Heat Transfer ME 419

LAB #1
Transient Heat Conduction Lab
Victor Li (U91093053)
Nelson Chin
JingJiang Liu
Yaojun Shan
Section A1
2015 September 24 1:00 PM
Professor Duan
Erin Arai

1. Introduction
The purpose of this lab is to measure and model the transient thermal response of two
metal spheres of different thermal conductivities and same convection coefficients using either
the lumped capacitance method or the series solution. The lumped capacitance system assumes
that the solid possesses negligible spatial thermal gradients, where the solid exhibits the same
temperature everywhere. When spatial thermal gradients exist within a solid body, the lumped

capacitance method is invalid. Instead, a series solution approach, which incorporates more
complex mathematical formulations, must be taken to obtain the results. To validate the two
models, measurements are taken using two individual spheres consisting of copper and stainless
steel and two thermocouples located at the surface and center of each sphere. The copper sphere
has a Biot number that is much less than one, satisfying the lumped system method criteria. The
steel sphere, however, has a Biot number greater than one, signifying use of the series solution.
The varying parameters of the experiment are the temperatures of the two water baths that the
steel and copper spheres are submerged into. Therefore, two heating and two cooling curves will
ultimately be generated for each sphere by simultaneously transferring one sphere from the hot to
cold bath and the other from the cold to hot bath. The experiment involves four trials, with each
trial concluding once steady state is reached. Such an exposure of a solid body to a sudden
change in temperature allows for the examination of its thermal properties through the
manipulation of obtained temperature data.
2. Theory
Two methods of evaluating different cases of transient conduction, namely the lumped
system and the series solution, are utilized in this experiment. The Biot number, as shown below
in equation (1), is calculated to determine the appropriate method used to study the temperature
distribution within a solid body.
Bi =

hr
k (1)

The Biot number depends on the heat transfer coefficient,h, characteristic length or radius of a
sphere, r, and the thermal conductivity, k. This dimensionless number physically represents the
ratio of internal conduction thermal resistance to the external convection thermal resistance.
Thermal resistance is a heat property and measurement of temperature difference by which an
object resists heat flow. Conduction thermal resistance, displayed in equation (2), measures the

difficulty of heat to flow within a solid, while convection thermal resistance, as seen in equation
(3), measures the difficulty of thermal flow through a liquid where the solid is located.
L
Rth = kA
Rth =

(2)

1
h As

(3)

The conduction resistance depends on the thickness, L, thermal conductivity, k, and cross
sectional area, A. Similarly, the convection resistance depends on the heat transfer coefficient, h,

and surface area,

As

. The smaller the thermal resistance, the easier it is for heat to flow

through the solid or liquid. When the solid is a good conductor of heat, the internal thermal
resistance is small compared to the external thermal resistance, and a system, like the copper
sphere, can be modeled as a lumped system. This also means the Biot number is significantly
less than 1. For such a case, the temperature exponentially decays as a function of time, as
Equation (4) illustrates.

Here,

T T
=
=
T iT

t /

(4)

represents a positive quantity known as the time constant whose unit is seconds and is

equal to that shown in equation (5).

V c p
=
(5)
h As
The time constant is dependent on the density, ,

transfer coefficient, h, and surface area,

As

volume,

V,

specific heat,

cp,

heat

In the case where the solid does not conduct heat relatively well, the temperature will vary based
on radial position and time, creating a spatial thermal gradient within the body. The Biot number
will consequently be greater than 1 because the internal conduction thermal resistance is large

compared to the external convection thermal resistance. This means that steel is not an efficient
conductor of heat compared to copper. Therefore, the lumped system solution cannot be used
here. Instead, one must apply the series solution shown below.

T T
Fo
=
Ane
fn

=
T iT
n=1
2
n

(6)

The terms in the summation quickly decline due to the exponential decay function, especially
when the dimensionless Fourier number, Fo, is large. The Fourier number, Fo, represents the
ratio of conduction rate to the rate of thermal energy storage, as represented in equation (7).
t
= 2 (7)
L
The Fourier number depends on the thermal diffusivity, Fn, characteristic time, t , and length
through which conduction occurs, L.
If the Fourier number is greater than 0.2, the first-term approximation method is valid and,
equation (6) reduces to equation (8) for a sphere. Furthermore, Fn = 1 at the center of an object as
derived in equation (10).
=

sin
Fn for a sphere =

lim

x o

sin ( x)
x

1 r
r0

( )
1 r
r0

=1

The Biot number is used to find the values of 1

T (r ,t )T

= A1 e
T iT

2
1

Fo

f n (8)

(9)

(10)
and A 1

from Table 5.2 Using the one-

term approximation to find temperature at the center, equation (8) reduces to equation (11) for a
sphere.
=

T 0T
T iT

1 Fo

A1 e

(11)

The two thermocouples, one in the middle and one on the surface of the sphere, will ultimately
reveal if the assumption that the copper sphere and stainless steel sphere temperature
distributions can be modelled using lumped capacitance and series solution method is true. If the
copper sphere is truly a lumped system, then the two temperatures measured will be nearly the
same. Similarly, if the steel sphere is not a lumped system, there will be a noticeable change
between surface and center temperatures with a temperature gradient in between.
3. Experimental Methods
Equipment used:

A copper sphere
A steel sphere
Four thermocouples, two for each sphere
National Instruments LabView Software
Cold and hot water bath
Liquid-in-gas thermometer

To initiate the experiment, the temperature of the cold and hot bath must be verified to be at 30 and 60
degrees Celsius with a liquid-in-gas thermometer. The LabView software, which converts voltages from
the thermocouples of both spheres to temperatures and records values until steady state of both spheres is
reached, is started. The aluminum and steel spheres are maintained at steady state in the cold and hot bath
respectively prior to the first trial of measurements. One individual is assigned the task of starting and
stopping the software, while two individuals are responsible for switching the two spheres from the water
baths. Once the software is started by pressing record, the copper sphere is quickly transported from the
cold to hot bath, and the steel sphere, at the same time, is taken out of the cold bath and placed in the hot
bath. The time that the spheres are in the air must be minimized to maintain the same temperature as each
respective water bath source. The software is stopped once the temperatures of the two spheres remain
constant, which takes several minutes. This procedure is iterated four times and, as a result, two heating

and two cooling data sets are generated for each sphere. The four sets of data include the temperature at
the surface and center of each sphere as a function of time.

4. Results
Property

Copper Sphere

k (W/m K)
( kg /m3 )

(diameter= 4.775 cm)

401
8933

13.4
8238

385

468

c p (J/kg K)

Steel Sphere
(diameter= 4.775cm)

Table 1: Properties of copper and steel spheres used in calculating the heat transfer coefficients.

The two heating and cooling curves of copper and steel sphere centers and surfaces are plotted
below, where temperature is a function of time in figures 1 through 4. Next, the natural log of the
dimensionless temperatures are calculated from the cooling curve raw data, as illustrated in
figures 5 and 6. From figures 5 and 6, the linear regime of each copper and steel sphere
dimensionless temperature cooling curve plots are extracted, shown in figures 7 through 14, to
calculate the heat transfer coefficients of the centers and surfaces of each sphere. The method of
accomplishing this will further be elaborated in detail below.

Cooling Curve of Copper and Steel Spheres

70
60
50
40
Steel Surface(C)
Temperature

30

Steel Center

Copper Surface

Copper Center

20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Time (s)

Heating Curve of Copper and Steel Spheres

70
60
50
40
Copper Surface
Temperature
(C)

Copper Center

30

Steel Surface

Steel Center

20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Time (s)
Figure 1: Heating curve generated from raw temperature data of trial 1 copper and trial 2 steel sphere surfaces and
centers.

Figure 2: Cooling curve generated from raw temperature data of trial 2 copper and trial 1 steel sphere surfaces and
centers.

Cooling Curve of Copper and Steel Spheres

70
60
50
40
Steel Surface
Temperature
(C) 30 Steel Center

Copper Surface

Copper Center

20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Time (s)

Heating Curve of Copper and Steel Spheres

70
60
50
40
Copper Surface
Temperautre
(C) 30

Copper Center

Steel Surface

Steel Center

20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Time (s)
Figure 3: Heating curve generated from raw temperature data of trial 3 copper and trial 4 steel sphere surfaces and
centers.
Figure 4: Cooling curve generated from raw temperature data of trial 4 copper and trial 3 steel sphere surfaces and
centers.

Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve of Copper and Steel Spheres

0
-0.5
-1
Steel Surface Trial 1
-1.5

Steel Center Trial 1

Copper Surface Trial 2

-2

ln () -2.5
-3
-3.5
Copper Center Trial 2
-4
-4.5
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Time (s)

Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve of Copper and Steel Spheres

0
-0.5
-1
Steel Surface Trial 3
-1.5

Steel Center Trial 3

Copper Surface Trial 4

-2

ln() -2.5
-3
-3.5
Copper Center Trial 4
-4
-4.5
0

50

100

150

200

Time (s)

250

300

350

400

Figure 5: Dimensionless cooling curve generated from calculating the natural logarithm of the dimensionless
temperature, , and plotting it as a function of time for trial 2 copper and trial 1 steel sphere surfaces and centers.
Figure 6: Dimensionless cooling curve generated from calculating the natural logarithm of the dimensionless
temperature, , and plotting it as a function of time for trial 4 copper and trial 3 steel sphere surfaces and centers.

Linear Regime of Copper Sphere Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve

0

-1

ln()

-2

Copper Surface Trial 2

Linear (Copper Surface Trial 2)

f(x) = - 0.03x - 1.18

-3

-4
50

55

60
Time (s)

65

70

f(x) =

Linear Regime of Copper Sphere Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve

12
10
8

ln()

Copper Center Trial 2

Linear (Copper Center Trial 2)

4
2
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Time (s)

Figure 7: Linear regime of the natural log of dimensionless temperature cooling curve for the trial 2 copper sphere
surface shown in figure 5 above. A trend line fitted to this linear region and its equation are shown.
Figure 8: Linear regime of the natural log of dimensionless temperature cooling curve for the trial 2 copper sphere
center shown in figure 5 above. A trend line fitted to this linear region and its equation are shown.

Linear Regime of Copper Sphere Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve

-1
-1.5
-2

ln()

-2.5
-3

Copper Surface Trial 4

f(x) = - 0.03x - 1.24

Linear (Copper Surface Trial 4)

-3.5
-4
45

55

65

Time (s)

75

Figure 9: Linear regime of the natural log of dimensionless temperature cooling curve for the trial 4 copper sphere
surface shown in figure 6 above. A trend line fitted to this linear region and its equation are shown.

Linear Regime of Copper Sphere Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve

-1
-1.5
-2

ln()

-2.5

Copper Center Trial 4

Linear (Copper Center Trial 4)

f(x) = - 0.03x - 1.26

-3
-3.5
-4
45

55

65

Time (s)

75

Figure 10: Linear regime of the natural log of dimensionless temperature cooling curve for the trial 4 copper sphere
center shown in figure 6 above. A trend line fitted to this linear region and its equation are shown.

From figures 7 through 10, the slopes of the trend lines can be retrieved and used in the
calculation of the heat transfer coefficient for the copper sphere surfaces and centers in trials 2
and 4. As can be seen, the slopes of the trend lines for the centers and surfaces are, for the most
part, similar. Table 2 below displays the slopes of each respective trial.
Trial
Copper Surface Trial 2
Copper Center Trial 2
Copper Surface Trial 4
Copper Center Trial 4

Slope, m
-0.0296
-0.023
-0.0311
-0.0311

Table 2: The slope of copper sphere surface and center trend lines for cooling trials used to calculate the heat transfer
coefficient.

Equation (4), also known as the lumped capacitance method, can be manipulated and rewritten
into a linear equation, where the slope can be equated to the values above in table 2. The
following steps detail the approach to obtain the heat transfer coefficient for the surface and
center cases of each trial.
ln ()

ln( et / )= t /

Therefore, the slope is equal to 1 /

V c p

=
and
h A s . The slopes can now be equated to

1 / . Taking the slope of copper surface trial 2, the heat transfer coefficient can be found.

1
=0.0296

1
0.0296
4 r3
r
)c
(
)c
p
V c p
3
3 p
1
=
=
=
2
h As
h
0.0296
h(4 r )
(

h=0.0296

( r3 ) c =0.02968933( 0.04775
) ( 385 )=
3
p

2
1620 W/ m *K

The other heat transfer coefficients listed in table 3 below are obtained in the same manner as
above.

Trial

2
Heat Transfer Coefficient, h (W/ m *K)

Copper Surface Trial 2

Copper Center Trial 2
Copper Surface Trial 4
Copper Center Trial 4

1620
1259
1702
1702

Table 3: The heat transfer coefficients calculated from cooling curves of copper sphere surfaces and centers in trials
2 and 4.

Linear Regime of Steel Sphere Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve

0

-0.5

ln()

-1

f(x) = - 0.03x + 0.21

Steel Surface Trial 1

Linear (Steel Surface Trial 1)

-1.5

-2
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Time (s)

Figure 11: Linear regime of the natural log of dimensionless temperature cooling curve for the trial 1 steel sphere
surface shown in figure 5 above. A trend line fitted to this linear region and its equation are shown.

Linear Regime of Steel Sphere Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve

0
-0.5
-1

ln()

f(x) = - 0.03x + 0.3

-1.5

Steel Center Trial 1

Linear (Steel Center Trial 1)

-2
-2.5
-3
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Time (s)

Figure 12: Linear regime of the natural log of dimensionless temperature cooling curve for the trial 1 steel sphere
center shown in figure 5 above. A trend line fitted to this linear region and its equation are shown.

Linear Regime of Steel Sphere Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve

0
-0.5
-1

ln()

f(x) = - 0.03x + 0.08

-1.5

Steel Surface Trial 3

Linear (Steel Surface Trial 3)

-2
-2.5
-3
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Time (s)

Figure 13: Linear regime of the natural log of dimensionless temperature cooling curve for the trial 3 steel sphere
surface shown in figure 6 above. A trend line fitted to this linear region and its equation are shown.

Linear Regime of Steel Sphere Dimensionless Temperature Cooling Curve

0
-0.5
-1

ln()

f(x) = - 0.03x + 0.33

Steel Center Trial 3
Linear (Steel Center Trial 3)

-1.5
-2
-2.5
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Time (s)

Figure 14: Linear regime of the natural log of dimensionless temperature cooling curve for the trial 3 steel sphere
center shown in figure 6 above. A trend line fitted to this linear region and its equation are shown.

From figures 11 through 14, the slopes of the trend lines can be retrieved and used in the
calculation of the heat transfer coefficient for the steel sphere surfaces and centers in trials 1 and

3. As can be seen, the slopes of the trend lines for the centers and surfaces are quite similar..
Because steel is not a decent conductor compared to copper, the lumped capacitance method
cannot be used to model the sphere. Instead, the first term approximation will be used to
calculate the heat transfer coefficients associated with the center and surface of the steel sphere.
For the first term approximation to be accurate, the Fouriers number, as seen in equation (7),
should be greater than 0.2. Thus, similar to the approach applied to the copper sphere, a trend
line must be fitted to the linear regime of the natural log plots where the time yields a Fouriers
number greater than 0.2. The calculation below details the minimum time needed to satisfy this
condition.

Fo=

t t
=
L2 r 2

k
13.4
=
=3.4756558975106
c p 8238468

0.04775 2
)
For
2
t=
=
=32.8 s
6

3.475655897510
0.2(

Therefore, the linear regime should be chosen so that the minimum time approximately exceeds
32.8s, giving a Fouriers number greater than 0.2. Table 4 below displays the slopes of each
respective trial.
Trial
Steel Surface Trial 1
Steel Center Trial 1

Slope
-0.0283
-0.0284

Steel Surface Trial 3

Steel Center Trial 3

-0.026
-0.0288

Table 4: The slope of steel sphere surface and center trend lines for cooling trials used to calculate the heat transfer
coefficient.

Employing equations 8, 11, and 1 in the theory section, values in table 4, table 4-2 in the
textbook, the heat transfer coefficient can be calculated following this method detailed below.
=

T 0T
T iT

2
1

A 1 e

Fo

T (r ,t )T
Fo
= A1 e
T iT
2
1

(11)

sin

1 r
r0

( )

(8)

1r
r0

(center of sphere)

(one term approximation

for sphere)
From (11) for the center of a sphere, taking the natural log of both sides:
ln ( )=ln ( A 1 ) 21 Fo

ln ( )=ln ( A 1 ) 21

kt
t
=ln ( A1 ) 1 2
2
r
cp r

Recalling that the slope intercept form of a line is y=mx+b, where m is the slope, the slope of the
equation can be found.
2

m=

Solving for

1 k
2
c pr

and substituting known values for steel and from trial 1,

1 =

m c p r 2
=
k

(0.0284)(8238)(468)(

0.04775 2
)
4

13.4

1=2.158161652

From table 4-2 values for a sphere, interpolate to obtain corresponding Biot number.
2.28892.0288
32
=
2.1581616522.0288 Bi2

Bi=2.497353018=

hr
=
k

( 0.04775
)
2
13.4

h=1402W /m 2K
Following the same approach, the heat transfer coefficient for the surface of a steel sphere can be
calculated using equation (8) by taking the natural log of both sides.

( )
sin

ln () = ln A 1

1 r
r0

( )
1r
r0

1 Fo=1 Fo+ constant

As one can see, the slopes for the surface and center of the steel sphere have the same
expression.
21 kt
Fo=
c p r2
2
1

1 k
m=
2
c pr

Solving for

and substituting known values for steel and from trial 1.

0.04775 2
(0.0283)( 8238)( 468)(
)
m c p r 2
4
1 =
=
k
13.4

1=2.154358721

From table 4-2 values for a sphere, interpolate to obtain corresponding Biot number.
2.28892.0288
32
=
2.1543587212.0288 Bi2

Bi=2.4827324913=

hr
=
k

( 0.04775
2 )
13.4

h=1393W /m2K

The Biot number, as expected, is greater than 1 in both cases, verifying that the lumped
capacitance method cannot be used. The values for the trial 3 center and surface heat coefficient
values are obtained following the above method. Table 5 displays the values for each trial.

Trial

2
Heat Transfer Coefficient, h (W/ m *K)

Steel Surface Trial 1

Steel Center Trial 1
Steel Surface Trial 3
Steel Center Trial 3

1393
1402
1201
1434

Table 5: The heat transfer coefficients calculated from cooling curves of copper sphere surfaces and centers in trials
1 and 3.

From the

corresponding

values calculated above for the steel sphere surface and center in trial 1, a

A1

value can be obtained from interpolation using table 4-2 in the textbook.

Consequently, the first term approximation is used to model a best fit curve for the original
cooling curve of the steel sphere surface and center from Figure 2. The calculation is detailed
below.
For the center of the steel sphere in Trial 1:

T 0T
T iT

2
1

A 1 e Fo

1 Fo

T 0 =T +(T iT )( A 1 e

1kt

T 0 =T +(T iT )( A 1 e

c pr

2.28892.0288
1.62271.4793
=
2.1581616522.0288
A11.4793

1=2.158161652; A1=1.550620496

T 0 =30+( 63.92113530)(1.550620496 e

2.158161652 13.4t
2
82384680.04775 /4

T 0 =30+52.59880718e0.0284 t

For the surface of the steel sphere in Trial 1:

T (r , t )T

= A1 e
T iT

2
1

Fo

( )
sin

T ( r , t ) =T +(T iT )

sin

1 r
r0

( )
1 r
r0

1 r
r0

( )
1r
r0

21kt

( A1 e

c pr

1=2.154358721; A1=2.154358721 ; r=r 0

2.154358721 13.4t

sin ( 2.154358721)
T ( r , t ) =30+(63.92748630)
( 2.154358721e 82384680.04775 /4 )
2.154358721

T ( r , t ) =30+20.35075545e0.0283 t

Figures 15 and 16 below show the best fit models for the steel sphere center and surface
respectively for trial 1. Trial 3 best fit models are not shown, as the method is the same as that
outlined above and results are quite similar.

Center First Term Approximation Best Fit

90
80
70
60
50
Steel
Temperature (C) 40 Center Trial 1

Best Fit Center

30
20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200
Time (s)

250

300

350

400

Surface First Term Approximation Best Fit

70
60
50
40
Temperature (C) Steel Surface Trial 1
30

Best Fit Surface

20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Time (s)

Figure 15: Best fit model for the steel sphere center of trial 1 using the first term approximation.

350

400

Figure 16: Best fit model for the steel sphere surface of trial 1 using the first term approximation.

From the heat transfer coefficients in tables 3 and 5, the Biot number can be calculated using
equation 1. Table 6 displays these figures.
Trial
Copper Surface Trial 2
Copper Center Trial 2
Copper Surface Trial 4
Copper Center Trial 4
Steel Surface Trial 1
Steel Center Trial 1
Steel Surface Trial 3
Steel Center Trial 3

Biot Number

0.096
0.075
0.164
0.164
2.482
2.498
2.140
4.147
Table 6: The calculated Biot number of all copper and steel spheres used in the cooling trials.

5. Discussions
The results obtained from the measured raw temperature data of the two spheres in each
cooling trial reveal the importance of selecting the correct model used in representing the
temperature distribution within a solid body. For the copper sphere, the lumped capacitance
method is valid because, as seen from table 6, the Biot number is much less than 1. This means
that copper possesses little conduction internal resistance compared to external convective
resistance and can be modeled as an object with uniform temperature throughout, even though
there may be small differences. The heat transfer coefficients of the copper sphere in table 3
confirm the validity of applying the lumped capacitance method here. For the second trial, the
heat transfer coefficients of the surface and center of the copper sphere are 1620 and 1259 W/

*K respectively, exhibiting some discrepancy and a percent difference of approximately

25%. This can be attributed to several possible sources error. During the experiment, the criteria
that the time of the spheres in the air must be minimized may not have been satisfied, changing
the surface temperature of the ball slightly. Additionally, the method in which the spheres were
mounted in the bath was unsteady and caused movement of the body during several of the trials.
This may have caused a shift in position and caused such a difference in the heat transfer
coefficients. However, the largest factor affecting results potentially could have been the manner
in which the linear regime of the dimensionless temperature cooling curve was selected. Since a
lot of freedom is given here, selecting fewer and more data points affects the slope of the trend
line fitted to the regime. Because the slope is directly used to solve for the heat transfer
coefficients, a large number of values were possible. The heat transfer coefficients for trial 4 of
the surface and center of the copper sphere, on the other hand, are identical and demonstrate the
high conductivity of the material.
The steel spheres cannot be modelled using the lumped capacitance method due to its
high conduction thermal resistance. Therefore, a temperature gradient will develop between the
surface and center of the sample, where temperature varies with time and position. To further
confirm such a claim, the Biot number for the steel sphere surfaces and centers in trials 1 and 3
shown in table 6 exceed 1. In terms of the heat transfer coefficients, trials 1 and 3 exhibit nearly
identical values, which is surprising due to the relatively high conductive thermal resistance of
steel compared to that of copper. This may be attributed to the aforementioned sources of error.
The largest potential factor affecting the values, again, is the way in which the linear trend is
fitted to the linear regime, where picking different number of points within the region affects the
value of the slope. Furthermore, the trend fit can only be applied to a linear region where the

time range yields a Fouriers number of 0.2 for the one term approximation to be accurate. This
step is critical and will give inaccurate results if done incorrectly. Thus, a larger number of terms
can be used in the calculation and model if this lab were to be performed again for more accurate
results. The purity of materials could also be considered as a source of error. The fabrication of a sphere
containing trace elements of other materials could give different thermal property values. Thus, the
impurity of the materials could also influence the heat transfer coefficient values that calculated from
each trial. Because the surface temperature should always be higher than that of the center, the best fit
models in figures 15 and 16 demonstrate the contrary, where the initial starting temperatures of the center

and surface are

81.1

and 49.6

based on the first term approximation model. This is due to

the fact that the lambda values found for trial 1 surface and center were found to be

2.154358721

and 2.158161652 , which will yield a very similar Biot number and, in turn, a very similar h
value. Very similar lambda values will cause the temperature at the center to be higher than that
of the surface due to the extra sine function in equation 8. In order to produce accurate results,
the experiment needs to be repeated many times to reduce as many possible sources of error as
possible and yield more sets of data to manipulate.
6. Conclusion
In this experiment, a lesson on making the necessary assumptions and deciding which model to
employ to two different materials was taught. The heat transfer coefficient values and, consequently, the
Biot numbers obtained from the analysis verified that our assumptions were correct. The lumped
capacitance method gave a decent approximation for the copper sphere due to the small differences in the
cooling curve temperatures at the center and the surface. Similarly, the series solution can be used to
model the temperature distribution within the steel sphere, as the Biot number exceeds 1. The importance

of meeting the criteria of each of these two methods was also taught in this experiment, where the Biot
number reveals which method to employ. If the series solution must be used, one must ensure the
accuracy of the first term approximation by confirming that the Fouriers number is greater than 0.2.
Otherwise, more terms or the full series solution must be used. Although several discrepancies existed
between the heat transfer coefficients of copper and steel, possible sources of error were identified and
can be minimized in future experiments. Furthermore, a more methodical method of choosing a linear
regime in the dimensionless cooling curves of copper and steel can be developed for even more accurate
results. This experiment ultimately revealed that different materials possessing various geometries and
thermal properties will give rise to different temperature distributions and heat transfer coefficients. The
lessons taught in this experiment are exceptionally applicable to an engineer because the skill to choose
an appropriate model and make accurate assumptions to precisely describe the temperature distribution
and obtain key thermal values of a specific geometric object consisting of any material is critical in the
design and optimization of an efficient thermal system.

References
Cengel, Yunus A., and Afshin J. Ghajar. Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications.
New York: McGraw Hill, 2015. Print.
Prof. D. Wroblewski, Prof. M. Isaacson, and G. Dewar, 1999, Lab 1: Transient Heat Conduction
handout, Experiment,; Revised by D. Kelly, M. Raymond, M. Dvilyanskiy, 2002; B. Vattiat, J.
Estano, D. Campbell, 2005; D.Karabacak, 2007; B. Nagpure and Prof. M. Isaacson, 2009; Prof.
A. Schmidt, J. Estano, D.Campbell, 2012.