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Amazonian
Archaeology
Michael Heckenberger1
Key Words
indigenous
Abstract
Amazonian
history,
anthropogenic
premodern
landscapes,
culture
particularly
Like
in recent
has made major
advances
archaeology
in
human
environmental
understanding
coupled
other
decades,
systems.
formations
were
that differed
and had
lit
negligi
variation
that, while
novel
which
collapsed
in the aftermath
of European
con
studies,
interdisciplinary
approaches,
with
and multicul
notably
indigenous
peoples.
Contemporary
of scale, perspective,
and agency,
includ
questions
highlights
concerns
for
cultural
ing
representation,
public archaeology,
indigenous
and conservation
of the region's remarkable
cultural and eco
heritage,
research
logical
resources.
257
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INTRODUCTION
Archaeology in the Amazon River basin has
the way
changed
and
anthropologists
forest. Recent
studies
natural
largest tropical
scientific
challenge
and
wilderness.
reveal
studies
dynamic
and
transformations
large-scale
in coupled
change
Amazonian
several
past
the
past
not
synergy?if
on
focused
on present
environments
systems.
over
studies
and perspectives
and
natural
promotes
synthesis?between
tions
human
anthropology
decades
social
(Carneiro
the
forma
da Cunha
ethnography
dress
structuralism,
approaches
scale
and spatial
temporal
studies
In-depth
recent
that
ad
and change,
in
of
the Amazonian
past
and, more
process
recently,
questions
but
regions
of Amazonian
also
the unique
emphasizes
societies
and
environments
indigenous
people
(see,
e.g.,
natural
but
environment,
contemporary
agree
that humans
and environments
human
groups
underwent
dramatic
transforma
252
area
there
is tremendous
variation
in forest
River
and western
tributaries
in borderland
areas,
and
Heckenberger Neves
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are likewise
Rivers
highly variable,
and clear-water
(northwestern),
river sys
ticulturalists,
and hor
settled
foragers
late Holocene
the
emer
pre-Columbian
to medium-sized
small-
areas
other
slash-and-burn
semi-intensive
agricul
strategies
during
domesticated
root
crops,
were
culture
and
semidomesticated
critical
plants,
arbori
and
manioc,
particularly
of Amazonian
elements
2001).
(Denevan
extensive
developed
ture
and
and agricultural
in
development
Early Occupations
Early (~ 11,000 to 8500 b.p.) occupations management and fish farming (Erickson 2000,
included diverse tropical forest foraging Schaan 2004). Further complicating conven
In the central
societies.
and
lower Amazon,
tionalmodels of food production, numerous
non-
or
semidomesticated
are
plants
actively
manioc,
and Panama
Colombia,
domesticated
Amazonian
species,
and mid-Holocene
documents
including
no
innovations,
Late Holocene
Domestication
and Agriculture
In
Amazonia,
underwent
house
significant
garden
changes
ducks,
(Muscovy
parrots
and macaws,
or sea cow.
Many
managed
archaeobotanical,
zooarchaeological,
of habitats,
rather
than
focus
as some
groups
animal
scape more
populations,
productive
resulting
and
congenial
in a
land
for hu
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on the natural
term
environment
of
occupations
resulted
select
from
long
in some
settings,
Holocene
intensification
Agricultural
such
vances,
man
and wedand
domesticated
of Amazonian
were
landscapes
and
dark
management
obvious
northeast
earth or terra
marks
strategies,
or
which
"footprints"
de
large
portant
process
collectively
in Holocene
the most
human
im
history"
over
existing
foragers
and horticulturalists
Caribbean.
sub-Saharan
Africa
(Niger-Congo),
254
as was
true of several
of resource
episodes
management
systems,includingsettledriverine(Arawak) and
more mobile upland (Tupi-Guarani and Carib)
strategies,
as well
as climate
change
and changes
were more
expansions
complicated
and
complex
variable
of
processes
or
consequence,
are
technoeconomics
scale,
Whether
Language, Agriculture,
and Regional Development
turalists
was
formation
diversity
the area.
on
of southwestern
in
but
often
sociopolitical
the
and
management
for
prevailed
strategies
agriculture
areas
systems
no
Furthermore,
irrigation,
semi-intensive
savanna
that
crop
and
forest
in broad
of
as manioc
extractive
terracing
in the Amazon
agement
such
system,
agricultural
was
accountable
cultivation,
single
correlated
in
changes
with
impor
as was
true
in the
other
major
bears
scrutiny
in the general
sense
areas,
tightly circumscribed
ramify, whereas
seem to
river valleys,
such as coastal Peruvian
more
promote
rapid and
rigid stratification.
of
b.p., early expressions
By ^2500-1500
domestication,
monumentality,
and
such
as
ceramics,
agriculture,
underscore
the diverse
pathways
of
Heckenberger Neves
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may have periodically joined into larger, Lathrap (1970, Lathrap et al. 1985,Myers 2004,
for instance
Oliver 1991) and Roosevelt (1980, 1991) in the
around
confederations,
regional
In other
Middle
Orinoco and lowerAmazon developed
leaders
and
warfare.
cases,
singular
more
centralized
and hierarchical
so
regional
more
regional
sequences
of
studies
in-depth
or Incised-Rim
Barrancoid
Tra
from
centuries.
the
and
sixteenth
Accounts
report
seventeenth
large,
densely
concentrated
in other
along major
areas. Where
world
rivers,
as
propi
is criss-crossed
tributaries.Owing
many
upland
areas
by
numerous
large
terra
incognita,
southeast
Amazon
Floodplain
Polities
sug
savannas
and gallery
is notable
Marajoara
medium-sized
domestic
mounds
to
small-
and major
cer
dozens
large
of domestic
ceremonial
mounds
mounds.
organized
The
large
Amazon
tradition,
Tupiguarani
apparently
early, ~400-600
c.e.,
Camutins/Belem
mounds
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domestic
mounds
Shared
waterways.
along
reflect
clearly
tions,
as
as
such
true
of other
social
important
gender
urn
and
social
cemetery
distinc
the sixteenth
hierarchy,
in
complexes
diverse
base
and
on
focus
managed
Mound
?1300
ceramic
but Marajoara
c.e.,
styles
landscapes
the
sixteenth
and
seventeenth
at the con
research
archaeological
two
include
complexes
b.c.e.
(400
c.e.
to 900
(700
c.e.
to
to 400
c.e.)
c.e.),
1200
early variants
the Agutuba
and Manacapuru
c.e.),
local
and
phases
Pared?o
phase
regional
variant
c.e.
(900
to contact).
The
chronol
and
centuries.
seventeenth
Core
were
structurally
elaborated
for ritual
elite-ware
ceramics.
At Agutuba,
wetlands.
transforma
Landscape
suggest
centers
long continuous
and stable,
of
occupation
sedentary
populations,
overlords,
large-scale
noeconomies,
major
roads
rich
settlements
and
artistic
or
towns
productive
tech
and
tradi
ritual
sites
share
a circular
or horseshoe
lay
Pared?o
ceramics
coincident
with
after ?1200
disappear
an
apparent
increase
c.e.,
in con
and Hatahara,
and
others
Heckenberger
and Manaus.
Large
located
cities of
centers
were
for
its ornate
ceramics
associated
with
the
town at Santarem
is composed
of
large capital
a core area with dense
deposits
archaeological
Neves
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and nonoccupational
(terra preta)
agricul
earths,
search
recent re
of significant
of
has
critical
range
settings,
the focus
in a wide
and eastern
central Brazil
Bolivia.
Cultural
vari
and reticulate
phylogenetic
processes,
as well
of the lowlands
(Hill
&
Santos-Granero
2002,Hornborg 2005).
roads,
and
agricultural
are well
earthworks,
Floodplain archaeology and ethnohistory vealed the remarkable scale and integration
in broad
domes
earthworks
suggest complementaritybetween densely and of agricultural
sparsely settled stretches of the main rivers, ticated landscapes, including causeways, fish
including buffer-zones, and with hinterland weirs and ponds, forest islands (ancient settle
zones (DeBoer 1981, Denevan 1996, Porro ments), raised fields, and diverse other archaeo
logical
landscape
features. These
complexes
can
complexes
(Baures)
and
in forest
a western
and
savanna
group,
in
gion, the largestcenterswere generallynot that of urban-scale production landscapes (see also
large (<50 ha), and cycling between periods Denevan 2001,Walker 2004). Excavations of
area have
re
in the Upper
of greater and lesser political centralization is mounds
Mamore
a
in
the
Central
with
notable
vealed
that
the
Amazon,
apparent
complex sequence indicating
area has been occupied by differentgroups in
in site locations
fluctuations
and population
It remains unclear whether
densities.
Santarem
thepast (Calandra & Salceda 2004, Erickson &
was
or represents
a
centralized
Balee
2006, Pr?mers 2004,Walker 2008). The
large,
polity
smaller integrated polities within a regional plural ethnic landscape of eastern Bolivia and
peer-polity,
as seems
Southern
The
broad
to be the case
and southern
Borderlands
transitional
in the estu
borderlands.
Polities
forests between
areas
the develop
adjacent
strongly influenced
or other
ment of "mission"
"mixed
postcontact
the cen
plaza
communities,
well-maintained
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and
roads,
idol-priest
ritual
plaza
chiefdoms"
of the "theocratic
(Steward &
Amazon
autonomous
complex
("temple
characteristic
considered
complex")
of the southern
Faron
1959). More
are
settlements
ring village
also
southwestern
an
Amazonia,
area
also
Peru
another
reveal
of re
complex
extensive
earthworks,
including
mas
ual
numerous
among
sites
(~150,
are similar
orientations
that basic
and were
as ceremonial
central
environment
and
places within
In eastern
regional
social
portions
of the southern
preserves
a sequence
border
of occupations
from
the basin
by
500-800
c.e.
settlements
Settlement
(ditches).
hier
plaza
of ?250
within
and hamlets
or more.
km2
part of a regional
territories
two clusters
The
were
confederation
peer-polity?a
settlements
features
(fields, or
ments
of
the
southern
Descen
borderlands.
in
notably
from prehistoric
documented
patterns
terms
of
technoeconomy,
systems.
or
earlier,
in the past
and
today,
included
areas
broad
diverse
palms
and other
sec
were
integrated
in two ranked
surrounded
by residential
areas,
are ar
across
the southern
CONCLUDING
The
archaeology
borderland
regions.
REMARKS
of the Amazon,
an area
Heckenberger Neves
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larger
least
known
of the "least
region
known
civilizations,
as
stone
writ
architecture,
novel
reveals
variation
and
to domestication,
pathways
settled
These
an isolated,
autonomous
village,
but
instead was
the region.
state or
macrore
integrated
context
In the comparative
of other
mations
Amazonian
complex
were
of the Amazon
polities
fuse and
less centralized
nomic,
sociopolitical,
than areas with more
more
dif
in terms of technoeco
and
symbolic
circumscribed
resources
resources,
civilizations.
the settled
Nonetheless,
ter
times constructed
elaborate
do
tributary
systems,
As
continent"
as
suggested
well
documented
re
more
among
was
economies
political
sociopo
through
ritual
social
and
interaction,
spaces
and material
culture,
notably
mechanisms
of social
communication?
cases,
regional
multilingual
sociopo
fine-ware
ceramics
chrome Tradition
of the Amazonian
obvious
Poly
expres
economies
also
included
numerous
other
regional
patterns
of social
interaction,
environments?the
cultural
memory?of
traditional lifestylesingenerallynonindustrial
ethnoarchaeological
research
into
indigenous
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The
has
to contemporary
relevance
great
variation
of sociohistorical
recognition
debates
semi-intensive
cases,
resource
impacts
the natural
environment.
The
populations
variety
of
areas.
fo
The
environment
the natural
partici
in
resulted
colonialism
of European
Discovering
are not
scapes
their
relevance
sustainable
and
in the Amazon,
development
archaeology?the
means
primary
to
over
long timescales?not
only
more
The
contemporary
debates
on
the
Amazon.
contemporary
to discussions
offers important
practices,
of resource management
DISCLOSURE
cultural
clues
in the
is true par
and
the need
barrier
to deforestation
(Nepstad
draw attention
memory,
ecological
and
for memory
conservation
natural
2006,
(Nazarea
Posey
transformed
has
are a critical
of
do
constitute
areas, which
indigenous
manage
in
ticularly
also
in
changed
environment.
archaeological
Much
prac
nologies
perspectives,
regional
and
excavations,
(e.g.,
fine-grained
of new tech
the application
and
applications
occur within
changes
remote-sensing
These
geo-archaeology).
multiscalar
contexts
of research
applications,
attention
to
regional
and
global
concerns
and millennial
systems, which
sus
conservation,
era
of unprecedented
change
across
the
re
en
gion. For practitioners of archaeology this
more
tails getting dirty,digging
deeply into
STATEMENT
The
260
Heckenberger
Neves
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LITERATURE CITED
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