 x 2 4 x 15 x 10
Note that in this example, terms in x 2 appear in the simplification of the equation. However,
these terms cancel and the equation reduces to linear equation.
Rearranging the terms such that all variable terms on the LHS and all the constant terms on the
RHS give:
6 x 2 6 x 2 6 x x 4 x 15 x 10 1
26 x 9
x
The solution is x
9
.
26
9
26
EXERCISE 2A
44
45
46
2.3 Quadratic Equations

An expression of the form ax 2 bx c , where a, b and c are constants with a 0, is called a
quadratic expression.
An equation of the form ax 2 bx c 0 , where a, b and c are constants with a 0, is called a
quadratic equation. A quadratic equation will have at most two real solutions. The solutions are
generally called the roots of the quadratic. In this section, we shall look at the method for solving
three types of quadratic equation.
Type I
a 0, b 0, c 0 that is ax 2 c 0
Type II
a 0, b 0, c 0 that is ax 2 bx 0
Type III
a 0, b 0, c 0 that is ax 2 bx c 0
Type I: Solving quadratic equation of the form
ax 2 c 0
Steps to be followed in solving these type of equations are:
1. Rearrange the equation so that the x 2 term in the LFH and the others on the RHS.
That is;
ax 2 c 0
ax 2 c
2. Divide each side by the constant a .
ax 2 c
a
a
c
x2
a
c
3. If the number is a positive number, take square roots on both the LFH and RHS.
a
If not ( if it is negative), then there is no real solution.
x
c
a
4. The solutions are x
c
c
and x .
a
a
Example 10
Solve the equation x 2 16 0 .
SOLUTION:
Rearrange the equation to obtain
x 2 16
x 16
x 4
The negative solution must be considered since (4) 2 16 .

The solution are x 4 .
Example 11
Solve the equation 4 x 2 24 0 .
SOLUTION:
Rearranging gives
4 x 2 24
x2 6
x 6
The solutions are x 6
2
Type II: Solving quadratic equation of the form ax bx 0
Steps to be followed in solving these type of equations are:

1. Factorise the expression ax 2 bx x(ax b) 0 .
2. Solve the equation by writing the solutions
x(ax b) 0
x 0 or ax b 0
b
x 0 or x
a
Example 12
Solve the equation x 2 7 x 0
SOLUTION:
Factorising the LHS gives
47
48
x2 7x 0
x ( x 7) 0
x 0 or x 7 0
x 0 or
x7
The solutions are x 0 and x 7 .
Example 13
Solve the equation 3x 2 5x 0 .
SOLUTION:
Factorising LFH gives
3x 2 5 x 0
x(3x 5) 0
x 0 or 3x 5 0
x 0 or x
5
3
5
The solutions are x 0 and x .
3
2
Type III: Solving quadratic equation of the form ax bx 0
First, we will look at solving quadratic equations of this form by factorization methods. However,
not all quadratics of this form will factorize. When a quadratic expression will not factorize, we
say that the quadratic is irreducible. Other methods are required for solving irreducible quadratics,
namely completing the square and the formula method.
Solution by Factorizing
Example 14
Solve the equation x 2 5x 6 0.
SOLUTION:
Factorising the LHS gives
( x 2)( x 3) 0
x20
x 2
or
or
The solutions are x 2 and x 3 .
x3 0
x 3
49
Example 15
Solve the equation 2 x 2 13x 24 0.
SOLUTION:
Factorising the LHS gives:
(2 x 3)( x 8) 0
2x 3 0
x
The solutions are x
x 8 0
or
3
2
x 8
or
3
and x 8 .
2
Example 16
Solve the equation x 2 x 10 x 5.
SOLUTION:
Rearranging and factorizing the LHS give
x 2 2 x 15 0
( x 3)( x 5) 0
x3 0
x 5 0
or
x 3
or
x5
The solution are x 3 and x 5 .
Example 17
Solve the equation (3x 1)(2 x 1) ( x 2) 2 5.
SOLUTION:
Expanding the LHS and simplifying give
6 x 2 x 1 ( x 2 4 x 4) 5
5x 2 5x 5 5
5 x 2 5 x 10 0
5( x 2 x 2) 0
5( x 1)( x 2) 0
x 1 0
x 1
The solutions are x 1 and x 2.
or
or
x20
x2
50
Example 18
Solve the equation
4
3
3.
x 1 x
SOLUTION:
Multiplying throughout by x( x 1) gives
4
3
x( x 1)
x( x 1) 3 x( x 1)
x 1
x
4 x 3( x 1) 3 x( x 1)
4 x 3x 3 3x 2 3x
3x 2 10 x 3 0
(3 x 1)( x 3) 0
3x 1 0
or
x 3 0
1
3
or
x3
The solutions are x
1
and x 3.
3
Example 19
Solve the equation
2 x 1 3x 1
x5
x7
SOLUTION:
Cross-multiply to obtain
(2 x 1)( x 7) (3x 1)( x 5)
Expanding and simplifying give
2 x 2 15 x 7 3x 2 14 x 5
x 2 x 12 0
x 3)( x 4) 0
x3 0
x 3
The solutions are x 3 and x 4.
or
or
x40
x4
51
Example 20
A piece of wire of length 1 metre is cut into two parts and each part is bent to form a square. If the
total of the two squares formed is 325 cm2, find the perimeter of each square.
SOLUTION:
Let one of the piece of wire be of length x cm. Then the other piece is of length (100 x) cm.
The square formed from the piece AB has sides of length
x
cm.
4
The area, A1 , of this square is given by

2
x x x
A1
cm 2
4 4 16
100 x
The square formed from the piece BC has sides of length
cm .
4
The area, A2 , of this square is given by
100 x 100 x 100 x

A2
cm 2 .
16
4 4
2
Since the total area of the two squares is 325 cm2,
52
A1 A2 325
Therefore,
x 2 100 x
325
16
16
2
Multiplying throughout by 16 gives
x 2 100 x 5200
2
x 2 10000 200 x x 2 5200

2 x 2 200 x 4800 0
2x 2 100 x 2400 0
2x 40 x 60 0
x 40 or x 60
If x 40 cm, the square formed from the piece of wire AB has perimeter 40 cm, and the square
formed from the piece of wire BC has perimeter 60 cm.
If x 60 cm, the square formed from the piece of wire AB has perimeter 60 cm, and the square
formed from the piece of wire BC has perimeter 40 cm.
The perimeters of the squares are 40 cm and 60 cm.
EXERCISE 2B
53
54
Solution by Completing the Square

When there are no obvious factors, another method is needed to solve the equation. One such
method involves adding a constant to the x 2 term and the x term, to make a perfect square. This
technique is called completing the square.
Perfect Square
An expression is a perfect square if it can be written as a square of another expression.
Some examples of perfect squares are
25 52
x4 x2
x 2 12 x 36 ( x 6) 2
Consider the expression
x 2 2x
Adding one gives
x 2 2x 1
( x y) 6 [( x y) 3 ]2
Now, x 2 2 x 1 ( x 1) 2 is a perfect square.

Adding 1 was not a guess, it was found by using the fact that
x 2 2ax a 2 ( x a) 2
We see from this that the number to be added is always (half the coefficient of x )2.
Hence x 2 6 x requires 3 2 to be added to make a perfect square,
i.e.
x 2 6 x 9 ( x 3) 2
To complete the square when the coefficient of x 2 is not 1, we first take out the coefficient of x 2
as a factor.
e.g.
2 x 2 x 2 x x
2
1 1
Now we add inside the bracket, giving
2 2
1
1
1
2 x 2 x 2 x x
2
16
2
55
Take extra care when the coefficient of x 2 is negative

e.g.
x 2 4 x ( x 4 x)
Then
x 2 4 x 4 ( x 2) 2
x 2 4 x 4 ( x 2) 2
b
If we want to make x bx into a perfect square we add :
2
2
b
b
x 2 bx x 2 bx
4
2
b
b
x x
2
2
x
2
This is a perfect square.
The process of completing the square is used to express a quadratic expression ax 2 bx c in the
form a( x p) 2 q , where p and q are constants.
First, we will look at those quadratic expressions in which a 1 . In general
2
b b
x bx c x c
2 2
b b2
x c
2
4
Example 21
Express x 2 6 x 1 in the form a( x p) 2 q . Hence solve the equation x 2 6 x 1 0.
SOLUTION:
Completing the square gives
2
6 6
x 6x 1 x 1
2 2
( x 3) 2 (3) 2 1
2
( x 3) 2 9 1
( x 3) 2 10
56
Rewriting the equation x 2 6 x 1 gives

x 2 6x 1 0
( x 3) 2 10 0
( x 3) 2 10
x 3 10
x 3 10
The solutions are x 3 10 and x 3 10 .
Example 22
Use the method of completing the square to solve the equation x 2 3x 1 0 .
SOLUTION:
2
3 3
x 3x 1 x 1
2 2
3 9
x 1
2 4
3 5
x
2 4
Rewriting the equation x 2 3x 1 0 gives

2
3 5
x 0
2 4
3
5
x
2
4
3
5
2
4
3
5
2
2
3
5
x
2 2
The two solutions are x
3
5
3
5
and x
.
2 2
2 2
Example 23
Express 2 x 2 8x 5 in the form a( x p) 2 q and state the values of a, p and q .
57
SOLUTION:
To use the technique we have been discussing, we require the coefficient of x 2 term to be 1. This
can be achieved by taking a factor of 2 out of the expression. That is,
5
2 x 2 8 x 5 2 x 2 4 x
2
We now proceed as before with the expression x 2 4 x
5
:
2
5
5
2 x 2 4 x 2( x 2) 2 (2) 2
2
2
2( x 2) 2 4
2
2( x 2) 2
2
2( x 2) 2 3
Therefore, a 2, p 2 and q 3.
Example 24
Express 3x 2 15x 20 in the form a( x p) 2 q . Hence show that the equation
3x 2 15x 20 0 has no real roots.
SOLUTION:
Take out a factor of 3 gives
2
2
20
5 5 20
3 x 2 5 x 3 x
3
2 2
3
5 25 20
3 x
2
4
3
5
5
x
2 12
5 5
3 x
2 4
Rewriting the equation 3x 2 15x 20 0 gives

2
5 5
3 x 0
2 4
5
5
x
2
4
Since
5
5

2
12
5
is not real, the equation 3x 2 15x 20 0 has no real roots.
12
EXERCISE 2C
58
59
Quadratic Formula
The general quadratic equation has the form ax 2 bx c 0 , where a, b and c are constants
with a 0 . Solving this equation in terms of a , b and c will give a formula for the roots of the
equation ax 2 bx c 0 .
Using the method of completing the square for this equation gives the result:
If ax 2 bx c 0 , where a, b and c are constants with a 0 , then
b b 2 4ac
2a
Proof:
Factorising out a in ax 2 bx c 0 gives
b
c
a x 2 x 0
a
a

2
2
b b
c
a x 0
2a 2a
a
b
b2
c
a x 2 0
2a
a
4a
b b 2 4ac
0
a x
2a 4a 2
b
b 2 4ac
a x
0
2a
4a
b
b 2 4ac
x
2a
4a 2
x
x
as required.
b
b 2 4ac
b
b 2 4ac
2a
2a
2a
4a 2
b b 2 4ac
2a
60
Example 25
Solve the equation x 2 8x 4 0 , giving your answer correct to two decimal places.
SOLUTION:
Using the quadratic formula with a 1, b 8 and c 4 gives
(8) (8) 2 4(1)(4)
8 48
2(1)
2
x 7.46 or x 0.54 ( 2 decimal places)
x
Example 26
Using the quadratic formula, show that the equation 5x 2 4 x 10 0 has no real roots.
SOLUTION:
(4) (4) 2 4(5)(10)

2(5)
x
Since
4 184
10
184 is not real, the equation 5x 2 4 x 10 0 has no real roots.
Example 27
Solve the equation x 2 10 x 25 0.
SOLUTION:
(10) (10) 2 4(1)(25)

2(1)
10 0
2
5 ( Called a repeate root )
61
Discriminant of a Quadratic equation

The quantity b 2 4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation ax 2 bx c 0 .
The type of root which arises from a quadratic equation depends on the value of the discriminant.
Consider the general quadratic equation ax 2 bx c 0 , where a, b and c

are constants with a 0 .
When b 2 4ac 0 , the equation has two distinct real roots.

When b 2 4ac 0 , the equation has one repeated root.
When b 2 4ac 0 , the equation has no real roots.
The discriminant of a quadratic indicates whether the graph of the quadratic expression cuts the x
-axis at two different points, does not cut the x -axis at all or touches the x axis at one point.
Example 28
Calculate the discriminant of the quadratic equation 2 x 2 7 x 7 0 . Hence, show that
2 x 2 7 x 7 is always positive.
SOLUTION:
Calculating the discriminant with and c 7 gives
b 2 4ac
(7) 2 4(1)(7
7
The discriminant is -7. Since 7 0 , the equation 2 x 2 7 x 7 0 has no real roots.

Therefore, 2 x 2 7 x 7 is never zero.
Example 29
Find the values of the constant k given that the equation 5k 1x 2 8kx 3k 0 has a repeated
root.
SOLUTION:
The equation 5k 1 8kx 3k 0 has a repeated root if the discriminant of the equation is
2
zero.
Calculating the discriminant of the equation with a 5k 1 , b 8k and c 3k gives

b 2 4ac
8k 4(5k 1)(3k )
2
64k 2 12k (5k 1)

4k 2 12k
Putting 0 and factorising give

4k 2 12k 0
4k (k 3) 0
k 0
EXERCISE 2D
or
k 3
62
63
Disguised Quadratic equations

Some equations may not appear to be quadratic, but they can be solved using the same techniques
that we used to solve quadratic equations.
Example 30
Solve the equation x 4 5x 2 14 0 .
SOLUTION:
The equation does not appear to be quadratic, but writing it in the form
2 2
5 x 2 14 0
and letting y x 2 gives

y 2 5 y 14 0
Which is a quadratic equation in y . We say that the original equation is quadratic equation in
x 2 . To solve the equation in y , we factorise and give
y 2 5 y 14 0
( y 7)( y 2) 0
y 7 0 or y 2 0
y 7
or
y2
64
Now replacing y with x 2 gives

x 2 7
or
x2 2
We see that x 2 7 has no real solutions.

However, x 2 2 gives x 2 .
Example 31
Solve the equation x 9 x 20 0 .
SOLUTION:
Rewriting the equation gives
x 9 x 20 0
x 9 x 20 0
2
We see that the original equation is quadratic in
x . Letting y x we get
y 2 9 y 20 0
which is factorised to give

( y 5)( y 4) 0
y 5
Now replace y with

x 5 or
or
y4
x to get
x 4 which gives x 25 or
x 16 .
65
EXERCISE 2E
Sketching the Graph of a quadratic function

In early studies, we have come across sketching straight lines, and what the constants m and c
mean in the equation y mx c . In this part, we will look at functions of the form
y ax 2 bx c , where a, b and c are constants and a 0 . In the previous section, we have

studied how to solve quadratic equations.
66
All the graphs of the form y ax 2 bx c have the same general shape, which is called a
parabola. These parabolas have a vertical axis of symmetry. The point where a parabola meets
its axis of symmetry is called the vertex.
Expressing the function y ax 2 bx c in completing the square form ax p q allows us to
2
deduce details about the graph of y ax 2 bx c .
Shape is determined by the sign of a.
If a 0 , then the graph has a minimum (happy face).
If a 0 , then the graph has a maximum (sad face)
b
or in completing the square form x p .
2a
Vertex (turning point) has coordinates p, q if the function in completing the square
Axis of symmetry: x
form. Otherwise
b 4ac b 2
,
4a
2a
x intercept is found by solving the equation ax 2 bx c 0
b 2 4ac 0 , then the

graph cuts the x axis
twice.

graph will meet the xaxis only once (touches
the x -axis). Vertex will
be this point.
67

graph does not cut the x
-axis at all.
y -intercept is found by substituting x 0 .
Example 32
Express y x 2 2 x 8 in the form a( x p) 2 q and hence sketch the graph of y x 2 2 x 8.
SOLUTION:
x 2 2 x 8 x 1 1 8
2
( x 1) 2 9
Therefore, y x 2 2 x 8 in completing the square form is ( x 1) 2 9 .
Shape: Since a 1 0 , the graph has a minimum (happy face)
Vertex: The minimum point is 1,9 .
x-intercept: The graph cuts the x-axis when y 0 . That is, when
x 2 2x 8 0
( x 2)( x 4) 0
x2
or
x4
Therefore, the graph cuts the x-axis at the points 2,0 and 4,0 .
y-intercept: The graph cuts the y-axis when x 0 . That is, when
y (0) 2 2(0) 8
y 8
Therefore, the graph cuts the y-axis at the point 0,8 .
The graph of y x 2 2 x 8 is sketched below.
68
Example 33
Express
y x 2 10 x 21 in the form ax p q and hence sketch the graph of

2
y x 2 10 x 21 .
SOLUTION:
( x 5)
( x 5)
x 2 10 x 21 x 2 10 x 21
(5) 2 21
Therefore, y ( x 5) 2 4 .
Shape: Since a 1 0 , the graph has a maximum (sad face).
Vertex: The maximum point is 5,4 .
x-intercept: The graph cuts the x-axis when y 0 . That is, when
x 2 10 x 21 0
x 2 10 x 21 0
( x 3)( x 7) 0
x3
or
x7
Therefore, the graph cuts the x-axis at the points 3,0 and 7,0 .
y-intercept: The graph cuts the y-axis when x 0 . That is, when
y (0) 2 10(0) 21
21
Therefore, the graph cuts the y-axis at the point 0,21 .
The graph of y x 2 10 x 21 is sketched below.
EXERCISE 2F
69
70
2.4 Simultaneous Equations

When only one unknown quantity has to found, only one equation is needed to provide a solution.
If two unknown quantities are involved in a problem we need two equations connecting them. In
this section we will look at pairs of simultaneous equations involving two linear equations, and
one linear and one quadratic.
Linear Simultaneous Equations.

Consider the equation x y 9, where x and y are the unknowns. There are infinite numbers of
pairs x and y which satisfy this equation. The equation cannot be solved uniquely (i.e. does not
have just one pair of solutions) until we have a second relashioship between x and y . Suppose
the second relationship is 2 x y 13
Then we call the equation x y 9 and 2 x y 13 simultaneous linear equation in x and y .
There are three methods of solving simultaneous equations of this type. We now look at each
method.
Elimination
This method involves combining the left-hand sides and right-hand sides of the two equations in
the same way to produce equality with just one unknown. This method is called elimination.
In some cases, the coefficients of the x terms or the y terms may not be the same. In these cases,
we multiply the equations by a suitable constant so that the coefficients of either x terms or the y
terms are the same. This process is called balancing the coefficients.
71
Example 33
Solve the simultaneous equations
x y 9................................................[ 1 ]
2 x y 13...............................................[ 2 ]
SOLUTION:
As we can see that the coefficients of y terms are the same with the same sign. So to eliminate y
terms we can subtract equation [2] from [1]. That is
Subtracting [1] [2] gives
x (2 x) y ( y ) 9 (13)
x 4
x4
Substituting x 4 into [1] to find the corresponding y value gives
4 y 9
y 94
y5
The solution is x 4, y 5 .
Example 34
5 x 7 y 27..............................................[ 1 ]
2 x 3 y 5................................................[ 2 ]
SOLUTION:
To balance the coefficients of y terms, multiply equation [1] by 3 and multiply equation [2] by 7.
This gives
[1] 3 15 x 21x 81.................................................[3]
[2] 7 14 x 21x 35.................................................[4].
Adding equation [3] and [4] gives
15 x 14 x 116
29 x 116
x4
Substituting x 4 into equation[2] to find the corresponding y value gives
2(4) 3 y 5
3y 5 8
3 y 3
y 1
The solution is x 4 and y 1 .
72
You can choose either x terms or y terms to eliminate. In the previous example, we choose y to be
eliminated. If, for example, we want to eliminate x first, we should balance the coefficients of x
terms by multiplying equation [1] by 2 and equation [2] by 5. This gives
[1] 2 10 x 14 y 54.....................................[ 5 ]
[2] 5 10 x 15 y 25.....................................[ 6 ]
Subtracting [6] from [5] gives
29 y 29
y 1
Substituting y 1 inot [2] to find the corresponding x value gives
2 x 3(1) 5
2x 8
x4
Substitution
Sometimes this substitution method is more useful in a variety of problems. This method involves
rearranging one of the equations so that we have either
1. y in terms of x, in which case we then substitute this expression for y into the second
equations, or
2. x in terms of y, in which case we then substitute this expression for x into the second
equations, or
The choice between 1 and 2 usually depends on which gives the simpler expression after
rearranging.
Example 35
3x 4 y 27 0..........................................................[1]
5 x y 11 0..........................................................[2]
SOLUTION:
We choose [2] to rearrange because it will give a simpler expression. So, rearranging [2] for y
gives
[2] y 11 5x................................................[3]
Substituting [3] into [1] gives
3x 411 5 x 27 0
3x 44 20 x 27 0
17 x 17
x 1
Substituting x 1 into [3] to find the corresponding y value gives
y 11 5(1)
y6
The solution is x 1 and y 6 .
73
Graphical Method
This method involves drawing graphs of the two linear equations and finding the coordinates of
their intersection. The coordinates of the intersection point gives the solution to the pair of
equations.
Example 36
Solve the simultaneous equation by graphical method
4x 5 y 4
6 x 2 y 25
SOLUTION:
To answer this, we will need a graph paper. On a graph paper, draw the two straight lines.
Carefully note down the point at which the two lines intersect. That point is the solution of the
equations.
The two straight lines intersect at (3.5, 2)
74
EXERCISE 2G
One Linear and One Quadratic Equation

So far we have looked at simultaneous equations where both equations are linear. In this section,
we are going to solve simultaneous equations that involve one linear and one quadratic equation.
Example 37
x y 2.....................................................[1]
2 x 2 3 y 2 15....................................................[2]
SOLUTION:
See that equation [1] is linear and equation [2] is nonlinear. Since [1] is linear, we use it to express
x in terms of y to get
[1] x 2 y...............................................[3]
Substitute [3] into [2] to give
75
22 y 3 y 2 15
2
2 4 4 y y 2 3 y 2 15 0
2 y 2 8 y 8 3 y 2 15 0
y 2 8y 7 0
y 2 8y 7 0
Now, this last equation is a quadratic equation in y. So we can use any method we have studied to
solve quadratic equations. Using factorization method, we get
y 2 8y 7 0
( y 7)( y 1) 0
y 7 or y 1
Substitute these values for y into [3] to find the corresponding x values to get
y 7 x 27 9
y 1 x 2 1 3
The solutions are

x 9 and y 7
Either
Or
x 3 and y 1
Example 38
x 2 3x y 2........................................................[1]
2 x y 8...........................................................[2]
SOLUTION:
Since equation [2] is linear, we express y in terms of x to get
[2] y 2 x 8..................................................[3]
Substitute [3] into [1] to give
x 2 2 x 2 x 8 2
x 2 3x 2 x 8 2
x2 x 6 0
( x 3)( x 2) 0
x 3 or x 2
To find the corresponding values of y, substitute x values into [3] . That is
x 3 y 2(3) 8 2
x 2 y 2(2) 8 12
The solutions are
Either
Or
x 3 and y 2
x 2 and y 12
76
EXERCISE 2H
2.5 Inequalities
We often need to compare one number with another. This comparison is expressed by using
inequality symbols. An inequality states a relationship between two mathematical expressions as
Less than
<
Less than or equal to
Greater than
>
Greater than or equal to
For example,
3x 5 7
a 3b 2
5x 8 y 2
Inequalities can be simplified using methods similar to those used for simplifying equations.
Solving Linear Inequalities

Solving a linear inequality is similar to solving a linear equation except for few important points.
When solving inequalities, the following important points are to consider:
Adding and subtracting the same number on both sides of an inequality does not
change the inequality symbol.
Multiplying and dividing both sides by a positive number does not change the
inequality symbol.
Multiplying and dividing both sides by a negative number will reverse the inequality
symbol.
Swapping the two sides will reverse the inequality.
Example 39
Solve the inequality 3x 7 x 2.
SOLUTION:
3x 7 x 2
Subtracting 7 from both sides gives
3x 7 7 x 2 7
3x x 5
Subtracting x form both sides gives
3x x x x 5
2 x 5
Dividing both sides by 2 gives
2x
5
2
2
5
x
2
Example 40
Solve the inequality 4(3x 1) 3( x 2) 3x 1
SOLUTION:
4(3x 1) 3( x 2) 3x 1
Expand the brackets to obtain

12 x 4 3x 6 3x 1
9 x 2 3x 1
Adding 2 on both sides and then subtracting 3x from both sides gives
9 x 2 2 3x 1 2
9 x 3x 3
9 x 3x 3x 3x 3
6x 3
3
x
6
1
x
2
Example 41
Find the smallest positive integer which satisfies the inequality
3( x 1) 2(2 x 1) 5x
SOLUTION:
77
78
3( x 1) 2(2 x 1) 5 x
3x 3 4 x 2 5 x
3x 4 x 5 x 5
2x 5
5
x
2
The smallest positive integer which satisfies the inequality is 3.
Example 42
Solve the inequality
1
4 x 3 32 x 4 20
3
SOLUTION:
1
4 x 3 32 x 4 20
3
4 x 3 9(2 x 4) 60
M ultiplyboth sides by 3
4 x 3 18 x 36 60
14 x 39 60
14 x 21
21
14
3
x
2
x
Subtract 39 from both sides

divide both sides by - 14, change to
Example 43
Find the set of integers which satisfy both of the following inequalities.
1
5x 3 1 x 1 and 4(1 x) 7 5x .
2
5
SOLUTION:
Solving the first inequality gives
1
5 x 3 1 x 1................................................[1]
2
5
1
1
10 5 x 3 10 x 1
M ultiplyboth sides by theLCM of 2 and 5.
2
5
5(5 x 3) 2( x 1)
25 x 15 2 x 2
23x 17
17
0.74
23
Therefore, the integers which satisfy [1] are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
x
79
Next we solve the second inequality:

4(1 x) 7 5 x............................................[2]
4 4x 7 5x
x3
Therefore, the integers which satisfy [2] are . . . -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
To find the set of integers which satisfy both, draw a number line.
The set of integers which satisfy both [1] and [2] are {1, 2, 3}.
Solving Quadratic Inequalities

When solving quadratic inequalities, it is useful to have a sketch of the quadratic function
involved and the points where the graph cuts the x-axis, if it at all.
Example 44
Solve the inequality x 2 3x 4 0 .
SOLUTION:
Method 1:
Step 1: Solve the equality x 2 3x 4 0 . That is
x 2 3x 4 0
( x 4)( x 1) 0
x 4
or
x 1
Step 2: Determine the shape and sketch the graph of
y x 2 3x 4 .
Since the coefficient of x 2 term is positive,
the graph is shaped (minimum /happy
face). Therefore the sketch is
Step 3: Read the solution set from the graph.

It is clear that the set of values of x which
satisfy the inequality x 2 3x 4 0 is
4 x 1.
80
Method 2:
Step 1: Find the values of x for which x 2 3x 4 0 . Call these values, x 4 and x 1 , the
critical values for the inequality.
Step 2: Make a table showing the signs of x 2 3x 4 in the intervals x 4 , 4 x 1 , and
x 1 . That is
x 4
4 x 1
x 1
Sign of
x 2 3x 4
Since the original inequality is 0 , from the table it is obvious that the required interval is
4 x 1.
Example 45
Solve the inequality
x 1 2
.
7 x 1 7
SOLUTION:
We multiply throughout by 7(7 x 1) 2 to ensure
that the inequality sign remain same( 7(7 x 1) 2
is always positive for any value of x). This
gives
( x 1)
2
7(7 x 1) 2
7(7 x 1) 2
(7 x 1)
7
7(7 x 1)( x 1) 2(7 x 1) 2

7(7 x 2 6 x 1) 2(49 x 2 14 x 1)
49 x 2 42 x 7 98 x 2 28 x 2
Simplifying this gives
49 x 2 70 x 9 0
The graph of y 49 x 2 70 x 9` cuts the xaxis when y = 0. That is
49 x 2 70 x 9 0
(7 x 1)(7 x 9) 0
1
9
or x
7
7
2
The sketch of y 49 x 70 x 9` is shown on
the right.
x
81
By inspection of the graph, we see that 49 x 2 70 x 9 0 when x
1
9
or x .
7
7
Example 46
Find the set of values of x for which 12 4 x x 2 and 5x 3 2 .
SOLUTION:
In order to find the set of values of x for which both the inequalities are satisfied, first we have to
solve both the inequalities. That is:
Solving the inequality 12 4 x x 2
Rearranging the terms we get
x 2 4 x 12 0
The graph of y x 2 4 x 12 cuts the x-axis when y = 0. That is
x 2 4 x 12 0
( x 6)( x 2) 0
x6
or
x 2
The sketch of y x 4 x 12 is shown here.

2
It is clear that x 2 4 x 12 0 when 2 x 6 .

The second inequality is linear so we get
5x 3 2
5x 5
x 1
Now, to find the set of values of x which satisfies both the inequality, we draw a number line.

The two sets of values overlap where 1 x 6 . So the solution is 1 x 6.
EXERCISE 2I
82
EXERCISE 2J
83
84
Chapter 3: Polynomials
85
3
Objectives
add, subtract, multiply and divide polynomials

understand the words, quotients and remainder used in dividing polynomials
use long division and synthetic division to find the remainder and quotient
use the method of equating coefficients
use the remainder and the factor theorem.
Chapter outline
3.1
Polynomials
3.2
Algebraic operations of
polynomials
3.3
The Remainder and

Factor Theorem
Polynomials appear in a wide variety of areas of

mathematics and science: they appear in settings ranging
from basic chemistry and physics to economics and social
science; they are used in calculus and numerical analysis to
approximate other functions. In this chapter, we will learn
how to perform basic mathematical operations on
polynomials and the factor theorem and the remainder
theorem. Factor Theorem serves as an important tool for
factoring algebraic expressions, and uses the factors to find
the x-intercepts when sketching polynomial functions.
86
3.1 Polynomials
An expression of the form
an x n an1 x n1 an2 x n2 a2 x 2 a1 x a0
where an , an1 ,, a0 are real numbers with an 0 and n is a positive integer, is called a
polynomial . The number n is called the degree of the polynomial. The numbers an , an1 ,, a1 are
called coefficients; a n is called the leading coefficient, a 0 is called the constant term.
When n 0 , the polynomial is called a constant polynomial, or a constant.

When n 1 , the polynomial is called linear.
When n 2 , the polynomial is called quadratic.
When n 3 , the polynomial is called a cubic.
When n 4 , the polynomial is called quartic.
2
2
Thus, in the polynomial 4 x 3x 1 , the degree is 2; the coefficient of x and x , and the
constant term, , are 4, -3 and 1 respectively.
Example 1
Find the degree of each of these polynomials.
6
5
3
2
(a) 4 x 3x x x 5x
4
3
9
(b) x 3x 2 x 7
SOLUTION:
(a) The highest power of x is 6. Therefore, the degree of the polynomial is 6.
(b) Rearranging the terms in descending orders gives
2 x 9 x 4 3x 3 7
The highest power of x which occurs is 9. Therefore, the degree of the polynomial is 9.
87
Example 2
Given the polynomial f ( x) 3x 4 2 x 2 x 7 , evaluate
(a)
f (0)
f (2)
(b)
SOLUTION:
(a)
f (0) 3(0) 4 2(0) 2 (0) 7 7
(b)
f (2) 3(2) 4 2(2) 2 (2) 7 48 8 2 7 65
3.2 Algebraic operation of polynomials

We have already known a good deal about polynomials from our work on quadratics because
quadratics is a special case of a polynomial. In this section, we will look at algebraic operations of
polynomials.
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials

Polynomials can be added or subtracted by collecting together terms of the same degree. In
general, the result of adding and subtracting any number of polynomials is also a polynomial.
Example 3
Given the two polynomials f ( x) 3x 3 2 x 2 x 4 and g ( x) x 3 x 2 7 , find
(a) f ( x) g ( x)
(b)
f ( x) g ( x )
SOLUTION:
(a)
3x
f ( x) g ( x) 3 x 3 2 x 2 x 4 x 3 x 2 7
3
x ( 2 x x ) ( x ) ( 4 7)
3
4 x x x 11
3
(b)
3x
f ( x) g ( x) 3 x 3 2 x 2 x 4 x 3 x 2 7
3
x 3 ( 2 x 2 x 2 ) ( x ) ( 4 7)
2 x 3 3x 2 x 3
88
Multiplication of Polynomials
When two polynomials are multiplied together each term of one polynomial is multiplied by each
term of the other polynomial.
Example 4:
Given the two polynomials p( x) x 4 4 x 1 and q( x) 2 x 4 x 3 4 x , find in simplest form
each of the polynomials.
(b) 3 p( x) 4 xg ( x)
(a) p( x)q( x)
SOLUTION:
(a)
p ( x)q ( x) x 4 4 x 1 2 x 4 x 3 4 x
x 4 2x 4 x3 4x 4x 2x 4 x3 4x 1 2x 4 x3 4x
2 x x 4 x 8 x 4 x 16 x 2 x x 4 x
8
2 x 8 x 7 4 x 5 2 x 4 x 3 16 x 2 4 x
(b)
3 p( x) 4 xq ( x) 3 x 4 4 x 1 4 x 2 x 4 x 3 4 x
3x 12 x 3 8 x 4 x 16 x
4
8 x 5 7 x 4 16 x 2 12 x 3
Example 5
3
Find the coefficient of x term in the expansion of
(a)
4 x 2 7 x 1 x 2
(b)
2x 1x 4 x 3 3x 2 2 xx 2 3x 4
SOLUTION:
3
(a) The terms contributing to the x term are indicated below.
4 x 2 7 x 1 x 2
3
3
3
3
3
The x term is 2 x 4 x 6 x . Therefore, the coefficient of the x term is 6.
3
(b) The terms contributing to the x term are indicated below.
2x 1x 4 x 3 3x 2 2 xx 2 3x 4
The x 3 term is 6 x 3 x 3 x 3 8x 3 . Therefore, the coefficient of the x 3 term is 8.
EXERCISE 3A
89
90
Dividing Polynomials
Recall the technique used in the division of numbers. One way of writing 112 divided by 9 is
112
12 remainder 4
9
or 112 9
12
called the quotient
called the remainder
Comparing the coefficients

When dividing polynomials, we can use the method of comparing the coefficient s to get the
quotient and remainder.
When a polynomial, a(x) , is divided by a non-constant divisor, b(x) , the quotient q(x)
and the remainder r (x) are defined by the identity
a( x) b( x)q( x) r ( x) ,
where the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the divisor. The degree of
quotient is equal to the degree of a(x) minus the degree of b(x).
Example 6
3
Find the quotient and remainder when the polynomial x 4 x 5 is divided by x 3 .
SOLUTION:
2
Writing x 4 x 5 in terms of a quotient and remainder gives an expression of the form
x 2 4 x 5 ( x 3)(
)(
)
quotient
remainder
We can see that the quotient is of the form Ax B . Therefore,
x 2 4 x 5 ( x 3)( Ax B) R
91
Expanding and collecting like terms give
x 2 4 x 5 Ax 2 (3 A B) 3B R
Comparing the coefficients of x 2 terms gives
A 1
Comparing the coefficients of x terms and substituting that A 1 gives
3A B 4
3 B 4
B 1
Comparing the constants terms and substituting B 1 gives
3B R 5
3(1) R 5
R 8
Thus, the quotient is Ax B x 1 and the remainder is 8.
Example 7
4
Find the quotient and remainder when x x 2 is divided by x 1 .
SOLUTION:
4
As the degree of x x 2 is 4 and the degree of x 1 is 1, the degree of the quotient is 4 1 3
. As the degree of the remainder is less than 1, it is a constant.
3
2
4
Let the quotient be Ax Bx Cx D , and the remainder be R . Then we can express x x 2
as
x 4 x 2 ( Ax 3 Bx 2 Cx D)( x 1) R
Expanding the brackets and simplifying gives
x 4 x 2 Ax 4 Bx 3 Cx 2 Dx Ax 3 Bx 2 Cx D R
Ax 4 ( A B) x 3 ( B C ) x 2 (C D) x ( D R)
4
Comparing the coefficients x :
1 A
3
0 A B , so B A giving B 1
92
Comparing the coefficients x 2 :
0 B C , so C B giving C 1
1 C D , so D 1 C giving D 0
Comparing the coefficients of the

constant terms :
2 D R , so R 2 D giving R 2
3
2
Thus, the quotient is x x x and the remainder is 2.
EXERCISE 3B
Express the following improper fractions in mixed number form by:
(i)
using long division
(ii)
comparing the coefficients
Long Division
Another method for dividing polynomials is to use long division This method is called "long
(polynomial) division", and it works just like the long (numerical) division we did back in
elementary school, except that now we are dividing with variables. Long division for polynomials
works in much the same way:
93
Example 8
Divide x 3 2 x 2 17 x 6 by ( x 3) .
SOLUTION:
Recall that we need to have the terms written down with the exponents in decreasing order and to
make sure we dont make any mistakes we add in any missing terms with a zero coefficient. First
set up the division and look at the leading x of the divisor and leading x 3 of the dividend.
Example 9
3
2
Divide 6 x 28x 7 x 15 by ( x 5) .
SOLUTION:
Example 10
4
3
2
Divide 3x 8x 8x 13x 10 by ( x 2) .
94
SOLUTION:
95
Example 11
Divide x 3 3x 2 by ( x 2) .
SOLUTION:
EXERCISE 3C
96
97
Synthetic division
If a polynomial f (x) is divided by ( x d ) , then we can use a short cut method called synthetic
division. You can see how much more compact the synthetic division process is compared to long
division.
Example 12
Divide x 3 2 x 2 x 3 by ( x 1) using the synthetic division.
SOLUTION:
1 2 1 3
First, write the coefficients ONLY inside an

upside-down division symbol. Make sure you
leave room inside, underneath the row of
coefficients, to write another row of numbers
later.
Write the 1 in the divisor ( x 1) outside.
Take the first number inside, representing the

leading coefficient, and carry it down,
unchanged, to below the division symbol:
1 2 1 3
1 2 1 3
Multiply this carry-down value by the 1

outside, and carry the result up into the next
column:
1 2 1 3
1
1
Add down the column
1 2 1 3
1
1 3
Multiply the previous carry-down value by the

1 outside, and carry the new result up into the
next column:
1 2 1 3
1
1 3
Add down the column
1 2 1 3
1
1 3 2
98
Multiply the previous carry-down value by the

1 outside, and carry the new result up into the
last column. Add down the column. The last
carried down value is the remainder. So in this
case the remainder is 5 and the coefficients of
the quotient are given by 1, 3 and 2. That is,
1 2 1 3
1 3 2
1 3 2 5
x 2 3x 2
Example 13
4
2
Divide x 3x 2 by ( x 3) using the synthetic division.
SOLUTION:
x 4 0 x 3 3x 2 0 x 2
If the polynomial is not complete, complete it by adding the

missing terms with zeros.
1 0 3 0 2
Place the coefficients of the dividend in one line.
1 0 3 0 2
Place the 3 on the left of the vertical line.
1 0 3 0 2
Lower the first coefficient.
1 0 3 0 2
3
Multiply this coefficient by the divisor and place it under the

following term.
1
3
1 0 3 0 2
3
Add the two coefficients.
1 3
1 0 3 0 2
3 9
1 3 6
Repeat the process above.
1 0 3
1
18
18
1 0 3
3
1
18
6 18
1 0 3 0 2
3 9 18 54
1
99
Repeat the process
6 18 56
The last number, 56, is the remainder.

The quotient is a polynomial of a lower degree and whose coefficients are the ones obtained in
the division.
x 3 3x 2 6 x 18
3.3 The Remainder and Factor Theorem

When dividing polynomials by linear polynomials, the methods discussed earlier in this chapter
are tedious and require a lot of work. By carefully observing the process of equating the
coefficients method, we can come up with a very interesting theorem, called the remainder
theorem. We will state the theorem here without proof.
Remainder Theorem
b
When a polynomial f (x) is divided by ax b , the remainder is the constant f .
a
Example 14
3
2
Find each of the remainders when the polynomial x 5x 17 x 21 is divided by
(a) x 1
(b) x 4
(c) 2 x 1
SOLUTION:
Let f ( x) x 3 5x 2 17 x 21
(a) By the remainder theorem, the remainder when f (x) is divided by x 1 is f (1) . So
100
f (1) (1) 3 5(1) 2 17(1) 21

1 5 17 21
0
Therefore, the remainder is 0.
(b) By the remainder theorem, the remainder when f (x) is divided by x 1 is f (4) . So
f (1) (4) 3 5(4) 2 17(4) 21

64 80 68 21
55
Therefore, the remainder is 55.
1
(c) By the remainder theorem, the remainder when f (x) is divided by 2 x 1 is f . So
2
3
1 1
1
1
f 5 17 21
2 2
2
2
1 5 17
21
8 4 2
91
EXERCISE 3D
Questions 1 to 3, use synthetic division.
Factor Theorem
Let f (x) be a polynomial. Then
(a) if x a is a factor of f (x) then f (a) 0
(b) if f (a) 0 then x a is a factor.
101
102
Example 15
Show that x 6 is a factor of 2 x 3 5x 2 39 x 18 . Hence solve the equation
2 x 3 5x 2 39 x 18 0 .
SOLUTION:
By the remainder theorem, when f ( x) 2 x 3 5x 2 39 x 18 is divided by x 6 is f (6) . So
f (6) 2(6) 3 5(6) 2 39(6) 18

432 180 234 18
0
Since the remainder is 0, x 6 is a factor of f (x) and ( x 6)(ax 2 bx c) .
To find the remaining factors, we use long division.
2x 2 7x 3
( x 6) 2 x 3 5 x 2 39 x 18
2 x 3 12 x 2
7 x 2 39 x
7 x 2 42 x
3 x 18
3 x 18
0
Now factorize the quotient
2 x 2 7 x 3 (2 x 1)( x 3)
3
2
The equation 2 x 5x 39 x 18 0 can be written as
( x 6)(2 x 1)( x 3) 0
Solving gives x 6, x
1
2
Example 16
3
2
Factorize 2 x x 18x 9 .
SOLUTION:
or x 3 .
Example 17
4
2
Given that ( x 1) is a factor of 4 x 3x a , find the value of a .
SOLUTION:
Example 18
103
104
Given that when the polynomial f ( x) x 3 ax 2 bx 2 is divided by x 1 the remainder is 4

and when it is divided by x 2 the remainder is also 4, find the values of the constants a and b.
SOLUTION:
By the remainder theorem, f (1) 4 . That is
(1) 3 a(1) 2 b(1) 2 4

a b 1......................................................[1]
Also by the remainder theorem, f (2) 4 . That is
(2) 3 a(2) 2 b(2) 2 4

4a 2b 10..................................................[2]
Solving [1] and [2] simultaneously gives a 2 and b 1 .
EXERCISE 3E
105
106
Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry
107
Objectives
Find the distance between two points

Find the midpoint of a line segment, given the coordinates of its end points.
Find the gradient of a line through a given point with a given gradient.
Find the equation of the line joining two points.
Recognize lines from different forms of their equations
Find the point of intersection of two lines
Use the properties of parallel and perpendicular lines,
Find the equation of a circle.
Chapter outline
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Equation of a straight
line
4.3
Gradient of the line

joining two points
4.4
Equation of a line
4.5
Parallel and
perpendicular lines
4.6
Mid-point of a line
segment
4.7
Distance between two

points
4.8
Equation of a circle
Coordinate system or Cartesian coordinate system is

sometimes known as rectangular system used to uniquely
determine a point in two or three dimensional space by its
distance from the origin of the coordinate system. This
chapter uses coordinates to describe points and lines in two
dimensions. Understanding this topic will help you find
equation of tangent and normal lines to curves.
108
4.1 Introduction
The position of a point can be specified by an origin also referred as reference point and a number
of coordinates. On a line (formerly one dimensional), an origin and one number are needed to
identify a point. The number line we have seen our primary school and secondary school is an
example of this.
On a plane (formerly two dimensional), an origin (0,0) and two numbers are needed to identify a
point. The Cartesian system, named after Rene Descartes (1596-1650), draws two perpendicular
axes the intersect each other. The intersection of these two axes is called the origin and given the
point (0,0). The points are then referred using to values one from each axis. Today, we call these
two the horizontal and the vertical axes. They are commonly called the x axis and the y axis.
4.2 The equation of a straight line

The general form straight line is y mx c , where m is the gradient (or slope) of the line and c
is the y intercept (point where the line meet the y axis). This form is called the gradient form of
the equation of a straight line
The equation of a straight line can also be written in the form ax by c 0 . This form is called
the intercept form.
Example 1
Find the yintercept and slope for the following.
(a) 3x 2 y 12 0
(b) y 5x 4
SOLUTION
(a)
We need to write the equation in the form y mx c

3 x 2 y 12 0
2 y 3 x 12
3 x 12
y
2
3 x 12
2
2
3x
6
2
Therefore the yinterceptis 6 and gradient m
(b)
3
2
y 5x 4 This equationisalready in the form

y mx c .
Therefore c 4 and m 5
Example 2
Write the equation of the line in the form ax by c 0
(a) y 2 x 4
(b) y 3x
2
3
SOLUTION
(a)
(b)
y 2 x 4 can be written as
2x y 4 0
2
y 3x
3
Multiply the equation by 3 (the LCM of the
denominator)
3 y 9 x 2
9x 3 y 2 0
Example 3
Write the equation of the line that passes through the point (0,4) and has gradient 2
SOLUTION
Since the line passes though (0,4) the y intercept
this line (0,4) . So c 4 . Thus the equation is
y 2x 4
Example 4
A straight line has equation 3x 4 y 12 0 . Find the point at which this line meets the
coordinate axes.
SOLUTION
The line meet the y axis when x 0 . Substituting this
value in the equation
3(0) 4 y 12 0
4 y 12
12
3
4
The line meet the x axis when y 0 . Substituting

this value in the equation
3x 4(0) 12 0
3x 12
12
x
4
3
109

Therefore, the line meet the x axis at (4,0) and meet
the y axis at (0,3) .
EXERCISE 4A
110
111
4.3 Gradient of the line joining two points

The gradient of a straight line measures how steep the line is. The gradient is defined as
Slope (m) = how steep a line is.

=
rise
run
change in y
change in x
y 2 y1
for points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
x 2 x1
Example 5
Find slopes for each of the following.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
SOLUTION:
(a)
1 4 5
22
4
(b)
5 1 6 3

44 8 4
(c)
33
0
54
(d)
52
undefinded
22
The slope of a horizontal line (parallel to the xaxis) is 0.
The slope of a vertical line (parallel to the yaxis) is undefined.
112
Lines rising to the right have a positive slope.

Lines falling to the right have a negative slope.
Example 6
Given (k , 5) and (4, 2) with m =
3
, find k.
5
SOLUTION:
25 3
4k
5
35 12 3k
3k 12 35
k
47
3
Example 7
Given (3, 2) and ( x, y) and m
2
, find a possible value for x and y.
5
SOLUTION:
y2 2
x3 5
5( y 2) 2( x 3)
5 y 10 2 x 6
5 y 2 x 6 10
2 x 16
5
One possible point is (8, 0). This point is obtained by
taking x 8 .
y
Example 8
Are the following set of points collinear (lie on the same line)?
(a) A(2,7), B(5,5), C (1,19)
(b) A(2a,3b), B(12a,2b), C(10a, 3b), a 0 b
SOLUTION:
(a)
m AB
57
19 (5)
4, mBC
4
52
1 5
Since both gradients are same all the points lie on a

same line. Therefore, the points are collinear
y 2 y1
x2 x1

(b)
m AB
113
2b (3b) 5b
b
3b 2b
b
, mBC
12a 2a 10a 2a
10a 12a 2a
Since both gradients are notsame the three points does

not lie on a same line. So they are not collinear.
Example 9
If (5, 4), (1, 2) and (5, k) are collinear, find the value of k.
SOLUTION:
2 (4)
k 2
1 (5) 5 (1)
6 k 2
4
6
4(k 2) 36
4k 8 36
k
36 8
11
4
4.4 Equation of a straight line with gradient m and passing through

a point ( x1 , y1 )
Let l be a line that passes through the point ( x1 , y1 ) with gradient m. If ( x, y) is a point on the line,
we can calculate the gradient using these two points. But this gradient must be equal to gradient of
the line, m.
y 2 y1
x2 x1
y y1
m
x x1
y y1 m( x x1 )
Example 10
Line is passing through

the point ( x1 , y1 ) and
( x, y)
( x, y)
114
Find the equation of the line passing through A(3,4) with gradient 2.
SOLUTION:
y y1 m( x x1 )
y 4 2( x 3)
y 4 2x 6
y 2x 6 4
y 2x 2
Example 11
Find the equation of the line with gradient
1
that passes through the point (4,6) .
2
SOLUTION:
y y1 m( x x1 )
1
( x 4)
2
1
y6 x2
2
1
y x26
2
1
y x4
2
y (6)
Example 12
The line with equation y 2 x 4 meets the y axis at A. find the equation of the line with gradient
1
that passes through A in the form ax by c 0
3
SOLUTION:
The line y 2 x 4 meet the y axis when x 0 .
x 0 y 2(0) 4 4 . So the line A has
coordinates (0,4)
The equation of the line then is:
115
y y1 m( x x1 )
1
( x 0)
3
1
y4 x
3
3 y 12 x
y (4)
x 3 y 12 0
Example 13
Find the equation of the line passing through (3,4) and (1,2) in the form ax by c 0 ,
where a, b and c are integers.
SOLUTION:
In this case first we need to find the gradient of the
line. Since the line passes (3,4) and (1,2) , we can
find the gradient of the line segment joining these two
points.
m
y2 y1 2 (4)
2
1
x2 x1
1 3
4
2
Both points are on the line, so we can choose any one.

The equation of the line then is:
y y1 m( x x1 )
1
( x 3)
2
1
3
y4 x
2
2
2 y 8 x 3
x 2y 83 0
y (4)
x 2y 5 0
4.5 Parallel and perpendicular lines

If two lines are parallel, they have equal gradient
If two line are perpendicular (both lines meet at right angle), the product of their gradient is -1. So
1
if a line has gradient m, then the lines perpendicular to it has gradient .
m
Example 14
116
Workout the gradients of the lines perpendicular to lines of gradient

(a) 3
(b)
1
4
(c) 6
(d)
2
3
(e) 2m
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
1
3
4
1
6
3
2
1
2m
Example 15
Find if AB is parallel, perpendicular or neither to PQ in each case.
(a) A(1,4), B(6,6), P(2,1), Q(12,3)
(b) A(1,1), B(0,4), P(4,3), Q(6,1)
(c) A(0,3), B(7,2), P(6,1), Q(1,3)
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
(c)
m AB
64 2
,
6 1 5
mPQ
3 (1) 4 2
,
12 2 10 5
AB and PQ are parallel

4 (1)
1 3
2
1
m AB
5, mPQ
,
0 (1)
6 (4) 10
5
1
m AB mPQ 5 1
5
AB and PQ are perpendicular
23
1
2 (1) 1 1
m AB
, mPQ
70
7
1 6
7 7
m AB mPQ
1 1 1
m AB mPQ
1
7 7 49
AB and PQ are not parallelas well as not perpendicular
Example 16
117
Determine whether these pair of lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither.
(a)
y 2 x 9
y 2 x 3
(b)
3x y 2 0
x 3y 6 0
SOLUTION
(a)
(b)
y 2 x 9
The gradient of this line is 2
y 2 x 3
So the lines are parallel
3x y 2 0
y 3x 2
y 3x 2
x 3y 6 0
3y x 6
1
y x2
3
The gradient of this line is
1
3
1
1 . So the lines are perpendicular
3
1
y x
2
1
The gradient of this line
2
3
(c)
2x y 4 0
y 2 x 4
y 2x 4
The gradient of this line 2
1
2 , so the lines are not parallel
2
1
2 1 1 , so the line not perpendicular.
2
Example 17
(c)
1
x
2
2x y 4 0
y

Find the equation of the straight line that passes through (4,0) and is perpendicular to
x 7y 4 0
SOLUTION:
x 7y 4 0
7 y x 4
x4
7
1
4
y x
7
7
y
1
and the gradient of its
7
perpendicular lines is 7. Therefore the equation of the
line is
The gradient of this line is
y y1 m( x x1 )
y 0 7( x 4)
y 7 x 28
EXERCISE 4B
118
119
120
4.6 The mid-point of a line segment
In mathematics a line is understood to be a straight line extending indefinitely in both directions.

A finite part of a line is called a line segment.
The mid-point of a line segment is the middle of the segment.
121
To find the mid-pint of a line segment, find the midpoint for the vertical and the horizontal
segment.
The mid-point of the line joining ( x1 , y1 ) and

x x y y
( x2 , y2 ) is given by the formula 2 1 , 2 1
2
2
Example 18
Find the mid-point of the line segment joining the points
(a) (9,6) and (3,1)
(b) (4, 2 ) and (2,3 2)
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
9 3 6 1
The mid-point is
,
(3, 2.5)
2
2
42 2 3 2
(1, 2 2 )
The mid-point is
,
2
2
Example 19
The midpoint of PQ is (4, 7). If point P is (2, 3), find the coordinates of the endpoint Q.
SOLUTION:
Let Q have coordinates ( x, y)
2 x 2 y
,
(4,7)
2
2
2 x
4
2
x 82 6
2 y
7
2
y 14 2 12
122
So Q have coordinates (6, 12)
Example 20
The line AB is diameter of the circle centre C, where A andB are (1,4) and (5,2) respectively.
The line l passes through C and is perpendicular to AB. Find the equation of l.
SOLUTION:
1 5 4 2
The center of the circle is
,
(2,3)
2
2
24
1
The gradient of the line AB is
5 (1)
3
So, the gradient of the perpendicular to AB is 3
The equation of the perpendicular line is

y 3 3( x 2)
y 3x 6 3
y 3x 3
4.7 The distance between two points
123
The distance from the point A to the point C is called the length of the line segment AB. To
calculate the distance from A to B, consider the triangle ABC, where AB is horizontal and BC is
vertical. Applying Pythagoras theorem to this triangle we, can calculate the distance
AC
AB BC
2
The distance, d, between two points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is calculated using the formula
x2 x1 2 y2 y1 2
Example 21
Find the length of the line segment joining the points
(a) A(2,3) , B(5,7)
(b) A(2,4) , B(6,8)
(c) A(4a, a), B(3a,2a)
SOLUTION:
(a)
d 2 (5 2) 2 (7 3) 2
d 32 4 2
5
(b)
d (6 2) 2 (8 (4)) 2
64 16
80
16 5
4 5

(c)
124
d (3a 4a) 2 (2a a) 2

49a 2 a 2
50a 2
5 2a
Example 22
The point (3, k ) is a distance 5 units from (0,1) . Find two possible values of k.
SOLUTION:
(3 0) 2 (k 1) 2 5 2
9 k 2 2k 1 25
k 2 2k 10 25 0
k 2 2k 15 0
(k 5)(k 3)
k 5 or k 3
Example 23
Find the radius of the circle with diameter AB, where A andB has coordinates (2,3) and (8,11)
respectively.
SOLUTION:
d (8 2) 2 (11 3) 2
36 64
100
10
So, the radius is
1
(10) 5
2
EXERCISE 4C
125
126
127
4.8 Equation of a circle

A circle is a closed convex figure such that distance from the center to any point on the edge is
equal. This distance is called the radius of the circle is denoted by r and the edge of the circle is
called circumference of the circle.
Let C be a circle with center (a, b) and radius r. Suppose the point ( x, y) lie on the circumference
of the circle. Then the distance from center to ( x, y) is equal to the radius. So we have
( x a) 2 ( y b) 2 r 2
This equation is known as the equation of the circle with centre (a, b) and radius r.
Expanding the brackets of this equation gives x 2 2ax a 2 y 2 2by b 2 r 2 . Rearranging this
equation we get x 2 y 2 2ax 2by a 2 b 2 r 2 0 . This equation is called the general form
the equation of a circle.
Example 24
Write down the equation of the circle with centre (5,7) and radius 4.
SOLUTION:
Equation of circle is ( x 5) 2 ( y 7) 2 4 2
Example 25
Find the coordinates of the centre and radius of these circle.
(a) ( x 4) 2 ( y 2) 2 9
(b) ( x 0.2) 2 ( y 3 ) 2 20
(c) x 2 y 2 4 x 6 y 10 0
SOLUTION:
(a)
First write the equation in the form

( x a) 2 ( y b) 2 r 2
128
( x 4) 2 ( y 2) 2 9
( x (4)) 2 ( y 2) 2 32
So centre = (4,2) and radius = 3.
(b)
( x 0.2) 2 ( y 3 ) 2 20
( x 0.2) 2 ( y 3 ) 2 ( 20 ) 2
20 4 5
2 5
(c)
In this case centre = (0.2, 3 ) and radius = 20 2 5

First write the equation in the form
( x a) 2 ( y b) 2 r 2
x 2 y 2 4 x 6 y 10 0
x 2 4 x y 2 6 y 10 0
( x 2) 2 2 2 ( y 3) 2 32 10
By completing the square
( x 2) ( y 3) 10 4 9
2
( x 2) 2 ( y (3)) 2 23
( x 2) 2 ( y (3)) 2
23
So, centre = (2,3) and radius = 23
Example 26
The line AB is a diameter of a circle, where A and B are (4,7) and (8,3) respectively. Find the
equation of the circle.
SOLUTION:
Sine AB is the diameter, half of the length of AB is the
radius of the circle and the mid-point of AB is the
center of the circle.
The length of AB (8 4) 2 (3 7) 2
144 16
160
4 10
4 10
2 10
2
4 (8) 7 3
The centre is
,
(2,5)
2
2
Therefore, the radius is

So, the equation of the circle is
( x (2)) 2 ( y 5) 2 (2 10 ) 2
( x 2) 2 ( y 5) 2 40
Example 27
Show that the circle ( x 3) 2 ( y 5) 2 101 passes through (2,5) .
SOLUTION:
Substitute (2,5) in the circles equation. If the circle
passes through this point, then left hand side and right
hand side of the equation should be same.
(2 3) 2 (5 5) 2 1 100 101
So the circle passes through (2,5)
Example 28
Show that the line y x 10 does not meet the circle ( x 2) 2 y 2 25 .
SOLUTION
( x 2) 2 ( x 10) 2 25
x 2 4 x 4 x 2 20 x 100 25
2 x 2 24 x 104 25 0
2 x 2 24 x 79 0
b 2 4ac (24) 2 4(2)(79)
56 0
So the line and the circle does not intersect.
129
EXERCISE 4D
130
EXERCISE 4E
131
Chapter 5: Functions and curve sketching
132
Objectives
What a mathematical function is.

Understand function notation.
Meaning of domain and range.
know the shapes of graphs of cubic functions.
Know how to use factors to sketch graphs.
Find point(s) of intersection of two graphs.
What exponential functions are and their basic graph.
Express a given exponential expression in logarithm form.
Use laws of logarithms to simplify expressions.
Solve equations involving exponentials and logarithms.
Chapter outline
5.1
The Idea of a Function
5.2
Cubic functions
5.3
Exponential functions
5.4
logarithms
This chapter introduces the idea of a function and

investigates the graphs of various types of cubic functions,
exponential functions and logarithm functions.
133
5.1 The Idea of a Function

If, on a calculator, the number 3 is entered and then the x 2 button is pressed, the display shows
the number 9.
We say that 9 is mapped to 3 2 or 3 3 2 . Under the same rule 5 25 , 4 (4) 2 . The rule is
(any real number) (the square of that number )
The last statement can be expressed more briefly as
x x2
where x is a real number.
This mapping can be represented graphically by plotting values of x 2 against values of x .
We have so far written the equation of a curve in the form

y ' Some expression in x'
Another way of writing this is to use functional notation. That is,
y
f (x)
functionof x
A function is a rule which maps a single number to another single number.

In general:
f (x) is called the image of x .
The set of permitted x values is called the domain of the function.

The set of all images is called the range of the function.
134
5.2 Curve Sketching

In a study of mathematics, we often place equations with similar properties into the same category
or family. This type of organization makes each group easier to study and enables us to make
comparisons and distinctions between groups. Linear functions and quadratic functions have been
discussed in chapter 1 and 4. In this chapter we will look at more types of functions such as cubic
functions, reciprocal functions, and exponential and logarithmic functions.
When sketching curves, we will ask questions such as
What is the shape of the graph?
Where does the graph cross the axes?
Putting y 0 will give the intercept on the y-axis.
Putting x 0 will give the intercept(s) on the x-axis.

Does the graph have symmetry?
What happens for large positive and negative values of x?
If the function is a polynomial in x then the highest power of x will determine its behavior
as x . If the highest power term is ax n then
for n even and a 0 , y as x
y as x
for n odd and a 0 , y as x
y as x
If a 0 the results are reversed. The term ax n is the dominant term.
Does the function have stationary values, i.e. points where the gradient is zero?
Cubic Functions
The general form of a cubic function is
f ( x) ax 3 bx 2 cx d
where a, b, c and d are constants and a 0 .

Investigating the curve y ax 3 bx 2 cx d for different values of a, b, c, and d shows that the
shape of the curve is
Lets call the first curve Type A and the second Type B.
135
Note that in order to sketch the curve y ax 3 bx 2 cx d we need to find where the curve
crosses the coordinate axes. Setting y 0 , we will get to solve the cubic equation
ax 3 bx 2 cx d 0
which needs to be factorized. Therefore, most of the questions we are going to consider will be
given as factorized expressions which can take any of the following types.
y (ax p)(bx q)(cx r )
In this case the equation ( x p)( x q)( x r ) 0

has three distinct roots.
y (ax p) 2 (bx q)
In this case the equation

( x p) 2 ( x q) 0
Has x p root repeated and x q . So the behavior of

the curve at the repeated root is such that the curve does not
pass through the point, but touch and turn.
y (ax p) 3
In this case the equation

( x p) 3 0 has only one root, x p and the curve
passes through this point such that x-axis is tangential to

the curve. That is, the curve is slow when passing through
the point.
136
Sketching graphs with equations y (ax p)(bx q)(cx r)

Example 1
Sketch the curve with the equation y ( x 2)( x 1)( x 1) .
SOLUTION:
To sketch the curve, follow the steps:
Step 1: Determine the shape
Shape is determined by the coefficient of x 3 term. That is; ( x)( x)( x) x 3 in this function.
Since a 0 the shape is Type A.
Step 2: Calculate the x-intercept(s)

When y 0 , we have
( x 2)( x 1)( x 1) 0
x 2 or
Step 3: Calculate the y-intercept.
When x 0 , we have
y (0 2)(0 1)(0 1)
(2)(1)(1)
2
x 1
or
x 1
The sketch of the function y ( x 2)( x 1)( x 1) is given here.
137
Note that the turning points occur half way between the x-intercepts.
Example 2
Sketch the curves of the following equations and show where they cross the coordinate axes.
(a)
y ( x 2)(1 x)(1 x)
(b)
y x( x 2)( x 1)
SOLUTION:
(a) Shape: since a 0 , the shape is Type B.
Multiply together all the terms in

x in the brackets. That is
( x)( x)( x) x 3
x-intercept:
( x 2)(1 x)(1 x) 0
x 2 or
x 1 or
Put y = 0 and solve

x 1
So the curve crosses the x-axis at (1,0), (1,0)

and (2,0) .
y-intercept:
y (0 2)(1 0)(1 0)
2
so the curve crosses the y-axis at (0,2)
The sketch of the curve is give below.
Put x = 0 and find the value of y.
(b)
a 1 0 , the shape is Type A
138
Multiply together all the terms in

x in the brackets. That is
( x)( x)( x) x 3
x-intercept:
x( x 2)( x 1) 0
x 0 or x 2 or x 1
Put y = 0 and solve for x.
So the curve crosses the x-axis at (2,0), (1,0)

and (0,0)
y-intercept:
y 0(0 2)(0 1)
0
The sketch of the graph y x( x 2)( x 1) is give below.
139
2
Sketching graphs with equations y (ax p) (bx q)
Example 3
Sketch the following curves.
(a) y ( x 1) 2 ( x 1)
(b)
y x 3 2x 2 x
SOLUTION:
(a)
Shape is Type A since a 0
( x) 2 ( x) x 3
x-intercepts
x 12 x 1 0
x 1 or x 1
Put y = 0 and solve for x. Note

that the root x 1 is repeated.
y-intercept
y (0 1) 2 (0 1)
1
The sketch of the curve y ( x 1) 2 ( x 1) is given here.
(b)
140
Shape is Type A since a 0

x-intercepts:
y x3 2x 2 x
x( x 2 2 x 1)
x( x 1) 2
x( x 1) 2 0
x 0 or x 1
In order find the x-intercepts, we

need to factorize the expression
first.
Put y = 0 and solve for x. Note

that the root x 1 is repeated.
y-intercept
y (0)(0 1) 2
1
The sketch of the curve y x 3 2 x 2 x is given here.
141
EXERCISE 5A
3
Sketching graphs with equations y (ax p)
We will consider the case when a 1 and p 0 . That is, the graph of the equation y x 3 .
Example 4
Sketch the graph of y x 3 .
SOLUTION:
As mentioned earlier, this graph will have no turning point. Since the curve crosses both x-axis
and y-axis at the same point (0, 0), we need to analyse the behavior of the function to the left and
right of the origin.
-4
-3
-2
-1
-64
-27
-8
-1
27
64
Observe that:
as x , y and x , y .
142
The function is slow near the origin but rapidly change as we move away from the origin.
x 0 is an x-intercept and the origin is an inflection point.
The sketch of the graph y x 3 is given here
Similarly, the sketch of the graph y x 3 is
If a 0 and p 0 , then the graph will cut the x-axis at x p / a .
EXERCISE 5B
The reciprocal graph
143
k
, k is constant.
x
First, we will consider the case k 1 . That is, y
1
.
x
Example 5
Sketch the curve y
1
.
x
SOLUTION:
When y 0 , x is not defined (division by zero). Therefore, the curve has no x-intercept.
When x 0 , y is not defined (division by zero). So the curve has no y-intercept either.
(as x becomes large, y values approach to 0)
x , y 0
x , y 0
(as x becomes small, y values approach to 0)
y , x 0
(as x approaches to 0 from the right, y grows unbound)
y , x 0
(as x approaches to 0 from the left , y becomes unbound)
The curve tends towards the x-axis when x is large and positive or large and negative. The
x-axis a horizontal asymptote.
The curve tends towards the y-axis when y is large and positive or large and negative. The
y-axis is a vertical asymptote.
In order to see these bahviour, we will consider some values of x near zero.
-1
-0.75
-0.5
-0.25
0.25
0.5
0.75
y 1/ x
-1
-1.33
-2
-4
1.33
The sketch of the curve y
1
is given here.
x

Similarly, the curve with equation y
144
1
is
x
EXERCISE 5C
5.3 Transformation of graphs

There are many times when we will know very well what the graph of a particular function looks
like, and we will want to know what the graph of a very similar function looks like. In this
section, we will discuss some ways to sketch graphs in these circumstances.
Many of the equations which you will encounter are transformations of a few basic functions. By
transforming a few reference points, we will be able to graph variations of these functions. In the
following we will look at four of the most common graphs. These graphs and their corresponding
functions have been discussed and they are:
145
Translation (shifting)
There are three types of transformations that shall discuss. First are translations. By a translation
of a graph, we mean a shift in its location such that every point of the graph is moved the same
distance and in the same direction. Essentially, think of lifting the graph out of the paper, moving
it around, and then placing it down at a new location.
There are four ways to move the graph: left, right, up and down. The effect this has on the graph
is summarized in the following table:
Suppose k is a positive constant. Then
How points in
graph of f (x)
Type
Equation
become points of
new graph
y f (x k)
(a, b) (a k , b)
Shifts the curve k units to the

left. Every x-coordinate reduces
by k, and y coordinates remain
the same.
(a, b) (a k , b)
Shifts the curve k units to the

right. Every x-coordinate
increase by k, and y coordinates
remain the same.
(a, b) (a, b k )
Shifts the curve k units up.

Every y-coordinate increase by
k, and x coordinates remain the
same.
Horizontal
translation
y f (x k)
Vertical
Translation
y f ( x) k
Effect on the graph
y f ( x) k
146
(a, b) (a, b k )
Shifts the curve k units down.

Every y-coordinate reduces by k,
and x coordinates remain the
same.
Example 6
Sketch the curves for
(a) f ( x) x 2
(b) g ( x) ( x 2) 2
(c) h( x) x 2 2
SOLUTION:
(a)
This is the graph of y x 2
(b)
g ( x) ( x 2) 2
So g ( x) f ( x 2) . Here k 2 is a
horizontal translation. So the graph shifts 2
units to the right.
(c)
h( x) x 2 2
So h( x) f ( x) 2 . Here k 2 is a
vertical transition. The curve shifts up by 2
units.
147
Example 7
Given that f ( x) x 3 . Sketch the curves with equation
(a)
y f ( x 1)
(b) y f ( x) 2
(c) y f ( x 2)
SOLUTION:
This is the graph of y x 3

(a)
y f ( x 1) .
Here k = 1 so the new curve is the

original curve y x 3 shifted left by 1
unit. We can easily find the equation
of the new curve by writing
f ( x 1) ( x 1) 3 .
(b)
y f ( x) 2 x 3 2
So the new curve is obtained by

shifting y x 3 down by 2 units.
(c)
y f ( x 2) ( x 2) 3 . So the new
curve is a horizontal translation of

y x3 .
148
Example 8
1
, sketch the curve with equation y h( x) 1 and state the equation of any
x
asymptotes and intersection with the axes.
Given that h( x)
SOLUTION:
Sketch of h( x)
1
x
Asymptotes are: x 0 and y 0 .
1
x
shifted up by 1 unit. Since the whole
graph is shifted, the asymptote y 0
y h( x) 1 is the graph of y
becomes y 1 in the new graph.

Curve crosses x-axis once
y h( x ) 1
1
1
x
Put y = 0 to find where the curve

crosses the x-axis. That is
1
1 0
x
1
1
x
x 1
So the curve intersects the x-axis at

(-1, 0).
149
Stretch (expansion and compression)

There are two types of stretch; expansion and compression. In an expansion, the graph is stretched
outwards either horizontally or vertically. In a compression, the graph shrinks either horizontally
or vertically. The following table illustrates how stretch affects the graph of a function.
Type
Equation
y f (kx), k 1
How points in
graph of f (x)
become points of
new graph
( a, b) a, b
k
Horizontal
stretch
Effect on the graph
Graph shrinks horizontally by a

factor of k . That is, horizontal
1
stretch scale factor . Every xk
1
coordinate is multiplied by
k
and y-coordinates remain
unchanged.
Graph expands in horizontally
by a factor of k . That is,
y f (kx), 0 k 1
y kf ( x), k 1
( a, b) a, b
k
(a, b) (a, kb)
Graph expands vertically by a

factor of k . That is, vertical
stretch scale factor k . Every ycoordinate is multiplied by k
and x-coordinates remain
unchanged.
(a, b) (a, kb)
Graph shrinks vertically by a

factor of k . That is, vertical
stretch scale factor k . Every ycoordinate is multiplied by k
and x-coordinates remain
unchanged.
Vertical
stretch
y kf ( x), 0 k 1
1
.
k
Every x-coordinate is multiplied
1
by and y-coordinates remain
k
unchanged.
horizontal stretch scale factor
150
Reflections
There are two types; reflection in x-axis and reflection in y-axis. In the x-axis reflection, the
mirror line is the x-axis while in the y-axis reflection, the mirror lines is y-axis.
How points in
graph of f (x)
Type
Equation
Effect on the graph
become points of
new graph
x-axis
reflection
y-axis
reflection
y f (x)
y f ( x)
(a, b) a,b
Every y-coordinate is multiplied

by a minus and x-coordinates
remain unchanged.
(a, b) (a, b)
Every x-coordinate is multiplied

by a minus and y-coordinates
remain unchanged.
Example 9
Given that f ( x) 9 x 2 , sketch the curves with equations
(a) y f (2 x)
(b)
y 2 f ( x) .
SOLUTION:
First we need to sketch the graph of
f ( x) 9 x 2
f ( x) 9 x 2
(3 x)(3 x)
x-intercepts:
f ( x) 0
( x 3)( x 3) 0
Factorise the expression.
Put y = 0 and solve to find the xintercepts.
x 3 or x 3
So the curve crosses the x-axis at (3,0) and

(3,0) .
y-intercept
y 9 (0) 2
9
So the curve crosses the y-axis at (0,9) .
Put x = 0 to find the y value.
151
The curve y 9 x 2 is
(a) Here we have y f (2 x)
y f (2 x) is the graph obtained
by stretching the graph y f (x)

in horizontally by a scale factor
1
of . That is, the graph
2
y f (x) gets shrunk in the xdirection by a factor of 2.
Multiply every x-coordinate by
1
and keep y-coordinates
2
unchanged.

(b)
152
y 2 f ( x) is the graph obtained
by stretching the graph y f (x)

in vertically by a scale factor of
2 . That is, the graph y f (x)
gets expanded by a factor of 2 in
the y-direction. Multiply every
y-coordinate by 2 and keep xcoordinates unchanged.
Example 10
Sketch the curve with equations
(a) y x 3
(b) y ( x 1) 3
SOLUTION:
(c) y (3 x) 3
153
EXERCISE 5D
154
155
156
Intersection points
Example 11
(a) On the same diagram sketch the curves with equations y x( x 3) and y x 2 (1 x).
(b) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection.
SOLUTION:
157
Example 12
(a) On the same diagram sketch the curves with equations y x( x 3) and y x 2 (1 x).
(b) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection.
SOLUTION:
EXERCISE 5E
158
159
160
5.3 Exponential and Logarithms

The Exponential function and its graph
An expression of the form a x is called an exponential expression. The number a is called the
base and x is the power or index. For example, 4 x and 0.5 x are both exponential expressions.
The most common exponential expression is e x where e is the exponential constant 2.71828.
This special base is known as the natural base.
Exponential Growth: Graph of the exponential function y a x , (a 1)
As an example, consider the function y 2 x . Using the following table, we can graph the function
y 2x .
-4
-3
-2
-1
2x
1
16
1
8
1
4
1
2
16
Form the table, we observe the following:

The exponential function is never negative.
When x 0 , the function value is 1.
As x increases, then a x increases. This is known as exponential growth.
By choosing x large enough, the value of a x can be made larger than any given number.
We say that a x increase without bound as x increases.
As x becomes large and negative, a x gets nearer and nearer to 0. Thus y 0 is an
asymptote.
Example 13
On the same axes sketch the graphs of y 3 x , y 2 x and y 1.5 x .
161
SOLUTION
Note that as the base increases y a x rises more rapidly than a smaller base.
Exponential Decay: Graph of the exponential function y a x , (0 a 1)
Here we will consider exponential function y a x where the base satisfies 0 a 1 .
Example 14
x
1
Sketch the graph of y .
2
SOLTUION:
Prepare a table of values of y for some selected x values.
-4
-3
-2
-1
2x
16
1
2
1
4
1
8
1
16
Form the table, we observe the following:

The exponential function is never negative.
When x 0 , the function value is 1.
As x increases, then a x decreases. This is known as exponential decay.
By choosing x large and negative, the value of a x can be made larger than any given
number. We say that a x increase without bound as x decreases.
As x becomes large and positive, a x gets nearer and nearer to 0. Thus y 0 is an
asymptote.
162
Logarithms
Given an equation such that 81 9 2 , we call the base 9 the base and 3 the power or index. We can
use logarithms to write the equation in another form. The logarithm form is
log 9 81 2 .
Here the number 9 is called the base of the logarithm.
Similarly, the result 2 3 8 can be written as
log 2 8 3
In this case, the base is 2.
Generally,
y a x is written as log a y x
This is read as the logarithm to the base a of y is x
Example 15
Write down the logarithm form of the following:
(a) 16 4 2
(b) 125 53
(c) 16 2 4
SOLUTION:
(a) 16 4 2 may be written as
log 4 16 2
That is, 2 is the logarithm to the base 4 of 16.
(b) 125 53 may be written as
log 5 125 3
163

(a) 16 2 4 may be written as
log 2 16 4
Example 16
Write the exponential form of the following:
(a) log 2 16 4
(b) log 3 27 3
(c) log 5 125 3
(d) log 10 100 2
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Here the base is 2 and so we may write 16 2 4 .

The base is 3 and so 27 33 .
The base is 5 and so 125 53 .
The base is 10 and so 100 10 2 .
Although the base of a logarithm can be any positive number other than 1, the commonly used
bases are 10 and e . Logarithm to base 10 are often denoted by log or log 10 ; logarithms to base
e are denoted by ln or log e and referred to as natural logarithms. Most of the scientific
calculators possess log and ln buttons, which are used to evaluate logarithms to base 10 and
base e.
A formula for changing logarithms in other bases to base 10 or any new base, we can use the
change of base formula.
log a x
log b x
log b a
(change of base formula)
Example 17
Use a calculator to evaluate the following:
(a) log 71
(b) ln 3.7
(c) log 0.4615
(d) ln 0.5
(e) ln 1000
SOLUTION:
(a) log 71 0.8513
(b) ln 3.7 1.3083
(d) ln 0.5 0.6931
(e) ln 1000 6.9078
(c) log 0.4615 0.3358
164
Laws of Logarithm
Logarithms obey several laws.
1. log a 1 0 (a 0)
2. log a a 1 (a 0)
3. log a A log a B log a AB
(multiplication law)
4. log a A log a B log a AB
(division law)
5. log a x b b log a x
(power law)
Example 18
Simplify to a single log
(a) log 2 9 log 2 x
(b) log 5 20 log 5 10
(c) 3 log b x log b x 2
SOLUTION:
(a) log 2 9 log 2 x log 2 (9 x)
20
(b) log 5 20 log 5 10 log 5 log 5 2
10
2
(c) 3 log b x log b x log b x 3 log b x 2
Use the multiplication law

Use the division law
use power rule first
x3
log b 2 log b x
x
use the division rule
Example 19
Write the following as a single logarithmic expression:
(a) 3 log 2
(b) 2 log 3
(c) 4 log 3
SOLUTION:
(a) 3 log 2 log 23 log 8
(b) 2 log 3 log 32 log 9
(c) 4 log 3 log 34 log 81
Example 20
Write as a single log term and find the value:
1
(a) log 2 16
(b) log 2 4
(c) 2 log 2 2
2
SOLUTION:
1
(d) log 2 0.5
2
165
1
log 2 16 log 2 161 / 2 log 2 16 log 2 4 log 2 2 2 2 log 2 2 2(1) 2
2
(b) log 2 4 log 2 2 2 2 log 2 2 2(1) 2
(a)
(c) 2 log 2 2 2(1) 2

1
1
1
1
(d) log 2 0.5 log 2 2 1 log 2 2
2
2
2
2
Example 21
Simplify
(a) 3 log x log x 2
(b) 3 log t 3 4 log t 2
(c) log Y 3 log 2Y 2 log 4Y
SOLUTION:
(a)
3 log x log x 2 log x 3 log x 2

x3
log 2
x
log x
(b)
3 log t 3 4 log t 2 log t 3
log t 2
log t 9 log t 8
t9
log 8
t
log t
(c)
log Y 3 log 2Y 2 log 4Y log Y log 2Y log 4Y

3
log Y log 8Y 3 log 16Y 2

Y 16Y 2
log
3
8Y
log 2
Example 22
Simplify
1
(a) 2 log 7 3x log 7 16 x 2
2
(b)
3
1
log 4 x 2 log
2
x
166
2
2
(c) 2 log 2 3 log
x
x
SOLUTION
(a)
1
2
2 log 7 3x log 7 16 x 2 log 2 3x log 2 16 x 2
2
log 2 9 x 2 log 2 4 x
1/ 2
9x 2
log 2
4x
9x
log 2
4
(b)
3
1
log 4 x 2 log log 4 x 2
2
x
3/ 2
log x 1
log 8 x 3 log x
log 8 x 4
(c)
2
2
2
2 log 2 3 log log 2
x
x
x
4
log 4
x
2
log
8
log 3
x
4 / x4
log
3
8/ x
1
log
2x
Example 23
Express each of the following as a single logarithm.
(a) log 3 log 5
(b) log 27 log 9
(c) 3 log 2 log 4 log 8
SOLUTION:
(a)
log 3 log 5 log( 3 5)

log 15
(b)
27
log 27 log 9 log
9
log 3
(d) 2 log x 3 log y 2 log xy
167
(c)
3 log 2 log 4 log 8 log 8 log 4 log 8

log 4
(d)
2 log x 3 log y 2 log xy log x 2 log y 3 log xy
log x 2 log y 3 log x 2 y 2

log x 2 log y 3 log x 2 log y 2
x2
log 3 x 2 y 2
y
4
x
log
y
Example 24
Express each of the following in terms of log a , log b , log c
1
(a) log 2
a
ab
(b) log
c
(c) log
SOLUTION:
(a)
1
log 2 log a 2
a
2 log a
(b)
ab
log log( ab) log c
c
log a log b log c
(c)
1/ 2
log
a
a
log 2
2
bc
bc
1 a
log 2
2 bc
1
log a log( bc 2 )
2
1
log a log b log c 2
2
1
log log b 2 log c
2
a
bc 2
EXERCISE 5F
168
169
Solving Equations with Logarithms

Example 25
Solve the following equations for x
(a) 3 x 10
(b) 5 4 x1 7 x 2
(c) 2 2 x 2 x 6
SOLUTION:
(a)
3 x 10
Taking logarithms on both sides gives
log 3 x log 10
x log 3 log 10
log 10
log 3
2.10
4 x 1
5
7 x2
Take logarithms on both sides to get
x
(b)
log 5 4 x 1 log 7 x 2
(4 x 1) log 5 ( x 2) log 7
4 x log 5 log 5 x log 7 2 log 7
4 x log 5 x log 7 2 log 7 log 5
x(4 log 5 log 7) 2 log 7 log 5
2 log 7 log 5
x
4 log 5 log 7
1.22 (3 s.f)
(c) Rearranging the equation gives
22x 2 x 6 0
Notice that this is a quadratic equation in 2 x . That is,
2x 2x 6 0
If we let y 2 x , then we have

y2 y 6 0
( y 2)( y 3) 0
y 2 or y 3
Now, when 2 x 2 , taking logarithms on both sides gives

x log 2 log( 2)
But log( 2) does not exist, since the log function is not defined for negative values.
Therefore, this gives no solutions.
When 2 x 3 , taking logarithms on both sides gives
x log 2 log 3
log 3
x
log 2
1.58
Example 26
Solve the equation log 3 x 6 log x 5 5 :
SOLUTION:
EXERCISE 5G
170
171
EXERCISE 5H
172
Chapter 6: Sequence and Series
173
Objectives
Find the nth term of a sequence

Find the nth term of an arithmetic series
Find the sum to n terms of an arithmetic series
Find the nth term of a geometric series
Find the sum to n terms of a geometric series and the sum to infinity.
Chapter outline
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Arithmetic sequence
and series
6.3
Geometric sequence
and series
This chapter is about sequences and series of numbers. In

mathematics, a sequence is an ordered list of objects, often
numbers are defined in terms of the previous member of the
set. The ideas from sequences will lead to two types of series
known as Arithemetic and Goemetric series, which will be the
main focus of this chapter.
174
6.1 Introduction
Suppose you go on a sponsored walk. In the first hour you walk3 miles, in the second hour 2
2
miles and in each succeeding hour of the distance the hour before. How far would you walk in
3
10hours? How far would you go if you kept on like this forever?
4
, ... etc. This chapter is about how to tackle problems
3
that involve sequences like this and gives further examples of where they might arise. It also
examines sequences and series in general, quick methods of writing them down, and techniques
for investigating their behaviour.
This gives a sequence of numbers: 3, 2,
A sequence may not necessarily be numbers. It can be geometrical shapes or any other type of
objects. Below are sequences that are not numbers. In each case, will you be able to find the next
object in the sequence?
Our focus is kept on sequence of numbers.

Definition: A series of numbers with a set rule is called a sequence of numbers. Each number in
this sequence is called a term denoted by a n .
Thus, a sequence is represented as series of numbers a1 , a2 , a3 ,, an , . The subscript in each
term represents the position of the term in the sequence. For example, a 3 means the third term in
the sequence and a10 means 10th term of the sequence. In some sequence it is easy to find a
general that the describe each term of the sequence, however, there are also sequence whose
general term is not immediately obvious.
Example 1
In each case (i) workout the next three terms, (ii) a rule to find the next term.
(a) 3, 7,11,14,
1
(b) ,1, 3, 9,
3
(c) 1, 3, 6,10,
SOLUTION:
(a) (i) 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27,
(ii)
175
Term No
Term
11
15
19
23
27
The rule to find the next term is to add 4 to pervious term.

(b) (i)
1
,1, 3, 9, 27,81, 243,
3
(ii)
Term No
Term
1
3
27
81
The rule to find the next term is to multiply the previous term by 3.
(c) (i) 1, 3, 6,10, 15, 21, 28,
(ii)
Term No
1
2
Term
10
15
21
The rule to find the next term is add term value to the previous term. To see this,
a5 5 a4 5 10 15.
Sequence whose next term is given in terms of previous term is called recurrence relationship.
Example 2
Find the first three terms of the following sequences.
(a) an1 an 5, a1 3
(b) an1 2an 3an , a1 1
2
SOLUTION:
(a)
an1 an 5, a1 3
Substituting
n 1, a2 a1 5 3 5 8
n 2, a3 a2 5 8 5 13
n 3, a4 a3 5 13 5 18
(b)
an1 2an 3an , a1 1

2
Substituting
176
n 1, a2 2a1 3a1 2(1) 2 3(1) 1

2
n 2, a3 2a2 3a2 2(1) 2 3(1) 5

2
n 3, a4 2a3 3a3 2(5) 2 3(5) 35

2
In defining a sequence as a recurrence relation, you must always state the first term. This is
because, different sequence has may have the same recurrence relationship.
How about if we are not given the previous term? Can we still find the next term? This means for
example can we find the 10th term of a sequence if we are not given the 9th term of this sequence.
The Solution is Yes; we can. Finding a formula or a rule to find any term is called the nth term
and it is very useful to know the nth term. The next section discusses this idea.
nth term of a sequence

The nth term of a sequence denoted by a n is also called the general term of a sequence. In the
preceding section we learnt how to find a term from previous term by observing the relationship
between successive terms. This idea is a bit ambiguous if we wish to find higher terms in the
sequence. Thus a general rule would be effective is such cases.
Example 3
The nth term of a sequence is given by a n
2n 3
. Find the first three terms and the 10th term.
5n
SOLUTION:
We begin with n 1 (unless stated always start with n 1 ). Then
2(1) 3 5
n 1 a1
1
5(1)
5
2(2) 3 7
n 2 a2
5(2)
10
2(3) 3 9 3
n 3 a3

5(3)
15 5
2(10) 3 23
n 10 a10
5(10)
50
Example 4
Find the value of n for which a n has the given value.
2n 3
11
(a) a n
, an
25
5n
2
(b) an n n , an 90
SOLUTION:
177
(a)
2n 3 11
5n
25
25(2n 3) 11(5n)
50n 75 55n
50n 55n 75
5n 75
75
5
n 15
n
(b)
n 2 n 90
n 2 n 90 0
(n 10)(n 9) 0
n 10, n 9
Therfore n 10 (n is always positive.)
Factorizing the expression n 2 n 90
Example 5
Find the nth term of the given sequence.
(a) 1, 3, 5, 7,
(b) 1, 3, 6, 10,
SOLUTION:
(a) First notice that we have a difference of 2 between any two successive terms of this
sequence. The second term is 1 2 a1 2 . The third term is 1 2 2 a1 2(2) . The
fourth term is 1 2 2 2 a1 2(3) . Following this pattern, we conclude the nth term,
an 1 2(n 1) 1 2n 2 2n 1 . That is an 2n 1 .
(b) In this case notice that the difference between successive terms increase by 1. The second
difference between the terms is therefore constant and is 1.
1,
3,
6,
10,
2
3
4
1st difference
1
1
2nd difference
Now it is not difficult to observe that
a1 1 0.5(1)(2)
a2 3 0.5(2)(3)
a3 6 0.5(3)(4)
Thus
an 0.5n(n 1)
EXERCISE 6A
178
179
180
6.2 Arithmetic sequence and series

So far we have some examples of sequences. The relationship between successive terms of some
of those sequences is constant. That is they increase by a constant number. As a recurrence
relation such sequence can be described as ak 1 ak l , k 1, l R . These sequences are called
arithmetic sequences.
Consider the sequence 2, 6, 10, 14, It is easily observed that each term has added 4 to it to
obtain the next term. This special number 4 is called the common difference, denoted by d.
Below are some more examples of arithmetic sequences. Can you identify their common
difference?
0, 5, 10, 15,
20, 17, 14, 11,
10, 20, 30, 40,
d=5
d=?
d=?
Thus an arithmetic sequence can be put in the form

a, a d , a 2d , a 3d , a 4d ,
1st term
2nd term
3rd term
4th term 5th term
Example 5
Find the tenth term and the nth term of the arithmetic sequence 2, 6, 10, 14,
SOLUTION
The common difference is the difference between the consecutive
terms. In this case, the common difference is 6 2 4 .
2nd term, a2 2 d
3rd term, a3 2 4 2 2d
4th term, a4 2 6 2 3d
Thus the tenth term would be a10 2 9d 2 9(2) 20
And the nth term is an 2 (n 1)d 2 (n 1)(2) 2n
Example 6
A 6 m high tree us planted in a garden. If it grows 1.5 meter a year.
(a) How high will it be after it has been in the garden fir 8 years?
181
(b) After how many years will it be 24 meters high?
SOLUTION
(a)
Since the tree grows 1.5 m every year, the difference in

height between every two consecutive year is 1.5. So
height after 8 years would be
6 8 1.5
10 m
(b)
We will first find out how much it has grown in total.

It can be calculated by taking the difference current height
and height at the start.
24 6 18 meteres is the height the tree has grown.
Every year the tree grows by 1.5 meter. Therefore number

of years to grow by 18 meter is
18
12 years
1.5
nth term of an arithmetic series

When the terms of a sequence are added the sum of the term is called a series. A series whose
consecutive terms have common difference is called an arithmetic series.
So an arithmetic series can be written as
a (a d ) (a 2d ) (a 3d ) (a 4d )
1st term 2nd term 3rd term 4th term 5th term
Looking at the number of term and the coefficient of d, we could see the tenth term of this series
would be a 9d
Thus the general term also known as the nth term of an arithmetic series is
an a (n 1)d ,
where a is the first term and d is the common difference
Example 7

Find the 10th term and the 20th of the given series
(a) 3 10 17
1 7 12
(b)
4 8 8
SOLUTION
(a)
3 10 17
In this series
a 3, d 10 3 7
a10 a (10 1)d 3 9(7) 66
a20 a (20 1)d 3 19(7) 136
(b)
1 7 12

4 8 8
In this series,
1
7 1 5
a , d
4
8 4 8
1 5 47
a10 a (10 1)d 9
4 8 8
a20 a (20 1)d
1
5 97
19
4
8 8
Example 8
For the arithmetic series 5 9 13 17 21 805
(a) Find the number of terms
(b) Which term of the series would be 129?
SOLUTION
(a)
Series is 5 9 13 17 21 805
In this series a 5, d 9 5 4
Using the nth term an a (n 1)d
182
183
5 (n 1) 4 805
5 4n 4 805
4n 805 1
804
4
201
Therefore there are 201 terms in this series.

(b)
Using the nth term an a (n 1)d
5 (n 1) 4 129
5 4n 4 129
4n 129 1
128
4
32
Thus, 129 in the 32nd term of this series.
Example 9
Given that the third term of an arithmetic series is 5 and the fifth term is 9. Find the first term and
the common difference.
SOLUTION
Third term is a3 a (3 1)d a 2d 5
Fifth term is a5 a (5 1)d a 4d 9
So we have two equations
a 2d 5
a 4d 9
(1)
(2)
By subtracting equation (1) from (2),
a a 4d 2d 9 5
2d 4
d 2
The common difference is 2
Substituting d 2 in equation (1) gives
184
a 2(2) 5
a 54
1
So the first term is 1
Example 10
The first three terms of an arithmetic series are y 1, 2 y and 4 y 2 .
Find the fourth and fifth terms.
SOLUTION
This series has first term a1 y 1
Second term a2 2 y
Third term a3 4 y 2
common difference can be calculated by taking the
difference between any two consecutive term
Difference between 1st and 2nd term

Difference between 2nd and 3rd term
d a2 a1 2 y ( y 1) 2 y y 1 y 1
d a3 a2 4 y 2 2 y 2 y 2
Since d is same, we can equate these two expressions
y 1 2 y 2
y 2 y 2 1
y 3
y3
Therefore d 3 1 4 and the series is

2 6 10 and
fourth term is a4 a (4 1)d 2 3 4 14

fifth term is a5 a (5 1)d 2 4 4 18
Sum to n terms of an arithmetic series

In this section, you will learn how to find the sum of a given number of terms of an arithmetic
series. We will present the method used by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855). The idea is to write
the series in two different ways and taking the sum of these two series. The sum of the series is
then the above sum divided by two. We will now present a formula to calculate the sum of first n
terms of an arithmetic series.
185
Let a be the first term and d be the common difference of an arithmetic series. The nth term is
then given by an a (n 1)d . We call this nth term as the last term and will use l to represent it.
So l an . The sum of first n terms is denoted by S n . So,
S n a (a d ) (a 2d ) (l d ) l
(1)
Reversing the sum:
S n l (l d ) (l 2d ) (a d ) a
(2)
Adding these two equations:
2S n (a l ) [(a d ) (l d )] [(a 2d ) (l 2d )] [(l d ) (a d )] (l a)
2S n (a l ) (a l ) (a l ) (a l ) (a l )
2 S n n( a l )
n
S n [a l ]
2
Substituting l a (n 1)d ,
n
S n [a a (n 1)d ]
2
n
S n [2a (n 1)d ]
2
Example 11
Find the sum of first 100 even numbers.
SOLUTION
First note that the first term of this series is 2 and the
common difference is 2.
So a 2, d 2, n 100
S 2 4 6 8
100
[2(2) (100 1) 2]
2
50(4 198)
10100
Example 12
Find the sum of the series 2 7 12 77
SOLUTION
We are adding n
terms
This formula can be used
if the last term is given
186
In this series we are given the last term. So we need

first to find which term is 77.
a 2, d 3, an l 77
77 2 (n 1) 3
77 2 3n 3
an a (n 1)d
77 1 3n
78
3
26
So we have 26 terms in this sequence. Hence
26
S [2(2) (26 1) 3]
2
13(4 75
1027
n
S n [2a (n 1)d ]
2
Example 13
Find the greatest number of terms required for the sum of 4 9 13 18 to exceed 2000.
SOLUTION
4 9 13 18 2000
Using,
n
S n [2a (n 1)d ]
2
n
2000 [2(4) (n 1) 5]
2
4000 n(8 5n 5)
4000 3n 5n 2
5n 2 3n 4000 0
3 32 4(5)(4000)
n
2(5)
27.9, 28.5
Thus, 28 terms are needed.
187
Example 14
A shop assistant is arranging a display of a triangular array of tins so as to have one tin in the top
row, two in the second, three in the third and so on. If there are 100 tins altogether, how many
rows can be completed and how many tins will be left over?
SOLUTION
In this case we have a series 1 2 3 100
So a 1, d 1, S n 100
n
[2a (n 1)d ]
2
n
100 [2(1) (n 1) 1]
2
200 n(2 n 1)
Sn
200 n n 2
n 2 n 200 0
1 12 4(1)(200)
2(1)
13.7, 14.7
So, the assistant can make 13 rows.
13
[2(1) (13 1) 1]
2
13
[2 12]
2
91
S13
Hence, the number of tins in 13 rows is 91. Therefore

9 tins remain.
EXERCISE 6B
188
189
190
6.3 Geometric sequence and series

Before we begin, consider the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8,
If you calculate the difference between consecutive terms, you would notice those differences are
not same. Therefore this sequence is certainly not an arithmetic sequence.
Further analysis reveals that every term is multiplied by two to get the next term. Sequences that
have this property are called geometric sequences. This number (2 in this case) that we multiply
every time is called the common ratio.
Example 15
Which of the following sequences are geometric?
(a) 3,9,27,81,
(b) 2,4,8,6,
(c) 1,2,4,8,
1 1 1 1
(d) , , , ,
2 6 12 36
SOLUTION
(a)
3,9,27,81,
Each term is multiplied by 3 to get the next term.
Therefore geometric.
(b)
2,4,8,6,
a2 a1 2
a3 a2 (2)
The number multiplied is not same. Therefore not
geometric
(c)
1,2,4,8,
a2 a1 (2)
a3 a2 (2)
a4 a3 (2)
Each term is multiplied by 2 to get the next term.


(d)
191
1 1 1 1
, , , ,
2 6 12 36
1
3
1
a3 a 2
3
1
a 4 a3
3
a 2 a1
Each term is multiplied by
1
to get the next term.
3
So is there any easy way to find the number we multiply every time? The answer is yes.
In a geometric sequence every term is multiplied by a constant number to get the next term.
This number is called the common ratio, and is denoted by r.
Example 16
Find the common ration of the following geometric sequences.
1 1 1
(a) 1, , , ,
4 16 64
(b) 1,1.1,1.21,1.331,
SOLUTION
(a)
1 1 1
1, , , ,
4 16 64
r
a2 1 / 4 1
a1
1
4
Therefore r
(b)
1
4
1,1.1,1.21,1.331,
r
a2 1.1
1.1
a1
1
So, r 1.1
3.4.1 nth term of a geometric sequence
192
In this section we will derive a formula to find the general term of a geometric series
Let a be the first term of a geometric sequence and r be the common ratio.
1st term
2nd term
3rd term
4th term
nth term
a1
a2
a3
a4
an
a,
ar ,
ar 2
ar 3 ,
ar n1
If we observe the relationship between the number of terms and the power of r in each term we
get the following rule.
The nth term of a geometric sequence with first term a and common ratio r is an ar n1
Example 17
Find the 10th and 20th terms in the following geometric sequences.
(a) 5,10,20,
(b) 40,20,10,5,
SOLUTION
(a)
5,10,20,
For this sequence a 5, r 10 / 5 2 .
an ar n1
a10 5 2101 5 29 2560
a20 5 2 201 5 219 2621440
(b)
40,20,10,5,
For this sequence a 40, r 20 / 40 0.5 .
an ar n1
a10 40 0.5101 40 0.59 0.078125
a20 40 0.5201 40 0.519 7.6 10 5
193
Example 18
The third term of a geometric sequence is 10, and the sixth term is 80. Find the values of
(a) the common ratio
(b) first term
(c) the 10th term
SOLUTION
(a)
3rd term = 10, ar 2 10 . (1)

6th term = 80, ar 5 80 . (2)
5
(2)
(1)
ar
80
2
10
ar
Using nth term = ar n1

Divide the highest power
of r by the lowest poer
r3 8
r3 8
2
(b)
Substituting r in equation (1)
a 2 2 10
10
a
4
2.5
(c)
10th term = ar 9
a10 2.5 29
1280
Example 19
The three consecutive terms of a geometric sequence are n 2, n, n 3 . Find
(a) the value of n
(b) the common ratio
(c) the term after n 3
SOLUTION
(a)
n 2, n, n 3 are consecutive terms. Therefore the

ratios must be same.
194
n
n3
n2
n
2
n (n 3)(n 2)
n 2 n 2 2n 3n 6
n 6
n6
(b)
(c)
The term after n 3 is
n
n2
6
62
6
4
1 .5
(n 3) 1.5
(6 3) 1.5
13.5
Example 20
A man starts saving on 1 April. He saves 1p the first day, 2p the second day, 4p the third, and so
on, doubling the amount every day.
If he kept on saving under this system until the end of month (30 days), how much would he
saved? Give your answer in pounds, correct to 3 significant figures.
SOLUTION
The sequence of saving is 1,2,4,
So a 1, r 2
End of 30 days, n 30
an ar n1
a30 1 2 29
536870912 pence
5370000 pounds
Example 21
What is the first term in the geometric sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, to exceed 1 million?
195
SOLUTION
3, 6, 12, 24, This sequence has a 3, r 2
nth term ar n1
3 2 n1
We want nth term > 1000000
3 2 n1 1000000
1000000
2 n1
3
1000000
log 2 n1 log
1000000
(n 1) log 2 log
1000000
log
n 1
log 2
n 1 18.35
n 19.35
n 20
The 20th term is the first to exceed 1000000.
Sum to n terms of a geometric series

Let a be the first term and r be the common ration of a geometric series. We wish to find a
formula to find the sum to n terms of this series.
The series is then a ar ar 2 ar n2 ar n1
So,
S n a ar ar 2 ar n2 ar n1 . (1)
Multiplying this equation by r, we get

rSn ar ar 2 ar n2 ar n1 ar n . (2)
(1) (2) gives S n rS n a ar n

S n (1 r ) a(1 r n )
Sn
a(1 r n )
(1 r )
196
The general rule for the sum of a geometric series is

a(r n 1)
a(1 r n )
Sn
, if r 1 or S n
, if r 1
r 1
1 r
Example 22
For the geometric series 3 6 12 24 , find the sum of first 20 terms.
SOLUTION
3 6 12 24 For this series a 3, r 2
a (r n 1)
r 1
3(2 20 1)
S 20
2 1
3(2 20 1)
3145725
Sn
Example 23
A machine depreciates in value by 5% every year. After how many years would a machine have
lost more than half its value?
SOLUTION
Let the original value of the machine be $x.
The value decreases by 5%.
Therefore, r
100 5
0.95
100
After one year: value = 0.95 x 0.95x

After two year: value = (0.95 x) 0.95 0.952 x
After n years: value = 0.95n x
If the machine has lost more than half of its value,
197
x
2
n
0.95 0.5
0.95 n x
log( 0.95 n ) log( 0.5)

n log 0.95 log 0.5
log 0.5
log 0.95
n 13.5
Dividing by a negative
number changes
inequality sign
n 14
So after 14 years the machine loses more than half of

its value.
Example 25
A building society pays 6% compound interest per annum.
Ali deposits $1500 and asks for interest to be added to his account annually.
Ahmed decides to invest $2500 at the start of each year.
(a) How much will be in Alis account at the end of the first year, and at the end of five years?
(b) Find expressions for the amount in Ahmeds account at the end of first year, at the end of
second year, and at the end of third year.
(c) Form a series to find the total value in Ahmeds account after 5 years.
SOLUTION
(a)
Adding 6% interest gives r
100 6
1.06
100
End of 1st year: a1 1500 1.06 1590

End of 2nd year:
a2 (1500 1.06) 1.06 1500 1.06 2
End of 5th year

a5 1500 1.065 2007.34
(b)
End of 1st year: a1 2500 1.06

End of 2nd year:
a2 (2500 1.06 2500) 1.06
2500 1.06 2 2500 1.06
End of 3rd year
198
a3 (2500 1.06 2 2500 1.06 2500) 1.06

2500 1.063 2500 1.06 2 2500 1.06
(c)
End of 10th year:

a10 2500 1.0610 2500 1.06 9 2500 1.06
2500(1.0610 1.06 9 1.06)
2500(1.06 1.06 2 1.0610 )
1.06(1.0610 1)
2500
1
.
06
34929.11
Reversing the
order
a 1.06, r 1.06
Sn
a(r n 1)
r 1
Sum to infinity of a geometric series

1 1 1
Consider the geometric series 1
2 4 8
No matter how many terms of the series we take. The sum never exceeds a particular number. We
call this number the limit of the sum of sum to infinity. Is this the case in every geometric
sequence? How do we find this limit?
Lets find the sum of this series.
a 1, r 0.5
a (1 r n )
Sn
1 r
1(1 0.5 n )
1 0 .5
1 0 .5 n
0.5
1 0 .5 n
0 .5 0 . 5
2 0.5 n 1
As n becomes large 0.5n1 becomes small.

That is 0.5n1 0 as n .
So S n 2
Series that has this limit are called convergent series. A geometric series is convergent if the
common ratio, r 1
199
Let a ar ar 2 be a converging geometric series. The sum to n terms of this series is

a(1 r n )
a(1 r n ) a(1 0)
a
Sn
. Since r 1, r n 0 as n Hence S n
1 r
1 r
1 r
1 r
a
, if r 1
The sum to infinity of a geometric series is S
1 r
Example 26
Find the sum to infinity of the following series
1 1 1
(a) 1
3 9 27
(b) 0.5 + 0.05 + 0.005 +
SOLUTION
(a)
1 1 1
1
3 9 27
For this series a 1, r 1/ 3
(b)
1 r
1
1
3
1 2/3 2
1
3
0.5 + 0.05 + 0.005 +
For this series a 0.5, r 0.1
a
0.5
5
1 r 1 0.1 9
Example 27
The second term of a geometric series is 16 and its sum to infinity is 100.
Find two possible values of the common ratio and the corresponding first terms.
SOLUTION
2nd term = a2 ar 16 .. (1)
a
100 a 100(1 r ) (2)
1 r
(1) a
16
r
Substituting a in equation (2)
200
16
100 100r
r
16 100r 100r 2
100r 2 100r 16 0
25r 2 25r 4 0
(5r 1)(5r 4) 0
Dividing the equation by

4By factorizing
1
4
r ,r
5
5
Both values of r is less than 1, so S exist.
1
16
a
80
5
1/ 5
4
16
r a
20
5
4/5
r
Example 28
Express 0.72 as fraction.
SOLUTION
0.72 0.7272727272
72
72
72
100 10000 1000000

72
1
1

1
100 100 100
1
72
1 0.01
100
72
99
8
11
Geometric series with

a 1, r 0.01 . So S
exist.
EXERCISE 6C
201
202
EXERCISE 6D
203
204
EXERCISE 6E
205
206
207
Chapter 7: Trigonometry
208
7
Objectives
Know how to convert between angles in degree and radians

Calculate the area of a sector and length of arc
Calculate the sine, cosine and tangent of any angle
Know the exact trigonometric ratio for 30o, 45o and 60o
Sketch the graphs of sine, cosine and tangent functions
Sketch simple transformations of these graphs
Solve simple trigonometric equations
Chapter outline
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Angles
7.3
Sketching angles
7.4
Arc length and Area of a sector
7.5
Trigonometric functions for any

angle
7.6
Symmetry properties of
trigonometric functions
7.7
Evaluating Trigonometric
functions.
7.8
Trigonometric functions and their

graphs
7.9
Simple Transformations
7.10
Trigonometric Identities and

simple equations
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that

studies relationships involving lengths and angles of
triangles. The field emerged during the 3rd century
BC from applications of geometry to astronomical
studies.
Trigonometric functions have many real-life

applications. For example, the motion of a
pendulum
can
be
described by
209
7.1 Introduction
Trigonometry is the study of the relations between the sides and angles of triangles. The word
trigonometry is derived from the Greek word trigono, meaning triangle and metro meaning
measure. Trigonometry is distinguished from elementary geometry in part by its extensive use
of certain functions of angles, known as the trigonometric functions. Before discussing those
functions, we will review some basic terminology about angles.
7.2 Angles
Two distinct points A and B determine a line
called line AB. The portion of the line
between A and B, including points A and B
themselves, is line segment AB, or simply
segment AB. The portion of line AB that
starts at A and continues through B, and on
past B, is called ray AB. Point A is the
endpoint of the ray.
An angle is formed by rotating a ray around
its endpoint. The ray in its initial position is
called the initial side of the angle, while the
ray in its location after the rotation is the
terminal side of the angle. The endpoint of
the ray is the vertex of the angle.
If the rotation of the terminal side is
counterclockwise, the angle is positive. If
the rotation is clockwise, the angle is
negative.
Degree Measure
The most common unit for measuring angles is the degree. (The other common unit of measure,
called the radian, is discussed in the next section). Degree measure was developed by the
Babylonians, 4000 years ago. To use degree measure, we assign 360 degrees to a complete
rotation of a ray. Notice that the terminal side of the angle corresponds to its initial side when it
1
makes a complete rotation. One degree, written 1, represents
of a rotation. Therefore, 90 o
360
90 1
of a complete rotation. An angle measuring between 0 o and 90 o is called an
represents
360 4
210
acute angle. An angle measuring exactly 90 o is a right angle. An angle measuring more than 90 o
but less than 180 o is an obtuse angle, and an angle exactly equal to 180 o is a straight angle.
Radian Measure
So far we have been using degrees as our unit of measurement for angles. However, there is
another way of measuring angles that is often more convenient. The idea is simple: associate
a central angle of a circle with the arc that it intercepts
Radian is short for radius angle. Consider the following figure, which shows a circle of radius
r , centre O and arc AB. We say that the arc AB subtends an angle AOB at the centre of the circle.
Clearly, if AB is short then angle AOB will be small; if AB is long then angle AOB will be a large
angle.
If arc AB has a length equal to 1 radius then we say that angle AOB is 1 radian.
1 radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc length of 1 radius.
211
The symbol for radians is c , so c means that is in radians. If there is no symbol with an angle
we should consider it as in radians, unless specified.
From the definition of radian, we see that
an arc of length r subtends an angle of 1 radian
an arc of length 2r subtends an angle of 2 radian
and so on.
By looking at the pattern, we observe that
We note that 2r is the circumference of the circle, and so the circumference subtends an angle of
2 radians. But we already know that the circumference subtends a full revolution, that is 3600.
Hence, 2 rad = 360o and so, equivalently
1 radian =
180 0
This equation allows us to convert degrees to radians and radians to degrees. That is to convert an
180
angle in radian to degree multiply the angle by
and to convert an angle in degree to radian,
multiply the angle by

.
180
Example 1
Convert the following angles in radians to degrees
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) 0.7
(e) 1
(f) 3
212
SOLUTION:
(a) We have
(b)
1800
1800
180
450
4
and so
180 0
90 0
2
(c) 1800
(d) 1800
and so
and so
0.7 0.7
1800
60 0
3
(e) 1800
(f)
and so
1 1
180
1800
and so
180
57.30
3 3
180
171.9 0
Example 2
Convert the following angles in degrees to radians.
(a) 72 0
(b) 120 0
(c) 12 0
(d) 200 0
SOLUTION:
(a) 1800 , so
72 0 72
180
120 0 120
180
(c) 1800 , so
12 0 12
(b) 1800 , so
2
3
2.09
2
5
1.26
126 0
180
15
0.21
(d) 1800 , so
200 0 200
10
3
3.49
180
213
The following angles are commonly used in questions.
7.3 Sketching angles

An angle is formed by rotating a ray around its endpoint. The ray in its initial position is called the
initial side of the angle, while the ray in its location after the rotation is the terminal side of the
angle. The endpoint of the ray is the vertex of the angle. If the rotation of the terminal side is
counterclockwise, the angle is positive. If the rotation is clockwise, the angle is negative. This
way we can sketch any big angle.
Example 3
Draw diagrams to show the position of OP where equals
(a) 60 0
(b) 210 0
(g) 480 0
(h)
13
6
(c) 60 0
(i)
5
4
(d) 200 0
(j)
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
2
3
(e) 400 0
(f) 700 0
214
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
When angles are given in radians, it

will be easier to convert it to degree
and then see which quadrant it lies.
(i)
(j)
215
7.4 Arc Length and Area of a Sector

Using angles measured in radians, more convenient formulae for calculating length of arc and
area of a sector can be obtained.
Length of Arc
We have seen that one revolution around a circle has a radian measure of 2 . Note that 2 is the
ratio of the circumference C of a circle to its radius r.
Radian measure of one revolution 2
2r C total arc length

r
r
radius
Figure on the right shows a circular arc AB of length l ,

centre O and radius r , which subtends an angle radian
at its centre.
We know from earlier study that
Length of arc
angle AOB
circumfere nce total angle around O

l
c
2
2r
l r c
Area of a Sector
Using a similar argument, we get the area of the sector.
area of sector
angle POQ
area of circle total angle around O

A c
r 2 2
1
A r 2 c
2
The length of a circular arc with radius r and angle rad is l r

The area of a circular sector with radius r and angle rad is A
1 2
r
2
216
Example 4
Find the perimeter and area of the segment cut off by a chord PQ of length 8 cm from a circle
centre O and radius 6 cm. Give your answers correct to 3 significant figures.
SOLUTION:
In problems like this, it will be helpful to draw a diagram.
The perimeter of the segment consists of two parts, the straight
part of length 8 cm, and the curves part; to calculate the curved
part we need to know the angle POQ.
Call this angle 2 , as triangle POQ is isosceles, a

perpendicular drawn from O to PQ bisects both PQ and angle
POQ.
4
0.666
6
0.7297.....
sin
Make sure your calculator is in radian mode.
Then the perimeter is given by
perimeter PQ r (2 )
8 6(2 0.7297)
16.756
16.8 cm (3 s.f)
To find the area of the segment, we need to find the area of the
sector POQ and the area of the triangle POQ and then find the
difference.
Area of the segment area of sector - area of the triangle
1 2
1
1
1
r (2 ) r 2 sin(2 ) 6 2 (2 0.7297) 6 2 sin(2 0.7297)
2
2
2
2
8.381
The area is 8.38 cm2, correct to 3 significant figures.
EXERCISE 7A
217
EXERCISE 7B
218
219
220
7.5 Trigonometric functions for any angle.

Consider the right-angled triangle ABC shown here. There is a right angle at B. The side opposite
to the right angle is called the hypotenuse. So in the figure the hypotenuse is AC the side
opposite is BC. The remaining side, AB, is said to be adjacent to .
We can define the three trigonometric ratios as

side oppositeto BC
hypotenues
AC
side adjacent t o AB
cos
hypotenues
AC
side oppositeto BC
tan
side adjacent t o AB
sin
221
Example 5
For the right triangle ABC shown on the right, find the values of
all three trigonometric functions of the acute angles A and B.
SOLUTION:
The hypotenuse of ABC has length 5. For angle A, the opposite side is 3 and adjacent side is 4.
So,
3
5
4
cos A
5
3
tan A
4
sin A
For angle B, the opposite has length 4 and adjacent side has length 3. So,
4
5
3
cos B
5
4
tan B
3
sin B
Quadrants
We can now define the trigonometric functions of any angle in terms of Cartesian coordinates.
The xy-coordinate plane consists of points denoted by pairs ( x, y) of real numbers. The first
number, x, is the points x coordinate, and the second number, y, is its y-coordinate. The x and y
coordinates are measured by their positions along the x-axis and y-axis, respectively, which
determine the points position in the plane. This divides the xy-coordinate plane into four
quadrants.
222
Think of an arm OA, that is fixed at O and turns in either anticlockwise or clockwise direction,
starting along the positive x-axis. As it turns, it makes an angle with the positive x-axis.
The quadrant between the positive x-axis and the positive yaxis is called the first quadrant (QI). In this quadrant any
angle is acute. So in this diagram is an angle such that
0 90 0 or 0 in radians.
2
The quadrant between the negative x-axis and the positive yaxis is called the second quadrant (QII). In this quadrant any
angle is obtuse. So in this diagram is an angle such that
90 0 180 0 or in radians.
2
The quadrant between the negative x-axis and the negative yaxis is called the third quadrant (QIII). So in this quadrant
3
is an angle such that 180 0 270 0 or
in
2
radians.
The quadrant between the positive x-axis and the negative yaxis is called the fourth quadrant (QIV). So in this quadrant
3
is angle such that 270 0 360 0 or
2 in
2
radians.
223
We have
sin
y
r
cos
x
r
tan
Example 6
Determine the signs of sin , cos and tan in the second quadrant .
SOLUTION:
y
x
224
Similar way, we can determine the signs of the three trigonometric ratios in the four quadrants.
7.6 Symmetry properties of trigonometric functions

The following relationship can be observed:
225
Example 7
Express in terms of ratios of acute angles:
(a) sin(100 0 )
SOLUTION:
(b) cos 330 0
(c) tan 500 0
226
7.7 Evaluating trigonometric functions

To evaluate trig functions of angles on the unit circle, either:
1. Draw a reference right triangle at the spot of the angle or
2. Use the coordinates of the point where the terminal side of the angle intersects the unit
circle.
Example 8
Write down the values of sin , cos and tan if equals
90 0
180 0
SOLUTION:
270 0
360 0
450 0
540 0
For 90 0 and 450 0 and 270 0 consider the
diagram on the right.
r
1
r
0
cos 90 0 cos 450 0 0
r
r
tan 90 0 tan 450 0
undefined
0
sin 90 0 sin 450 0
For the angle 2700
r
1
r
0
cos 270 0 cos 270 0 0
r
r
tan 90 0 tan 270 0
undefined
0
sin 270 0 sin 270 0
For the angle 180 0 ,360 0 and 540 0 .

0
sin 180 0 sin 540 0 0
r
r
cos 180 0 cos 540 0
1
r
0
tan 180 0 tan 540 0
0
r
And
0
sin 360 0 sin 0 0 0
r
r
cos 360 0 cos 0 0 1
r
0
tan 180 0 tan 0 0
0
r
Example 9
Find the exact values of all three trigonometric functions of 30 0 and 60 0 .
SOLUTION:
227
228
Consider an equilateral triangle ABC of side 2

units. When dropped a perpendicular from A to
meet BC at D, then BD = DC = 1 unit,
ABC 30 0 and ABD 60 0 .
Using Pythagoras Theorem in the right-angled
triangle ABC:
AD 2 2 2 12 4 1 3
So
AD 3 units
Thus in the triangle ABC:

sin 30 0
1
2
cos 30 0
tan 30 0
3
2
1
3
or
3
3
3
2
1
cos 60 0
2
0
tan 60 3
sin 60 0
and
Example 10
Find the exact values of all three trigonometric functions of 45 0 .
SOLUTION:
Now consider an isosceles, right-angled
triangle PQR in which PQ QR 1 . As the
triangle is isosceles PQR 450 .
Pythagoras Theorem gives:
PR 2 12 12 2
PR 2
So:
sin 45 0 cos 45 0
1
2
or
2
2
229
1
tan 45 0 1
1
The angles 30 0 , 450 and 60 0 occur frequently in trigonometry. Memorise their exact
trigonometric ratios.
sin
cos
tan
30 0
1
2
45 0
1
3
2
1
2
2
1
3
2
1
Example 11
Find sin 3150 , leaving your answer in terms of surds.
SOLUTION
315 0 lies in the fourth quadrant, so
sin 315 0 sin(360 0 45 0 )

sin 45 0
1
Example 12
Evaluate
5
(a) sin
4
SOLUTION:
5
(b) cos
6
60 0
11
(c) tan
(a)
has reference angle of

4
4
Since
So, sin
(b)
5
, is is in QIII
4
1
sin
4
4
2

6
6
Since
So, cos
(c)
230
5
, is is in QII
6
3
cos
6
6
2
11

3
3
Since 2
So, tan
11
, is is in QIV
3
11
tan 3
3
3
Evaluating Trigonometric functions with a calculator

When evaluating a trigonometric function with a calculator, you need to set to the desired mode of
measurement (degree or radians). When evaluating trigonometric functions with a calculator,
remember to enclose all fractional angle measures in parentheses. For example, if we want to
evaluate sin for / 6 . You should enter
231
Example 12
Evaluate to 4 significant figures using a calculator
2
(a) sin
(b) cos 173.42 0
(d) tan 7.183c
(c) sin 3c
SOLUTION:
(a)
2
sin
3
0.03655
SIN
Mode = radians
(b)
(c)
(d)
sin 3 0.1411
tan7.183 0.260
cos 173.42 0 0.9934

c
Mode = degree
Mode = radians
Mode = radians
7.8 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Having introduced the ratios sin , cos and tan , we are ready to consider the functions
y sin , y cos and y tan . The independent variable is , and for every value of the
output sin , cos and tan can be found. The graphs of these functions are illustrated in this
section.
232
The sine function y sin
The curve will repeat itself in every 360 0 . The function has a maximum value of +1 and
minimum value of 1 . The maximum value occurs at 90 0 , 450 0 , 810 0 , and so on; in other words
at 90 0 360n 0 , where n is an integer. or at 2n . The minimum value occurs at

2
270 0 , 630 0 , 990 0 , and so on; in other words at 270 0 360n 0 or at

2n .
2
The other main feature of the curve is that it cuts the x-axis at 0,180 0 , 360 0 , 540 0 , 720 0 , and so
on; in other words every 180n 0 or n .
As the curve starts at O and continues to 360 0 before repating itself, we say that sine has period
360 0 or 2 rad.
The cosine function y cos
233
The curve will repeat itself in every 360 0 . The function has a maximum value of +1 and
minimum value of 1 . The maximum value occurs at 0 0 , 360 0 , 720 0 , and so on; in other words
at 360n 0 , where n is an integer or at 2n . The minimum value occurs at 180 0 , 540 0 , and so
on; in other words at 180 0 360n 0 or at 2n .
The other main feature of the curve is that it cuts the x-axis at 90 0 , 270 0 , 450 0 , 540 0 , 630 0 , and so
on; in other words every (2n 1)90 0 or (2n 1) .

2
As the curve starts at O and continues to 360 0 before repating itself, we say that cosine has period
360 0 or 2 rad.
The tangent function y tan
Again the curve is periodic but this time the period is 180 0 or c . The curve cuts the x-axis at
0, 180 0 , 360 0 , 540 0 , 720 0 , and so on; in other words at 180n 0 or n c . It has asymptotes (lines
that the curve approaches but never actually reaches) at 90 0 , 270 0 , 450 0 , and so on; in other
c
words at (2n 1)90 0 or (2n 1)
2
. The graph of y tan x has no maximum or minimum.
Example 12
Sketch the graph of y sin x in the interval x
SOLUTION:
3
.
2
234
7.9 Simple transformations

Graph transformations have been discussed in chapter 4. In this section, we will apply the
transformations to trigonometric functions.
Reflection in the x-axis : Graphing sin x, - cos x and tan x

Transformations such as y sin x , y cos x and y tan x are easy to deal with as for any
function the curve y f (x) is a reflection of the curve of y f (x) in the x-axis.
The graph of y sin x is the same as the graph of y sin x , but reflected on the x-axis.
The graph of y sin x and y sin x
235
The graph of y cos x and y cos x
The graph of y tan x and y tan x
Reflection in the y-axis: Graphing sin(-x), cos(-x) and tan(-x)

It is harder to graph the transformation that occurs when the minus sign is inside the function: for
example, y sin( x) . From the topic on curve sketching, we discussed the graph of y f ( x)
is the graph of y f (x) reflected in the y-axis.
These transformations can be summarized as:
sin( x) sin x
The graph of y sin( x) is the same as that shown above for y sin x .
cos( x) cos( x)
tan( x) tan x
The graph of y sin x and y sin( x)
The graph of y cos x and y cos( x)
236
237
The graph of y tan x and y tan( x)
Horizontal Stretch : Graphing sin nx , cos nx and tan nx

The graph of y sin(nx) , where n is a real number is obtained by stretching horizontally the
1
. What happens to function such as y sin x when x is
n
multiplied by a number to give y sin 2 x , y sin 3x and so on? For example, y sin 2 x is the
graph of y sin x by a scale factor of
same shape as the curve of y sin x but the period is 180 0 . In other words two sine curves fit
into the range 0 - 3600.
Example 13
SOLUTION:
Vertical Stretch: Graphing n sin x, n cos x and

These are vertical stretch with scale factor n.
Example 14
SOLUTION:
238
n tan x
239
Graphing n + sin x, n + cos x and n + tan x

These are vertical translations by n units.
Example 15
Sketch the graph of y 2 cos x
SOLUTION:
The graph of y 2 cos x is the same as the graph of y cos x , but shifted up by 2 units.
240
Graphing sin(x+n), cos(x+n) and tan(x+n)

The final transformation we shall deal with is one of the form y f ( x n) where n is a constant.
This is horizontal translation. So the graph shifts horizontally.
Example 16
SOLUTION:
241
Example 17
Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions for 360 0 360 0 .
(a) f ( ) 1 sin
(b) f ( ) tan( 90 0 )
(c) f ( ) 2 sin
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
f ( ) 1 sin is the graph of y sin shifted 1 unit up.
The graph of f ( ) tan( 90 0 ) is the graph of y tan shifted 900 to the left.
(c)
242
The graph of f ( ) 2 sin is the graph of y sin stretched parallel to the y-axis.
EXERCISE 7C
243
244
245
7.10 Trigonometric Identities and Simple Equations

Trigonometric identities
Trigonometric identities are equalities that involve trigonometric functions that are true for every
single value of the occurring variables. To put that in other words, they are equations that hold
true regardless of the values of the angles being chosen.
Trigonometric identities serve a purpose of not only defining the groundwork for trigonometry as
a subject, but also for helping one simplify and solve what would otherwise be challenging
problems. By utilizing identities, a complex trigonometric equation can be converted into a form
thats easier to digest via standard algebra tools.
We have seen in section 7.5 how the definitions for sin , cos and tan are extended to
include any size of angle. In the diagram the circle has radius r and the point P has coordinates
(x, y). For any point P(x, y) on the circle we have:
sin
y
x
, cos
r
r
and tan
y
x
where is the angle between the positive x-axis and OP measured in an anticlockwise sense:
So we have:
y
x
y
sin
y
r
x x
cos
r
tan
So,
246
Also, x 2 y 2 r 2 for any point P on the circle.

Divide by r 2 :
x2 y2
1
r2 r2
That is:
x y
1
r r
cos 2 sin 2 1
Example 18
Simplify the following expressions:
(a) sin 2 3 cos 2 3
(b) 5 5 sin 2
(c)
sin 2
1 sin 2 2
SOLUTION:
247
Example 19
Simplify the following trigonometric expressions
(a)
sin 4 x cos 4 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x
(b) sin 2 x cos 2 x sin 2 x
1 sin A cos A tan A
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
sin 4 x cos 4 x sin 2 x cos 2 x sin 2 x cos 2 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x
sin 2 x cos 2 x
1
sin 2 x cos 2 x sin 2 x sin 2 x 1 cos 2 x
By difference of two
squares.
Use the identity
sin 2 x cos 2 x 1
Factorise
sin 2 x sin 2 x
sin 4 x
(c)
1 sin A cos A tan A 1 sin A cos A
sin A
cos A
1 sin 2 A
cos 2 A
Example 20
Given that is acute and that sin
(a) cos
1
3
, find the values of
(b) tan
SOLUTION:
(a) Consider the right-angled triangle shown on the
right.
Using Pythagoras Theorem gives
x2
12
x 2
From the right-angled triangle, we have
Page 367 red book
248
cos
2
3
(b) Also from the right-angled triangle, we have,

1
tan
2
Trigonometric Equations
Trigonometric equations are equations involving the trigonometric ratios. This section shows how
1
to solve trigonometric equations. We have met equations of type cos on several occasions.
2
0
In this case, the acute angle which would satisfy this equation is 60 . However, from the
periodic properties of the cosine graph, we know that there are other solutions to this equation.
Drawing the graph of y cos and y
600
360 60 300
0
1
on the same set of axes gives
2
600
3600 600 3000
This shows that in the range 360 0 360 0 there are actually four solutions to the equation
1
cos . These are 300 0 , 60 0 , 60 0 , 300 0 . It is clear that of no range for is specified,
2
there is an infinite number of solutions to this equation.
249
Solving such an equation and every time drawing the graph is a tedious work. We can easily get
the solutions by drawing line segments to denote where the trigonometric functions is positive or
negative.
Simple Equations
Example 21
Find the solutions of the equation sin
1
in the range 360 0 360 0 .
2
SOLUTION:
1
means sine is given to be positive, and therefore, possible
2
places for angles to lie are the first and third quadrants.
In this example, we know sin
Example 22
Solve, in the interval 0 x 360 0 , 5 sin x 2.
SOLUTION:
250
Example 23
Find the solution of cos x
SOLUTION:
3
in the interval 0 x 360 0 .
2
251
Solving equation of type sin x k , where k is in the range 1 k 1 a first solution is

your calculator value sin 1 (k ) . A second solution is (180 0 ) , or ( ) if we are
working in radians. Other solutions are found by adding or subtracting multiples of 3600
or 2 radians.
Solving equation of type cos x k , where k is in the range 1 k 1 a first solution is

your calculator value cos 1 (k ) . A second solution is (360 0 ) , or (2 ) if we
are working in radians. Other solutions are found by adding or subtracting multiples of
3600 or 2 radians.
Solving equation of type tan x k , where k is in the range 1 k 1 a first solution is

your calculator value tan 1 (k ) . A second solution is (180 0 ) , or ( ) if we are
working in radians. Other solutions are found by adding or subtracting multiples of 3600
or 2 radians.
252
Example 24
Solve the following equations for , where 360 0 360 0 .
(a) sin
3
2
(b) cos
1
3
(c) tan
1
4
SOLUTION:
(a)
Calculator answer is
3
sin 1
2
60 0
Since sine is positive in the first and second quadrant, we draw line segments in these
two quadrants.
253
The other solutions are :

180 0 60 0 120 0
180 0 60 0 240 0
360 0 60 0 300 0
The solutions are 60 0 , 120 0 , 240 0 , and 300 0

(b)
1
cos 1
3
70.5 0 ( 1 decimal places)
Since cosine is positive in the first and fourth quadrant, we draw line segments in these
two quadrants.

360 0 70.5 0 289.5 0
360 0 70.5 0 289.5 0
0 0 70.5 0 70.5 0
The solutions are 70.50 and 289.50

(c)
1
tan 1
4
14.0 0
Since tangent is negative in the second and fourth quadrant, we draw line segments in
these two quadrants.
254

180 0 14 0 166 0
360 0 14 0 346 0
180 0 14 0 194 0
The solutions are 194 0 , 120 0 , 14 0 , 166 0 and 346 0
Equations involving factors and multiple angles

All the trigonometric equations we have looked at so far have involved solving
sin k , cos k or tan k . However, we now look at equations which involve factors and
multiple angles.
Example 25
Solve the following equations in the stated range.
(a) sin(2 )
1
,
2
180 0 270 0
(b) tan(2 450 ) 3, 900 900

(c) sin 15 cos 3 0, 0 360 0
SOLUTION
(a)
Because there is 2 instead of first we need to change the range to 2 from .

That is, multiply the inequalities through by 2 to get
1800 2700 3600 2 5400
Solving the equation for 2 the calculator value is
sin( 2 )
255
1
2
1
2 sin 1
2
30 0
To find the remaining angles in the new range, we see that sine is positive in this case,
and therefore, 2 lies in the first and second quadrants.
The other angles in the range 3600 2 540 are

180 0 30 0 210 0
360 0 30 0 330 0
180 0 30 0 150 0
360 0 30 0 390 0
540 0 30 0 510 0
The solutions are 2 330 0 , 210 0 , 30 0 , 150 0 , 390 0 , and 510 0

However, we have to solve the equation for . So by dividing each of the values give
1650 , 1050 , 150 , 750 , 1950 , and 2550
(b)
We need to change the range for to 2 45 . That is multiply 900 900

through by 2 and add 45 to it to get
90 0 90 0 135 0 2 45 325 0
Solving the equation for 2 45 gives
tan(2 45 0 ) 3
2 45 tan 1 3
60 0
There is only one remaining solution for 2 45 , which is 120 0 ,
256
The solutions are 2 45 60 0 and - 120 0 . This gives

7.50 and 82.50 .
(c)
Since we have factors involved here, we simply equate them to zero. That is
sin 15 cos 3 0
Either sin 1 0 or 5 cos 3 0
Solving the first of these two gives
sin 1 0
sin 1
sin 1 (1)
90 0
This is the only solution in the range 0 360 0 .
Solving the second equation gives

5 cos 3 0
3
cos
5
3
cos 1
5
126.9 0
The other angle is 233.10
Therefore, the solutions are 90 0 ,126.9 0 , and 233.10
Equation involving quadratics

Example 26
Solve the following equations in the range 0 360 0 .
(a) 2 cos 2 cos 1 0
SOLUTION:
(b) sin 2 30 0
257
258
All the examples done above have degrees instead of radians. In a similar manner we can solve
problems involving radians.
Example 27
Solve the following trigonometric equations in the stated range.
(a) sin
1
2
, 2 2
(b) 21 tan 1 5 tan , 2
SOLUTION:
(a)
Calculator gives
sin
1
2
1
sin 1
The other angles are
3
4
4
5

4
4
7
2
4
4
3 5
7
The solutions are ,
,
,
4 4
4
4
Expanding brackets and simplifying gives
(b)
21 tan 1 5 tan
2 2 tan 1 5 tan
7 tan 1
1
tan
7
1
tan 1
7
0.142 (3 siginifica nt figures)
The other remaining angles are
0.142 3.28
0.142 3.00
2 0.142 6.14
The solutions are 0.142, 3.28, 3.00, and 6.14
EXERCISE 7D
259
260
261
EXERCISE 7E
262
263
264
Chapter 8: Differentiation
265
8
Objectives
Differentiate functions of the form

Apply product rule, chain rule and quotient rule for differentiation.
Classify increasing and decreasing functions.
Find turning points, tangents and normals to curves.
Chapter outline
8.1
Introduction
8.2
Gradients of Curves
8.3
Differentiation Rules
8.4
Tangents and Normals

to a curve
8.5
Increasing and
Decreasing Functions
8.6
Maximum, Minimum
and inflection points
8.7
Applications of
Differentiation
This is one of the most important chapters in calculus. Ideas

from rules of indices in chapter one will be crucial in
differentiating expressions in poewer form. Many of the
applications in business and science use derivatives as rate of
change. Understanding this topic will help you identify
maximum and minimum points on a graph.
266
8.1 Introduction
The gradient of a straight line measures how steep the line is. There are numerous situations
where the rate of change of one variable with respect to another is needed. If the relationship
between the two variable is linear, then the gradient is constant. However, in most cases the
relationship is not linear.
Calculus is the branch of mathematics that study change. It has major two areas. One known as
differentiation deals with rates and the other known as integration deal with area under curves.
Both uses rigorously limits, infinite sequences and convergence.
8.2 Gradients of curves

The tangent to a curve at any point is the straight line which touches the curve at that point. The
gradient of a curve also known as instantaneous rate of change at any point is the gradient of the
tangent to the curve at that point.
To find the gradient of the tangent at any point P, first choose a point P1 on the curve. Join the
points P and P1 by a straight line and find the gradient of this line segment. This line segment is
called a chord. The gradient of the segment PP1 is a rough estimate of the gradient of the curve at
P. This estimate is then improves by taking P1 as close as to P.
To study let y f (x) be curve with equation f ( x) x 2 . Let ( x, x 2 ) be a point on the curve. We
wish to find the gradient of the curve at this point. Let C be a point with x coordinate x h as
show in the figure below.
267
mBC
( x h) 2 x 2
( x h) x
x 2 2 xh h 2 x 2
h
h( 2 x h)
h
2x h
As we take C closer to B, h becomes very small. And the gradient of the chords gets closer to the
gradient of the curve at the point B.
Therefore the gradient of the curve at B is given by the formula 2 x .
In general, the gradient formula for y f (x) is given by the equation: gradient = f (x) , where
f (x) is called the derived function or the derivative of f (x) . Formally f (x) is given by
f ( x h) f ( x )
f ( x) lim
h0
h
Notation:
dy
f (x) is the rate of change of y with respect to x.
If y f (x) then the derivative function is
dx
8.3 Differentiation rules

1. If f ( x) x n , then f ( x) nx n1 .
2. If f ( x) ax n , then f ( x) anx n1
Example 1
Find the derivative function when f (x) equals
(a) x
(b) x
1
2
(c)
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
5x 4
(c)
x2
f ( x) 5
x
f ( x ) x 2 5 x 3
1 1
1
x 2 x 2
2
2
f ( x) 3x 31 3x 4
(d)
f ( x) x 2 x 3 x
f ( x) 1
x2
x5
(d) x x
268
Example 2
Find the derivative function when f (x) equals
(a) 2x
2 5
(b) x
5
(c) 7 x
(d) 3 x
1
3
SOLUTION:
(a)
(b)
(c)
6x 2
2 5
x
5
2
f ( x) (5 x 51 )
5
2
(5 x 6 )
5
2 x 6
f ( x) 7 x 4
f ( x)
f ( x) 7(4 x 41 )
28 x 5
(d)
f ( x) 3 x
1
3
1 1 1
f ( x) 3 x 3
3
4
3
dy
f ( x) g ( x) .
dx
The following table summarizes the standard rule for differentiation
If y f ( x) g ( x) , then
y
x
x2
xn
ax n
f ( x) g ( x)
dy
dx
1
2x
nx n1
anx n1
f ( x) g ( x)
Example 3
Find f (x) for each of the following.
(a)
(b)
f ( x) 4 x 2 1
f ( x) 2 x 3 x
(c)
f ( x) x
1
x
(d)
269
(e)
1
3
f ( x) x 6 x 3
2
f ( x)
2
3
2 1
x x
SOLUTION:
(a)
f ( x) 4 x 2 1
f ( x) 8 x
(b)
f ( x) 2 x 3 x
2x x
3
1
2
1
1
f ( x) 6 x x 2
2
1
f ( x) x
x
x x 1
2
(c)
f ( x) 1 x 2
(d)
1
3
f ( x) x 6 x 3
2
1 23
f ( x) 2 x 6 x
3
(e)
2
3
2x 2x
2
3
f ( x)
2 1
x x
2x
1
2
3x 2 1
1 32
f ( x) 2 x 6 x 3
2
3
2
6 x 3
Example 4
dy
for each of the following.
dx
(a) y ( x 3) 2
(b) y x ( x 2 1)
Find
SOLUTION:
(a)
y ( x 3) 2
x 2 6x 9
dy
2x 6
dx
(c)
x3 6
x
(b)
270
y x ( x 2 1)
x1 / 2 ( x 2 1)
x 3 / 2 x1 / 2
(c)
dy 3 1 / 2 1 1 / 2
x x
dx 2
2
3
x 6
y
x
3
x
6
x x
x 2 6 x 1
dy
2 x 6 x 2
dx
Second derivative
The derivative of
dy
d2y
d dy
is
,
is
denoted
by
, and is called the second derivative of y

dx
dx 2
dx dx
with respect to x.
The derivative of f (x) is denoted by f (x) and is called the second derivative of f (x) with
respect to x.
Example 5
Given that f ( x) x
1
, find f (x) and f (x).
x
SOLUTION:
1
x x 1
x
f ( x) 1 x 2
f ( x) x
f ( x) (2 x 3 )
2 x 3
271
Example 6
If y 4x 3 , find
2
dy
d2y
d2y
dy
and
.
Hence
show
that
y
satisfies
3
y
2
0
dx
dx 2
dx 2
dx
SOLUTION:
y 4x 3
dy
12 x 2
dx
d2y
24 x
dx 2
dy
dy
3 y 2 3(4 x 3 )(24 x) 2(12 x 2 ) 2
dx
dx
288 x 4 2(144 x 4 )
0
EXERCISE 8A
272
8.4 Tangents and normals to a curve

The tangent to a curve at (a, f (a)) has gradient f (a) . Using the formula for finding equation of
a straight line: y y1 m( x x1 ) , we can find the equation of the tangent.
The equation of the tangent to the curve
y f (a) f (a)( x a) .
y f (x)
at the point
(a, f (a))
is
Normal to a curve at the point (a, f (a)) is defined to by the straight line passing through
(a, f (a)) perpendicular to the tangent. So, gradient of the normal at (a, f (a)) is 1 .
f (a)
The equation of the normal to the curve y f (x) at the point (a, f (a)) is
1
y f (a)
( x a) .
f (a)
Example 7
2
Find the gradient of the curve f ( x) x
SOLUTION:
1
at the point P(1,2)
x
273
1
x
2
x x 1
f ( x) x 2
f ( x) 2 x x 1
f (1) 2(1) (1) 1 1
The gradient of the curve at point P is 1.
Example 8
The gradient of the curve y 3x 2 x 3 at the point P is 13. Find the coordinates of point P.
SOLUTION:
y 3x 2 x 3
dy
6x 1
dx
dy
13 . Therefore,
We are given
dx
6 x 1 13
13 1
x
2
6
To find the y coordinate of P, substitute x 2 into
y 3x 2 x 3 , which gives
y 3(2) 2 2 3
11
The coordinated of point P are (2, 11)

The gradient of the curve at point P is 1.
Example 9
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y x 2 at the point P(3,9) .
SOLUTION:
The gradient of the tangent to the curve at P is
.
dy
dy
2 x . At P,
2(3) 6 .
dx x 3
dx
So, the equation of the tangent is:
y 9 6( x 3)
y 6 x 18 9
6x 9
dy
dx
x 3
274
Example 10
Find the equation of the normal to the curve y 3x 2 7 x 2 at the point P where x 1 .
SOLUTION:
When x 1, y 3(1) 2 7(1) 2 6 .
Therefore P has coordinates (1,6) .
dy
dy
6 x 7 . At P,
6(1) 7 1 .
dx x1
dx
So, the gradient of the normal to the curve at P is 1
, and the equation of the normal at P is:
y (6) 1( x (1))
y 6 x 1
y x 1 6
x 7
Example 11
Find the equations of the normals to the curve y x 3 3x 2 4 which are perpendicular to the
line y 24 x 1 .
SOLUTION:
The line y 24 x 1 can be written as y 24 x 1 .
Therefore the gradient of the line is 24.
If the normals are perpendicular to the line, the
corresponding tangents must be parallel to this line.
Hence, the gradient of the tangent to the curve
y x 3 3x 2 4 is 24.
dy
3x 2 6 x is 24
If y x 3 3x 2 4 then
dx
2
3 x 6 x 24
3 x 2 6 x 24 0
x 2 2x 8 0
( x 4)( x 2) 0
x 4 or x 2
The corresponding values for y are
y (4) 3 3(4) 2 4 20
y (2) 3 3(2) 2 4 16
Therefore the points are (4,20) and (2,16)
And the corresponding equations of the normal at
these points are
1
( x 4)
24
1
1
y x 20
24
6
1
121
y x
24
6
y 20
And
1
( x (2))
24
1
1
y x 16
24
12
1
193
y x
24
12
y (16)
EXERCISE 8B
275
276
277
8.5 Increasing decreasing functions

A function f (x) is increasing on the interval (a, b) if x1 x2 then f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) for all
a x b.
A function f (x) is decreasing on the interval (a, b) if x1 x2 then f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) for all
a x b.
Example 12
Show that the function f ( x) x 3 24 x 3 , x R is an increasing function.
SOLUTION:
f ( x) x 3 24 x 3
f ( x) 3x 2 24
2
2
As x 0 for all real x, 3x 24 0 . So f (x) is
increasing.
Example 13
Find the values of x for which the function f ( x) x 3 3x 2 9 x is a decreasing function.
SOLUTION:
f ( x) x 3 3 x 2 9 x
f ( x) 3x 2 6 x 9
If f is decreasing f ( x) 0
3x 2 6 x 9 0
x 2 2x 3 0
( x 3)( x 1) 0
3 x 1
EXERCISE 8C
278
279
8.6 Maximum, minimum and point of inflexion.

Points of zero gradient are called stationary points. A stationary point can be a maximum point, a
minimum point or an inflexion point.
The point where f (x) stops increasing and begin to decrease is called a maximum point.
The point where f (x) stops decreasing and begin to decrease is called a minimum point.
To find the coordinates of a stationary point:
dy
dy
0 to find the value or values of x.
1. Find
, and solve the equation
dx
dx
2. Substitute the value(s) of x found into the equation y f (x) to find the corresponding
value(s) of y.
To classify the stationary points, find and evaluate
dy
d2y
0
0 , the point is a
If
and
dx
dx 2
minimum point.
dy
d2y
0 and
0 , the point is a
dx
dx 2
maximum point.
If
dy
d2y
0 and
0 , the point is
dx
dx 2
either a maximum point or a minimum
point or a point of inflection.
If
dy
d2y
d3y
0 and
0
0,
,
but
dx
dx 2
dx 3
then the point is a point of inflexion.
If
d2y
.
dx 2
280
Example 14
Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve y x 3 3x 2 1 and determine their
nature.
SOLUTION:
When y x 3 3x 2 1 ,
At stationary point
dy
3x 2 6 x
dx
dy
0 . Therefore,
dx
3x 2 6 x 0
3x( x 2) 0
x 0 or x 2
The corresponding y values are

y (0) 3 3(0) 2 1 1
y (2) 3 3(2) 2 1 5
So the stationary points are (0,1) and (2,5)
d2y
6x 6
dx 2
d2y
6(0) 6 6 0
dx 2 x 0
so (0,1) is a minimum turning point
d2y
dx 2
6(2) 6 6 0
x 2
so (-2,5) is a maximum turning point
Example 15
Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve y x 3 3x 2 1 and determine their
nature.
SOLUTION:
When y x 3 3x 2 1, then
dy
dy
3x 2 6 x. At stationary point,
0 . Therefore,
dx
dx
3x 2 6 x 0
3x( x 2) 0
x 0 or x 2
When x 0 : y (0) 3 3(0) 2 1 1

When x 2 : y (2) 3 3(2) 2 1 5
281
The coordinates of the stationary points are (0, 1) and (-2, 5).
To determine the nature of each stationary point, we will use the second derivative test.
That is:
d2y
6x 6
dx 2
d2y
6 0 ( MIN )
dx 2 x 0
d2y
dx 2
6 0 ( MAX )
x 2
Thus, the stationary point (0, 1) is a minimum and (-2, 5) is a maximum.
Example 16
Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve f ( x) x 3 6 x 2 15x 1 and determine
their nature.
SOLUTION:
282
8.7 Applications of differentiation

In this section, we will look at some examples of applications of derivatives.
Example 17
A closed, right circular cylinder of base radius r cm and height h cm has volume of 54 cm3.
Show that S, the total surface area of the cylinder, is given by
S
108
2r 2
r
Hence find the radius and height which make the surface area a minimum.
SOLUTION:
Example 18
SOLUTION:
283
284
EXERCISE 8D
285
EXERCISE 8E
286
287
288
Chapter 9: Integration
289
9
Objectives
Know the meaning of different parts of an indefinite integral

Understand and find indefinite integrals of simple functions
Find the constant of integration when a point (x, y) is given.
Know differentiate between indefinite and definite integrals
Evaluate definite integrals of power functions.
Use integration to find area under a curve and a line
Chapter outline
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Indefinite Integration: the reverse

of differentiation
9.3
Definite integrals
9.4
Finding the area of a region

bounded by lines and curves
In applications, it is necessary to find area

under a curve. The topic Integration has
extensive use in Physics and Mechanics. For
example, when engineers are designing a
bridge, they use integration for things such as,
finding areas under curves and volumes of
solids and so on. This chapter explains what is
meant by integration and provides standard
integration techniques for simple functions.
290
9.1 Introduction
We know from chapter 8 that, if y x 3 , then
dy
3x 2 . Now suppose that we are given
dx
dy
3x 2 and asked to find y in terms of x . The process by which we find y when its
dx
dy
derivative
is given is known as anti-differentiation or simply integration. In many
dx
applications it is necessary to use integration as part of the problem solving. Therefore, in this
chapter we shall show you how integration of simple functions is done, and how it can be applied
in finding area under curves and lines.
9.2 Indefinite Integration: the Reverse of Differentiation

Suppose we ask what function can we differentiate to give 3x 2 ? Thinking about how
differentiation is done. We know that differentiation will reduce the power by 1 and the
coefficient is obtained by multiplying the coefficient by the old power. So, the original function
should have a power of 3 and coefficient of 1: i.e. the function y x 3 will give the desired result
when differentiated. This function, x 3 , is known as an anti-derivative of 3x 2 . The function
dy
y x 3 has derivative
3x 2 , so clearly x 3 is one answer. Furthermore, y x 3 1 also has
dx
34
derivative 3x 2 as do y x 3 100 and y x 3 , because differentiation of any constant
6
equals zero. Thus, anti-derivatives are not unique. In deed any function of the form y x 3 c ,
where c is an arbitrary constant has derivative 3x 2 .
The answer to the original question what function can we differentiate to give 3x 2 ? is then any
function of the form y x 3 c . Here we have started with the derivative of a function and then
found the function itself. This is differentiation in reverse. This process is called integration or
more precisely, the indefinite integration because the anti-derivative function has an undetermined
constant.
Notation
We now introduce the notation used to state an indefinite integral more compactly. We say that
y x 3 c is the integral or anti-derivative of 3x 2 with respect to x , and it is denoted by
3
x2
intergand
Integral sign
dx
indicating that
the integration is is with
respect to x
x3
c
constantof
Integration
anti-derivative
The integral sign
291
is an elongated S which indicates the reverse process to differentiation is to
be performed. The function 3x 2 is the integrand which is to be integrated. The dx represents the
variable of integration, in this case x. The function x 3 c is known as the anti-derivative and
the constant, c is known as the constant of integration. The whole equation above is known as
indefinite integral. When finding the indefinite integrals there will always be a constant of
integration. Every time we integrate, the constant of integration must be added.
Using this notation, to find
dx , we note that x 5 differentiates to give 5x 4 , i.e. the required
power of x. However, the constant 5 is not required, therefore, we multiply x 5 by

have,
1
. Now we
5
1 5
x differentiates to give x 4 which is the required result. Therefore, we have
5
dx
1 5
x c
5
As a general rule, integration of power functions are given by

Result 1
x n 1
x dx n 1 c, (n 1)
n
One way to remember this is add one to the power and divide by the new power.
Example 1
Find:
(a)
dx
(b)
dx
(c)
3 x dx
3
SOLUTION:
(a)
Using the result for integrating power functions, we have

x 21
2
x
dx
2 1
x3
c
3
(b)
Using result 1, we have

x 21
2
x
dx
2 1
x 1
c
1
x 1 c
292
31
(c)
2
x
2 3
3
3 x dx 3 1 c
2
x4
3
c
4
2
x4 c
12
1
x4 c
6
Example 2
Find
x dx
SOLUTION:
Recall that
x is the same as x1 / 2 . Therefore,
x dx x 1 / 2 dx
x1 / 21
c
1/ 2 1
x3/ 2
c
3/ 2
2
x3/ 2 c
3
Up to now the formula we have used for finding indefinite integrals have applied to single terms.
More complicated functions can be integrated by using the following results:
Result 2 : Integral of a sum is equal to the sum of the integrals.
f ( x) g ( x)dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx

Result 3 :Integral of a difference is equal to the difference of the
integrals.
f ( x) g ( x)dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx
293
Result 4: Integral of k times a function is equal to k times the integral

Of the function.
k f ( x)dx k f ( x)dx
Example 3
Find
(a)
6 x 3 dx
(b)
1
dx
2
1 x
SOLUTION:
(a) From the second result, we have
x3 6x 2
2
x
6
x
3
dx
3x c
3
2
1
x 3 3x 2 3x c
3
(b) From the second result, we have

1
2
1 x 2 dx 1 x dx
x 21
x
c
2 1
x x 1 c
1
x c
x
Note:
Some expressions may not be in the form ax n (power form) at the first instance. In these cases,
we have to bring down the expression in that form before starting the integration.
Example 4
Find
(a)
x 4
dx
x 3 3x
dx
(b)
x
SOLUTION
(a)
First we need to remove the brackets to get

2
2
x 4 dx x 8x 16dx
Now all the terms are in power form. So,
(c)
x x 1dx
x 4
294
dx x 2 8 x 16 dx
x 3 8x 2
16 x c
3
2
1
x 3 4 x 2 16 x c
3
(b)
x 3 3x
x 3 3x
dx
x x x dx
x 2 3 dx
(c)
x3
3x c
3
x x 1dx x x 1dx
x x dx
1/ 2
3/ 2
1/ 2
x5/ 2 x3/ 2
c
5/ 2 3/ 2
2
2
x5/ 3 x3/ 2 c
5
3
Example 5
The gradient of a curve at the point ( x, y) is 12 x 3
1
and the curve passes through the point
x2
(1,2) . Find the equation of the curve.
SOLUTION:
We know that gradient of a curve at the point ( x, y )
i.e.
dy
.
dx
dy
1
12 x 3 2
dx
x
By integrating both sides with respect to x gives

1
y 12 x 3 2 dx
x
12 x 3 x 2 dx
12 x 4 x 1
c
4
1
1
3x 4 c
x
Since the curve passes through the point (1,2) we know that x 1, y 2 satisfies the equation
y 3x 4
295
1
c . i.e.
x
1
2 3(1) 4 c
1
c 2
Hence, the equation of the curve is y 3x 4
EXERCISE 9A
1
2
x
EXERCISE 9B
296
297
9. 3 Definite Integrals
There is a second form of integration know as Definite Integrals. This is written as
upperlimit of inegration
f ( x)dx
a
lower limit of integratio n
and is called the definite integral of f (x) between the limits x a and x b . This definite
integral looks just like the indefinite integral
f ( x)dx
except values of a and b are placed
below and above the integral sign. The value x a is called the lower limit of integration and
x b is called the upper limit of integration. Unlike the indefinite integral, the definite integral
has a specific numerical value. To find this value we first find the indefinite integral without c and
then calculate
its value at the upper limit - its value at the lower limit
b
f ( x)dx F (b) F (a)

a
Example 6
Evaluate the definite integral
SOLUTION:
x dx .
0
298
We first find the indefinite integral
x dx . This is
3
x4
x dx 4 c
3
1
c , and at the lower limit, where
4
x 0 , giving 0 c , or simply c. The difference is found:
This is evaluated at the upper limit, where x 1, giving
Value at the upper limit = value at the lower limit

1
1
c (c )
4
4
We note that the constant c has cancelled out; this will always happen and so for definite integrals
it is usually omitted altogether. The calculation is written more compactly as
1
x4
x
dx

0
4 0
1
0
4
1
4
1
the indefinite integral of x 3 is written in square brackets.
Example 7
3x
Find the definite integral
7 dx .
SOLUTION:
3x
1
7 dx x 3 7 x
1
1
7 (1) 3 7(1)
16
Example 8
Evaluate the following definite integrals.
2
(a)
3
4 x dx
0
(b)
3x
1
5 dx
(c)
1
dx
x2
(d)
299
3
dx
x
x
2
SOLUTION:
(a)
4 x dx x
2
4 2
0
24 04
16
(b)
3x
1
5dx x 3 5 x 1
1
5(1) (1) 3 5(1)

4 (4)
8
3
(c)
1
2
3 x 2 dx 3 x dx
2
1

x 3
1 1

2 3
1 1

2 3
1
6
(d)
3
x 3x 1 / 2 dx
dx
2
x
8
x 2 3x1 / 2

1/ 2 2
2
8
x2
6 x1 / 2
2
2
82
22
1/ 2
1/ 2
68 62
2
2
32 6 8 2 6 2
60 6 2
300
9.4 Area Under Curves

As we stated earlier in the introduction, integration can be used to find the area under a curve. We
will look at area problems in three different types;
Finding areas when all lie above the x-axis.
area =
f ( x)dx
a
Note that the definite integral
f ( x)dx represents the area under y f (x) between x a and
x b only when all this area lies above the x-axis. If between a and b the curve dips below the xaxis, the result obtained will not be the area bounded by the curve.
301
Example 9
Find the area under y 7 x 3 between x 0 and x 2 .
SOLUTION:
This area is shown in the figure below. As we can see, the area is of Type I. So, to find the area
we must evaluate the definite integral
7 x 3dx :
2
area 7 x 3dx
2
7x2
3x
2
0
7(2) 2
7(0) 2

3(2)
3(0)
2
2
20
Example 10
Find the area under the curve y x 2 and above the x-axis, between x 2 and x 5 .
SOLUTION:
302
The required area is shown in the figure.

5
area x 2 dx
2
5
x3

3 2
53 2 3
3
3
39
Finding areas when some or all lie below the x-axis.

Consider the graph of y x 3 shown in the figure below. Suppose we want to find the area
enclosed by the curve y x 3 and the x-axis between x 1 and x 1.
Observe that if we evaluate
x dx as before we get
3
x4
x
dx
4
1
1
1
(1) 4 1) 4

4 4
0
It is very clear that there is a region enclosed by the curve and the x-axis. So, the area cannot be
zero. The reason for this is that part of the curve lies below the x-axis. To get the actual area we
split the integral into two parts and the part below the x-axis put a minus as
1
303
x dx
3
x 3 dx x 3 dx
0
x
x4

4 1 4 0
1 1

4 4
1
2
4
The important point to note is that when some or all of the area lies below the x-axis it is
necessary to find the total area by finding the area of each part.
Example 11
Find the area between the curve y x 2 4 x and the x-axis from x 2 to x 2 .
SOLUTION:
The required area is shown shaded in the diagram.
We see that the required area comprises of two
parts, one part below the x-axis and one part above
the x-axis.
Evaluating the part below the x-axis gives
0
x3
x 4 x dx 2 x 2
3
2
(2) 3
0
2(2) 2
3
16
3
Evaluating
x
2
4 x dx gives the area above the
x-axis.
0
x3
x 4 x dx 2 x 2
3
0
23
2(2) 2 0
3
32
3
Therefore, the required area is given by
16 32
Area
16
3
3
304
Example 12
Shown is a sketch of the curve given by y x 3 4 x 2 3x . Find the area between the curve and
the x-axis from x 0 to x 3 .
SOLUTION:
The required area comprises two parts, A1 and A2 ,
as shown here.
Calculating A1 gives
1
x 4 4 x 3 3x 2
x
4
x
3
x
dx
4 3 2
0
0
1 4 3
0
4 3 2
5
12
5
A1
12
Calculating A2 gives
3
x 4 4 x 3 3x 2
x
4
x
3
x
dx
4 3 2
1
1
27 1 4 3
81
36
2 4 3 2
4
8
3
8
A2
3
The required area A is given by
37
A A1 A2
12
3
305
9.4 Area Bounded by Lines and Curve

Consider two intersecting curves f (x) and g (x) as
shown on here.
The shaded area, A , between the two curves is given
by
A upper curve - lower curve dx

b
g ( x) dx f ( x)dx
g ( x) f ( x) dx
b
Example 13
Find the area enclosed between the curves y x 2 2 x 2 and y x 2 2 x 10 .
SOLUTION:
We must first find the points of intersection of
the two curves.
x 2 2 x 2 x 2 2 x 10
2x2 8 0
x2 4
x 2
The sketch here shows the two curves and the
required area.
The shaded area A is given by
x 2 x 10 x
2 x 8dx
2
2
2x3

8x
3
2
16
16
16 16
3
3
64
2 x 2 dx
306
Example 14
Find the area enclosed between the curve y x 2 2 x 3 and the line y x 1.
SOLUTION:
We first find the point of intersection of the
curve and the line. Solving for x gives
x2 2x 3 x 1
x 2 3x 4 0
x 4x 1 0
x 4 or x 1
The sketch on the right shows the required area
A.
The shaded area A is given by
x 1 x 2 x 3dx
x 3 x 4 dx
1
4
x 3 3x 2

4 x
2
3
1
64
1 3

24 16 4
3
3 2
125
EXERCISE 9C
307
308
EXERCISE 9D
309
Answers
EXERCISE 1 A
EXERCISE 1B
EXERCISE IC
310
Answers
EXERCISE 1D
EXERCISE 1E
EXERCISE 1F
311
Answers
EXERCISE 1G
EXERCISE 1H
EXERCISE 1I
312
Answers
EXERCISE 1J
EXERCISE 1K
313
Answers
EXERCISE 2A
EXERCISE 2B
EXERCISE 2C
314
Answers
EXERCISE 2D
EXERCISE 2E
EXERCISE 2F
EXERCISE 2G
EXERCISE 2H
315
Answers
EXERCISE 2I
EXERCISE 2J
316
Answers
EXERCISE 3A
EXERCISE 3B
EXERCISE 3C
317
Answers
EXERCISE 3D
EXERCISE 3E
EXERCISE 4A
318
Answers
EXERCISE 4B
319
Answers
EXERCISE 4C
320
Answers
EXERCISE 4D
321
Answers
EXERCISE 4E
322
Answers
EXERCISE 5A
323
Answers
324
Answers
325
Answers
EXERCISE 5B
326
Answers
EXERCISE 5C
EXERCISE 5D
327
Answers
328
Answers
329
Answers
EXERCISE 5E
330
Answers
331
Answers
EXERCISE 5F
332
Answers
333
Answers
EXERCISE 5G
334
Answers
335
Answers
EXERCISE 5H
336
Answers
EXERCISE 6A
337
Answers
338
Answers
EXERCISE 6B
339
Answers
340
Answers
EXERCISE 6C
341
Answers
342
Answers
EXERCISE 6D
343
Answers
EXERCISE 6E
344
Answers
EXERCISE 7A
345
Answers
EXERCISE 7B
346
Answers
EXERCISE 7C
347
Answers
348
Answers
EXERCISE 7D
349
Answers
350
Answers
351
Answers
352
Answers
EXERCISE 7E
353
Answers
354
Answers
EXERCISE 8A
355
Answers
EXERCISE 8B
356
Answers
357
Answers
358
Answers
EXERCISE 8C
359
Answers
360
Answers
361
Answers
362
Answers
EXERCISE 8D
363
Answers
EXERCISE 8E
364
Answers
365
Answers
EXERCISE 9A
366
Answers
EXERCISE 9B
367
Answers
368
Answers
EXERCISE 9C
369
Answers
370
Answers
371
Answers
372
Answers
373
Answers
EXERCISE 9D
374
References
375
Neill, H., & Quadling, D. (2000). Pure Mathematics 1 & 2. University Press, Cambridge
Smedley, R., & Wiseman, G. (1988). Introducing Pure Mathematics. Oxford University Press,
Newyork.
Attwood, G., Macpherson, A., Moran, B., Petran, J., Pledger, K., Staley, G., & Wilkins, D. (2008)
Edexcel AS and A-Level Modular Mathematics: Core Mathematics 1. Pearson
Education Limited, England.

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Table of contents

1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 38

Type I: Solving quadratic equation of the form

Type II: Solving quadratic equation of the form

Type III: Solving quadratic equation of the form

Solution by Factorizing ........................................................................................................... 48

3.1 Polynomials .......................................................................................................................... 86

Geometry ........................................................................................... 107

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 108

4.3 Gradient of the line joining two points............................................................................ 111

5.1 The Idea of a Function ..................................................................................................... 133

y (ax p)(bx q)(cx r) ............................... 136

Sketching graphs with equations y (ax p) (bx q) ................................................. 139

Sketching graphs with equations

y (ax p) 3 ................................................................ 141

is constant. ................................................................ 143

5.3 Transformation of graphs ................................................................................................ 144

6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 174

Sum to infinity of a geometric series .................................................................................... 198

7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 209

y sin .............................................................................................. 232

The cosine function

7.9 Simple transformations ................................................................................................... 234

n tan x ............................................... 238

Graphing n + sin x, n + cos x and n + tan x ...................................................................... 239

8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 266

8.2 Gradients of curves ........................................................................................................... 266

9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 290

Module Guide Description

find the equation of a circle.

Subject Structure and Organization

Simplify expressions and collect like terms

Addition and subtraction of like terms

Multiplying algebraic expressions and

Factorising algebraic expressions

This is one of the most important

Arithmetic of algebraic terms is defined as follows;

2 less than the product of 5 and a

the product of 4 and a divided by the

nine feet shorter than the height of the

one-third as costly as a first-class

a number x is multiplied 5 times by

Addition and Subtraction of like terms

All three terms are multiples of

and so are like terms.

3x and 2 y are not like terms. One is a multiple of x and

The like terms are x and 7 x . These can be simplified to 8 x .

The terms ab and 9ab are like and they simplify to

Multiplying Algebraic Expressions and Expanding Brackets

Powers can be used to simplify expressions such as x x x x 3 and

(b) (a) (b)

(c) 3ab 2 c (12c 2 d )

Note that when multiplying, the

(b) (a) (b)

Here we have the product of a

(c) 3ab 2 c (12c 2 d )

Here we have the product of a

In the expansion here, it is

In the expansion here 8 multiplies

The expression ( x y) means

Expanding brackets from expressions of the form (a b)(c d ).

(a b)(c d ) a(c d ) b(c d ) ac ad bc bd

Difference of Two Squares