11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

QuadralecticArchitecture
ASurveyofTetradicTestimonialsin
Architecture

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity
Thefuturecityfindsitsinspirationinaphilosophical,psychologicaland/orsociologicalconcept,anditsaimisto
determinealivingplaceforanewsocietyintimestocome.Thevisionarythinkerlooksahead,seethings,and
anticipatestheunexpected.Theconceptofafuturecitymustincludeallthebestofthepresent,whichwillbe
projectedtowardsunknownages.Fantasyistheabstractenginetolookbeyondarchitectureandcreatestrange
andunfamiliarcompositions(BINGHAMetal,2004).
ThevisionariesPiranesi(17201778)andBoulle(17281799)standoutasearlyrepresentativesofdreamlike
architectureprojectedintothefuture.Botharchitectshavebeenencounteredearlierbecauseoftheexceptional
characteroftheirwork.TheetchingsofPiranesiofancientGreekandRomansites,producedattheendofthe
eighteenthcentury,stirredtheimaginationofRomanticviewers.Piranesidepictedahauntedworld,which
pointedtodarknessandoblivion.

Fig.656TheelevationofacenotaphdedicatedtoSirIsaacNewtonasgiveninadrawingbyBoullein1784.
TheothersiteofthecoinistheoptimismofEtienneLouisBoullewithhisabstractgeometricstyle,whichwas
inspiredbyClassicalforms.Boullesmostnotableworkwasaseriesofdrawingsmadebetween1778and1788.
FuturisticdesignsasaMetropolitanChurch(1780),Citygatewithguns(1780),aSquareTemple(1780),and
laterhisCnotapheaNewton(1784)(fig.656)andtheDeuximeprojetpourlaBibliothqueduRoi(1785)made
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

1/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

hisnameasavisionary.HisbookArchitecture,essaisurlart(EssayontheArtofArchitecture)waspublished
forthefirsttimebyHelenRosenauin1953.
Scoresoffantasticand/oridealisticthinkersfollowedthesetwofuturisticarchitectsintheearlynineteenth
century.Theygrabbedthewideningofconceptualspacecreatedinhigherdivisionthinking.Thiscollectiveevent
didnotonlyoccurredinarchitecture,butalsoinsciencewithnewformslikesociology,psychology,geologyand
astronomyandintheunderstandingofart(history).
JeanNicolasLouisDurand(17601834)wasapupilofBoulle,whovulgarizedhismessage.HisbookPrcisdes
leonsdarchitecturedonneslcolepolytechnique(18021805)wastranslatedinGermanandItalianand
becameareferencepointforthenewwayofbuilding(KAUFMANN,1985).DurandattackedtheSaintPeter,its
squareandthePantheoninParisandgavethemasexampleshownottobuild.Thereis,inhisview,nopointof
uselessdecoration,butcraftsmanshipshouldbefoundintheconstructionalone.Themainaimofarchitectureis
itsusefulness,notitsliking.Hisplatesonthemecanismedelacompositionmakeclearthathiscreativitywas
guidedbyagridlikepattern(fig.657).

Fig.657Thisplateindicatesthegridlikeapproachasamechanismofcomposition(Mcanismedela
composition).ItwasproposedbyDurandinhisbookPrcisdesleonsdarchitecturedonneslcole
polytechnique(18021805).ThegridisamarkeroftheFourthQuadrantandcanbeinterpretedasameansto
organizemultiplicity.
Durandsscientificmethodhighlightstheendofanerainwhichclassicalproportionsdominatedtheideaof
beautyinarchitecture.InhisRecueil(1799/1801)heusedanaposteriorimethodtodefinehistypes.Bydoing
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

2/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

so,hebecameaprotagonistoffunctionalismanarchitectonicdoctrinethatputtheemphasisonpractical
considerationssuchasuse,material,andstructure,ratherthanapreconceivedplanofthearchitect.Thelogicof
constructionandgeometryresulted,inDurandsview,toattractivenessandnotasearchforbeautyitself.
LouisAmbroiseDubut(17601846)wasanotherarchitectofthatsameperiod.Hepresentedhiswork,called
ArchitectureCivile.MaisonsdeVilleetdeCampagneenToutesFormesetdeTousGenres..,(1803),infifteen
parts.Furthereditionsin1837and1842indicateditspopularity.DubutwasapupilofLedoux,andhisdesigns
elaboratedontheusefulcomponentsoftheexperimentsduringtheRevolution.Dubutapproachedthe(future)
citynotasamentalentity(unity),buttriedtogiveexamples,whichcouldformacityintheprocess.Hegave,for
instance,aboutfiftyexamplesofvarioushouses,whichwerenumbered(fig.658).

Fig.658ThehousesNo.10(above)and14(below)weresomeoftheexamplesgivenbytheFrencharchitect
LouisAmbroiseDubutinhissearchfortheelementsofafuturecity.Squareandcircularplansexploredthe
cognitiveground,whichwasbrokeninthenineteenthcentury.Itsassociatedaestheticexperiencesetthetrendfor
architecturetocome.
Amostnoticeablefuturisticenterprise,whichwaspartlyrealized,isfoundineasternFranceintheJura
Mountains(FranceComt).ThearchitectClaudeNicolasLedouxplannedherebetween17751780theRoyal
saltworksbetweenthevillagesArcandSenansandcalledthenewtownChaux.Ledoux(17361806)wasan
architect,whomadehiscareerintheyearsbeforetheFrenchRevolutionbybuildinghousesfortherich(likethe
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

3/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

PavillondeLouveciennes)andforworkingforthegovernment.
TheHtelThlussonintheRuedeProvenceinPariswasbuiltbetween1778and1781andwasthelargestof
Ledouxsprivatecommissionstoberealized.Itwasamixtureofapalaceandapavilionandcanberegardedasa
folieinitsmostelaborateform.Thepalace,designedafterLedouxsworkinSalinedeChaux,wasacityin
miniaturecompletewithboulevards,naturalsceneryandgrottoes.Therearyardhadatheatricalnature,which
remindedtotheplanofSaline.ThehatedtollhousesaroundParis(17841789,seefig.502)werealsopartof
Ledouxsoeuvre.
TheFrenchRevolutionof1789broughthimnearlytotheguillotine,buthewassparedandallowedtoretire.
Subsequently,hecontinuedtoworkonthevisionarycityofChaux,whichwasstartedin1780asasideprojectof
hisactivitiesinArcetSenans.ThefirstdraftsofthetownwerepresentedtoTurgotin1775,butconstantly
perfectedafterwards.Anamendedversionwaspublishedeventuallyin1802inabooktitledLArchitecture
consideresouslerapportdelart,desmursetdelalegislation(Architectureconsideredinrelationtoart,
morals,andlegislation).Itcontainedacollectionofhisdesigns(fig.659661).

Fig.659ThefirstprojectforthesaltworksofChaux(France)byClaudeNicolasLedoux,17731774,hada
squarelayout.Hisplanwasconformtotheneedsandconveniencesofaproductivefactorywheretheutilization
oftimeoffersafirsteconomy.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

4/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.660TheSalinedeChaux,situatedbetweenthevillagesArcandSenans(Doubs),asseeninarevised,
secondproject.Thecircularformpointedtoatheaterofwork,followingthelayoutofclassicaltheaters.These
ideaswerecontemporaneouswithAntoinePetitsprojectforaHotelDieu(1774seefig.347)andpredatedthe
panopticonprisonoftheEnglishreformerJeremyBentham(1797seefig.363)bysometwentyyears.Onlysome
ofthebuildingsinthecentralcourtofChauxincludingthehouseofthedirectorwerecompleted.
Ledouxusedtherhetoricalpowerofformsandornamentalelementstoreducetheclassicallanguage
(MALLGRAVE,2005).Infact,hewantedtocreateamodernclassicismbyusinghisknowledgeoftheclassical
ordersandreinventtheminatheatricalsetting(VIDLER,1990).Theproductsofthisexercisearefairlyheavyand
emphatic.Theydonotparticularappealtomodernaestheticfeelings,butLedouxmuststillberegardedasthe
firstFourthQuadrantarchitectreworkingarchitecturalhistoryintoanewrealityguidedbyfeelingsand
sentiments.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

5/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.661AperspectiveviewofChauxasgivenbyLedouxshowedacircularlayout,asitwasconceivedin1774.
TheHouseoftheDirectorandsidebuildingsaresituatedonahorizontalaxisinthecenter.

TheHouseoftheDirectorandsidebuildingsatChaux(Photo:MartenKuilman,Dec.2010).
HumanfeelingsbecamemoreandmoreanimportantfactorinthegrowingindustrializationofEurope.Amassive
surgeofactivityhadsetinattheendoftheeighteenthcenturyandbecameknownastheIndustrialRevolution.
JeanBaptisteSaypointedinhisbookTraitdconomiepolitique(1803)totheadvantagesofindustrialization
andprogress,whichtookplaceinEngland,andsuggestedthatFranceshouldfollowthesamecourse.The
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

6/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

sometimesappallingcircumstancesfortheworkforcegaverisetodifferentformsofsocialism.Theidealistic
capitalistsaimedinapatronizingway,butwithgoodintentionsatbetterlivingstandardsforthelaborers.
Thisverymixtureofhumanconcernandthe(grim)faceofmultiplicityistypicalforaFourthQuadrantsituation
inacommunication.
Theconfusingsituationatthebeginningofaneraofwiderdivisionthinking(1800)wasexpressedinFranceby
CharlesFourier(17721837).HiscriticalviewonsocietywasgiveninhisbookThoriedesquatremouvements
etdesdestinesgenerales(Theoryofthefourmovementsandthegeneraldestinies),whichappeared
anonymouslyinLyonin1808.Arecentedition(STEDMANJONES&PATTERSON,1996)makesthisworkmore
accessibleandis,infact,thefirsttranslationofFourierswritingsintheEnglishlanguage,exceptforafourteenth
pagepamphletin1827andaselectionofFouriersworktranslatedbyJuliaFRANKLIN(1901).
Thetitleofthebooksuggestsafourfoldwayofthinking,butthereaderwillbedisappointed.Theideasofthe
travelingsalesmanFourierwerefocusedoncooperationasameanstosocialsuccess.Peopleshouldbehousedto
getherinphalanxesselfcontainedcommunitiesconsistingofsixteenhundredpeopleworkingtogetherfor
mutualbenefit.Hewasasupporterofwomensrights(inventorofthewordfeminism)andliberationofhuman
passions.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

7/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.662FouriersschemeofsocialmovementasgiveninhisbookThoriedesquatremouvementsetdes
destineesgenerales(1808)exhibitstheexuberanceofamindletlooseintheFourthQuadrantoftheEuropean
culturalpresence.
ThebookisconcernedwithfeelingsandharmonicpassionsandpointstotheFourthQuadrantqualitiesofthe
visibleinvisibility.Thefourmovementsofthebooktitlerelatetothematerial,organic,animalandsocialworld.
Thefourcardinalpassionswereinhisview:friendship(inchildhood),love(inyouth),ambition(inmaturity)and
familism(bloodaffiliation,inoldage).Hisuniversalhistoricorderofcreation(ordredescreationfutures)
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

8/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

consistedoffourperiods,butothertypesofdivisionarealsoused.Hisapogeedubonheur(culminationof
happiness),withadurationofabout8000years,rightinthemiddle,suggeststhatFouriersbasiclineofthinking
wasdualistic(fig.662).
Fouriersbookswereaweirdcollectionofideasandschemes,withthefourfoldthrowninasanumerologicaltool
amongothertypesofdivisions.However,his(di)visionswereaninspirationalsourceforsocialistsintimesto
come.Fourierusedthementalspace,whichwascreatedbytheintroductionofhigherdivisionthinkinginthe
culturalhistoryofEuropearoundtheyear1800,inaremarkableway.Itwasforthefirsttimesincethetwelfth
centurythatmultiplicitywasembracedsowholeheartedly.ThemanandwifeteamMANUEL&MANUEL(1979,
Chapter27)wasmorecriticalintheirverdictonhisachievements:Paranoidelementsarealwayslatentinthe
greatstructurebuildersinFouriertheyrisetothesurfacenothingishidden.
CharlesFouriersawhimselfaspartofagreattraditionwhenhenoticedthedifferenceinthepriceofapplesin
Parisandthecountryside:Therehadbeenfourapplesintheworld:twoweredestinedtosowdiscordandtwoto
createconcord.WhileAdamandParishadbroughtmiserytomankind,Newtonsapplehadinspiredthediscovery
ofthebasiclawofattraction,whichgovernsphysicalmotion,anditscomplement,Fouriersapple,hadmovedhim
toformulatethelawofpassionateattraction,whichwouldinaugurateuniversalhappiness.Thesegrotesqueideas
arecharmingobservationsontheborderlineofdivisionthinkingandnumerology.

Fig.663ThisplanbyAndrofacommunitybasedonequality,libertyandunityfollowsideasofCharles
Fouriersgarantistecity.
ThearchitectonicideasofFourieronafuturecityofhappinesswerenotspecifiedinhisbookLHarmonie
universelleetlephalanstre(1822).Hisattentiontobuildingwasmoredirectedtowardsasocialsystem.Some
ofhisfollowersvisualizedhiscommunities(phalanxesorgarantiste)asrealcities(fig.663).JohnMinter
Morgan(17821854)usedadrawingofautopiansettlementasafrontispieceofhisbookTheChristian
commonwealth(1845)depictedasasquarewithacentralbuilding.
TheFamilistreisahousingcomplexinGuise(Picardy,NorthernFrance),whichwasactuallybuilt(fig.664).It
wasinitiatedin1859bytheindustrialistJeanBaptisteGodin(18171888)toaccommodatehislaborersofhis
factory.GodinfollowedideasofSaintSimonandFouriersPhalanstre.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

9/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.664TheinteriorofahousingcomplexforlabourersofJeanBaptisteGodinsironworksinGuise(Picardy,
NorthernFrance).
ThemanufacturerRobertOwen(17711858)becameknownasasocialreformerwhenheimprovedtheNew
LanarkmillsinLanarkshire(Scotland)withbetterhousingandeducationoftheyoung.Hepaidfourmonthwages
totheworkersduringanembargoagainsttheUnitedStatesintheWarof1812whenthecottonmillwasclosed.
Owendidnotbelieveinreligion,butinventedacreedhimself.Itwasbasedontheassumptionthatmans
characterismadenotbyhimbutforhim.Circumstancesoverwhichhehadnocontrolformedthebaseofhis
being.
OwenemphasizedinhisbookRevolutionintheMindandPracticeoftheHumanRace(1849)thatthehuman
characterisformedbyacombinationofNatureandGodandthecircumstancesoftheindividualsexperience.His
bookwasaresponsetotheEuropeanpoliticalupheavalsof1848whentheParisCommunestartedandMarxand
EngelspublishedtheirCommunistManifesto,butitwasalsoarecapitulationofhisideasonsocialreform.He
wasagainsttheuseofviolenceintherevolutionaryprocess,becauseitmimickedtheerrorsoftheirenemies
insteadofresortingtoreasonandkindness.
RobertOwenmovedtoAmericawhenhisScottishexperimentgotentangledineconomicobjectionsbyhisfellow
directors.Theyregardedhissocialmeasuresdamagingfortheprofits.Owenpurchasedin1825theexisting
GermanreligiouscommunitycalledHarmonieinSouthernIndiana.Thisprosperoussettlementwasstartedin
1814byFatherJohannGeorgRapp(17571847),founderoftheHarmonistsortheHarmonySociety.Soonitwas
calledNewHarmonyandwastobecomeacommunistictownofworkandeducationundertheguidanceof
Owen(fig.665)(ROYLE,1998).

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

10/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.665ThetownofNewHarmonyasenvisionedbyOwenwasgivenbythearchitectStedmanWhitwell(1784
1840)inhisDesignforaCommunityof2000PersonfoundeduponaprincipleCommendedbyPlato,Lord
BaconandSirThomasMore,printedinLondonin1830.

Thesocialexperimentlastedsomefouryears,becauseitseemedthatthedifferenceofopinion,tastesand
purposesincreasedjustinproportiontothedemandforconformityanditappearedthatitwasnaturesown
inherentlawofdiversitythathadconqueredusourunitedinterestsweredirectlyatwarwiththeindividualities
ofpersonsandcircumstancesandtheinstinctofselfpreservation(asnotedbytheindividualanarchistJosiah
Warrenin1856).
NewHarmonyremainedacenterofscientificresearchdespiteitsfailedutopianaims.Theearlyheadquartersof
theU.S.GeologicalSurveywasbasedinNewHarmony,resultinginalargegeologicalandnaturalscience
collection,whichlaterbecameincorporatedintheSmithsonianInstitute.DavidDaleOwen(asonofRobert)
turnedtogeologyundertheinfluenceofWilliamMaclure(17631840).ThelatterwaspresidentoftheAcademy
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

11/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

ofNaturalSciencesofPhiladelphiafortwentytwoyears.MaclureproducedthefirstgeologicalmapofAmericain
1809,whichissixyearsearlierthanasimilarmapofEnglandbyWilliamSmith.
TheCadburyBrothersinBirmingham(England)startedtoeducatetheilliterateandpoorworkersandtheir
childrenoftheirchocolatefactoryinthesameyear(1859)asGodinsetouthisFamilistreinFrance.Afeelingof
compassionstruckintothemindsoftheleadingindustrialistsalloverEurope.Thesocialideatoamelioratethe
conditionoftheworkingclassandlaboringpopulationbytheprovisionofimproveddwellings,withgardens
andopenspacetobeenjoyedtherewithwasputintopracticebythecacaoproducers.Theymovedtheirfactoryin
1879tothesouthernpartofBirmingham,thenaruralarea.
GeorgeCadbury(18391922)boughtin1893somehundredandtwentyacresoflandnexttothefactoryand
plannedamodelvillagetohousetheworkforceandcalleditBournville.TheBournvilleVillageTrustwasfounded
in1900whenitcomprisedsomethreehundredcottagesandhouses.TheArtsandcraftsstylebecamea
hallmarkofmanytypicalEnglishvillages.ArecentsurveydeclaredBournvilleasquitesimplyoneofthenicest
placestoliveinBritain.Therewasnopublichouse,sinceGeorgeCadburywasaQuaker,whoputmoreemphasis
onoutdoorsportsandwalking.ThenearbyRowheathPavilionwasbuiltunderhissupervision.
AgoodexampleoftheinfluenceofhigherdivisionthinkingonfuturecitydesignwasJamesSilkBuckinghams
planforthetownofVictoria,givenasthefrontispieceofhisbookNationalEvilsandPracticalRemedy(1849).
Thewriterhadanadventurouslife.Hewenttoseaattheageofnineandwascapturedasaprisonerofwar.After
ashortstingasabooksellerinEngland,hewenttoseaagainandsailedtheMediterraneanasatrader.Hevisited
Egypt,ArabiaandreachedIndiaaftermuchhardship.BuckinghamfoundedanewspaperinCalcuttain1818,but
hissharppenbroughthiminconflictwiththegovernment.Hiseleventravelbooksarenowvirtuallyforgotten,
butheisrememberedforhisPlanofaModelTown(fig.666).BuckinghamsmodeltownofVictoria,madeupof
concentricsquares,predatedEbenezerHowardsGardenCitymovement(1902)andinfluencedthedesignofthe
AustraliancityofAdelaide.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

12/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.666ThefuturecityofVictoriawasdesignedbyBuckinghamin1849alongtheestablishedlinesofa
labyrinth.TheeightmainlanestowardsthecenterwerenamedafterahotchpotchofclassicalandChristian
virtuesanduniversalhumanvalueslikeunity,peace,concordandcharity.
Buckinghamassertedthathisschemewasdesignedtoavoidtheevilsofcommunism.Thisstatementiscurious,
becauseanythinkingaboutafuturecitycommunityneedssomeelementofcentralplanning.Everyurban
developmentispartofasocialstatement.Adualisticbackgroundcanbesuspectedwhentermslikecentralization
anddecentralizationareused,justlikethedistinctionbetweenrichandpoor,organizedandunorganized,etc.
BuckinghamsVictoriatouchedtheideaofthesquarecity,withitslonghistory(seeChapter4.1.3.3),butdidnot
addmuchtotheconcept.
AmorepracticalapproachtofuturearchitecturewascarriedoutbyJosephPaxton(18031865).Paxtonbecame
HeadGardeneratChatsworthHouse(PeakDistrict,Derbyshire)attheageoftwentythree.Hedevelopedfrom
thereintoacreativevisionarywithhisglassbuildings(COLQUHOUN,2003).ChatsworthHousewasownedby
WilliamCavendish,whohadhisLondonresidenceinChiswickHouse(seefig.421).TheGreatConservatoryof
ChatsworthHousestartedin1837,followingtheplansofthearchitectDecimusBurton(wholaterworkedonthe
PalmHouseatKew).Newtechniqueswereused,likesteamdrivenwoodworkingmachinesandstandardized
components.AsecondconservatorytheLilyHousewasbuiltin1849tohousetheVictoriaRegiaplant.Both
conservatoriesweredemolishedinthe1920s.
ThesamefateofdestructionwasinstockfortheCrystalPalaceinLondon,Paxtonsmostfamouscreationforthe
GreatExhibitioninHydeParkin1851.Theexhibitionspacecoveredsome92.000squaremetersandtheglass
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

13/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

andironstructurewas564meterslongand33metershigh(fig.667).CrystalPalacewasinallsenseafuturistic
building,whichcametrue.ThebuildingwasrelocatedaftertheexhibitiontoSydenhamHill.ItservedinWorld
WarIasanestablishmentfortheNavyandchangedthereafterintothefirstImperialWarMuseum.Thefinal
blowcameonthe30stofNovember1936,whenafireleftatangledmessoftheCrystalPalace.

Fig.667TheCrystalPalaceinLondonwasbuiltbyJosephPaxtonfortheGreatExhibitionof1851.Lateritwas
rebuiltandenlargedinSydenhamHill,butwasdestroyedbyfirein1936.
AnotherfuturisticprojectbyJosephPaxtonwhichdidnotmaterializewastheVictorianWayof1855.Itwasa
largeglasscoveredcircumferenceofLondon,modeledontheCrystalPalace.Theinitialideaofapassage(gallery
street)camefromFouriersphalanstery,wheretheywerecalledruesgalries.WilliamMoselyCrystalWay
followedPaxtonsideas,butwaslessambitiousinscope.
DavidPIKE(2005)notedthatthiscoveringupofstreetswasthenecessaryforeplayforanenlargedconsciousness
ofurbanspaceintheearlytwentiethcentury.Itwasrealizedthatthingscannotbecreatedindependentlyofeach
otherinspaceandthemetropolitanunderworldbecamepartofthatconcept.Theundergroundrailwayofthe
CircleLineisnowthevisibleresultofPaxtonsfuturisticimaginationinthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.
AsimilarstructureofironandglassliketheCrystalPalacewasbuiltinAmsterdambetween1855and1864atthe
Frederiksplein.ItwasknownasthePaleisvoorVolksvlijtandburneddowninApril1929.
AninterestingfuturisticcityprojectforNewZealandwasstartedbyRobertPEMBERTON(1854/1985),aman
whonevervisitedtheislands.Hewasaphilanthropist,wholivedinLondonandParis.Hisbestknown
ExplanationofTheHappyColonydatedfrom1854,buthewroteseveralmorebooksandtracts,includingAn
AddresstoRobertOwen(1855),TheScienceofMindformation(1858)andOntheNecessityofPopular
Education(1859).

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

14/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.668TheHappyColonyofRobertPembertonwasenvisagedasamodeltowntobeestablishedinNew
ZealandbytheWorkmenofGreatBritain.Theplanremainedvisionary.
ThetwoillustrationsasgiveninthepublicationoftheHappyColonyin1854indicatedacircularlayout(fig.
668/669).ThischoicewasabasicstatementagainstOwenssrectangularfuturecity.Rightanglesareopposedto
theharmonyofmotion,accordingtoPemberton,andinatowntheremustbemotion.Hewasfurtherconvinced
thatthebadformationoftownshadaninfluenceonthebadformationofminds.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

15/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.669ThecentralpartoftheHappyColonybyRobertPembertonfeaturedfourcolleges.Educationaltools,
likeaworldmapandoneoftheuniverseswerelaidoutinthecircularenclosure.ThesubtitleofPembertonsbook
wasgivenasDialoguesbetweenaphilosopherandalearnedfriendAddresstotheworkmenofGreatBritain
DescriptionoftheElysianacademy,ornaturaluniversity.
ThefirstcircleoftheHappyColonyorQueenVictoriaTowncontainedinPembertonsdescriptionfour
colleges(orNaturalUniversities)withconservatoriesandworkshops.Manufactorieswereplacedinthesecond
circleandpublichorticulturalgardensoccupiedthenextcirclewithalargeparkattheouterrim.TheHappy
Colonistsshouldadoptasystemwithoutanuisanceandallcontentionaboutindividualpropertywillbeforever
doneawaywith.Concentrationoflabour,art,scienceandlearningwasthemainfeatureofthenewestablishment
sothatthedivinecreativeprincipleseconomyoftime,labour,andspacewillbeactedupon.
ThethoughtsoffuturecitiestookarealisticturnattheendofthenineteenthcenturywhenEbenezerHoward
(18501928)developedhisGardenCitiesofTomorrow:APeacefulPathtoRealReform(1898).Theeditionof
1902wascalledGardenCitiesofTomorrow.Thisnewtypeofcitiesdidcarryasocialandpoliticalmessage,
whichwasdirectedtowardstheevilsofcommunism(likeBuckinghamsideas).Thecapitalisticlandlord,which
wasseenbyHowardastheprimeinstigatorofinnercitypoverty,woulddisappearwhenthelocalauthoritytook
controlofthefinancialsideofhousinganddevelopment(MORRIS,1997).Adeclineinpopulationofoldcity
centerswouldinduecourseleadtoadeclineinpropertyvalues.
HowardsinventivemindwasinspiredbyabestselleroftheAmericanauthorEdwardBellamy(18501898)
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

16/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

calledLookingBackwardfrom2000to1887publishedin1888.Heboughtsomehundredcopiestodistribute
themamongfriends.Thebookdescribedthehistoryofanupperclassgentleman(JulianWest)inBoston,who
findshimselfinasocialistutopiaintheyear2000.
Howardenvisagedthetownasbeinginfluencedbythreemagnetsinwhichtheadvantagesofcityandcountryside
werecombinedandthedisadvantageseliminated.Citydevelopmentwouldtakeplaceinanorderlysequence.The
newtownsshouldbeselfcontainedandbalancedcommunitiesforworkandliving.Anetworkofcloselylinked
townswouldbethecoreoftheurbandevelopment,followingadistinctplanratherthanguidedbynaturalgrowth
asasprawlorundirectedspread(fig.670).

Fig.670ThisgroupofslumlessandsmokelesscitieswereacompilationoftheideasofEbenezerHowards
GardenCities.ThismapwasincludedinthefirsteditionofHowardsbookin1898,whenitwastitledTo
morrow:APeacefulPathtoRealReform.Theillustrationwasomittedinlatereditionsinfavorofthesketch
Correctprincipleofacitysgrowth.
Howardsvisionaryplanofarestorativeutopia(PINDER,2005)wastocreateaSocialCitywithanaturaland
healthylivingspacecateringforaroundthirtytwothousandpeople.Ifthatnumberswerereachedasecondnew
townwouldbegin.Thecentralcityinthecircularhexagonalplanwouldhaveapopulationofaroundfiftyeight
thousandinhabitants.
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

17/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Howardsideaswereinspiredbyapracticalmind,knowingthatbuildingcitiesinvolvedaprogramoflandreform
andshouldbecosteffective.Thenewtownauthoritywouldacquirelandatanagriculturalleveloflandpricesand
retainownershipoftheland.Residentswouldpayaraterenttothemunicipalityfortheiruseoftheland.
Chapterthree(theRevenueofGardenCity),four(GeneralObservationsonitsExpenditure)andfive(further
detailsofExpenditure)ofHowardsbookareallconcernedwiththefinancialsideofcitydevelopment.Howard
sawmaterialinequalityinsocietyaspartoftheinnercityproblems.

Fig.671ThisplanofthefirstgardencityofLetchworthinHertfordshire(England)wasgivenbythearchitects
ParkerandUnwinintheirpublicationAGuidetoLetchworthin1907.SomeofHowardsgeometricalformality
ofaradiatingpatternwasretainedaroundthetownsquare.
ThefirstgardencitywascalledLetchworth,atowninHertfordshire,andstartedin1903.ThearchitectsRicardo
andLethabyusedavarietyofradial,squareandcurvedstreets,onlyhalfheartedlyfollowingHowardssuggestion
ofroadsfollowingcontoursinthefield.Treeswereleftstandingandnopublichouseswerebuilt(thisbanwas
liftedafterareferendumin1958).ThePlanforLetchworthbyParkerandUnwin(1907)givesanoverviewofthe
radialcharacterofthestreetsaroundthetownsquare(fig.671).ThelayoutofLetchworthTownSquarewasalso
publishedinC.B.PurdomsTheGardenCity(1913).
Howardinitiatedin1919thesecondtowncalledWelwynGardenCity.Theconceptofasatellitecity,asintroduced
byRaymondUnwin(18631940),wasfollowedhere.TheideaoftownclustersaroundGreaterLondonanda
GreenBeltprinciplewereputtothetest.Therapidincreaseofmotorcarsforpersonalmobilityandtransport
creatednewproblems,whichinitiallycouldbehandledbytheGardenCityconcept.Thepolicyofplanned
overspillfoundanapotheosisinPatrickAbercrombiesGreaterLondonPlanin1944.Thisinfluentialproposal
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

18/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

forthefutureofLondonestablishedamodelforcityplanningafterthewar.ThesearchforlocationsoftheNew
TownsaroundLondonbeyondagreenbeltwason.

Fig.672TheschemeforsatellitecitiesasdevelopedbythearchitectRaymondUnwinwasapopularmechanism
inthecityplanninginEuropeintheearlytwentiethcentury.
Unwinsideaofsatellitecities(fig.672)waspartofageneralmoveintownplanninginthefirstquarterofthe
twentiethcentury(seealsofig.536).Asatellitecityisdifferentfromasuburb,becauseithasitsownfacilitiesand
isindependentofitsnearbymetropolis.Thereis,ontheotherhand,noconsensusofwhatcharacterizesa
suburb,whereitstopsandwherethesatellitecitystarts.
TheLondonbornarchitectCharlesRobertAshbee(18631942)wasagaymaninatimewhenhomosexuality
wasillegal.HemarriedJanetForbesin1898andhadfourchildren.HiscontributiontotheDublintownplanning
competitionof1914whichwaswonbyAbercrombieandKelly&KellyfollowedontheteachingsofGeddes.
Ashbeewasmentionedearlier(fig.167)asanimportantmemberoftheArtsandCraftMovement.Acommission
tothepalaceoftheGrandDukeofHesseresultedinAshbeesinvolvementintheconstructionsofthe
MathildenhheinDarmstadt,aprojectofartistsstudiosandhousesontheDukesestate,whichstartedin1899.
AshbeepublishedhisideasinabooktitledWherethegreatcitystandsin1917(CRAWFORD,1985).Plansfora
cooperativeGardenCityatRuislipwereincorporatedinthebook(fig.673).Ashbeeworkedforsixyearsinthe
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

19/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

MiddleEast(Palestine)fortheBritishMilitaryGovernment,helpingtobuildanewJerusalemandlivedthere
withhisfamilyuntil1923.

Fig.673AshbeesviewofafuturecityresultedinadesignforthecirculartownofRuislipGardenCity.
Thespiritoffuturecitiesfoundmanyadherersinthe1920sand1930sinGermany.Paxtonsmythologyofglass,
asmaterializedintheCrystalPalace,wascarriedforwardsbytheGermanarchitectBrunoTaut(18801938).
TheGlassPavilionoftheWerkbundExhibitioninKlnin1914wasprobableTautsmostnoticeablework.Healso
contributedtothegardencitiesofHopfengarten(1911)andReform(1914/1921)inMagdenburg(SaksenAlhalt)
andAmFalkenberginBerlin(1914).HisHausderFreundschaftwashissubmission(in1916)toacompetitionfor
aculturalcommunitycentreinConstantinopel(Istanbul)inwhichthecompleteGermanarchitecturalavant
gardeparticipated(PeterBehrens,GermanBestelmeyer,PaulBonatz,HugoEberhardt,MartinElssser,August
Endell,TheodorFischer,BrunoPaul,HansPoelzigandRichardRiemerschmid).
TautsfuturisticGeschftsstadtof1919iscenteredonthecitycrown(DieStadtkrone)(fig.674/675).Thispartof
thecityisfloodedbythelightofthesun,thecrystalhousereignsovereverythinglikeaflashingdiamond,
sparklinginthesunasasymbolofthehighestserenity,joyfullness,andspiritualdelight(WHYTE,2003).

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

20/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.674ThefuturisticcitybytheGermanarchitectBrunoTauthadacircularshapewiththecitycrown
(Stadtkrone)ascentrepoint.
TautfledNazismin1933andwenttoSwitzerland,wherehemetwiththearthistorianSigfriedGiedeon(1888
1968),thewriterofSpace,TimeandArchitecture(1943).LaterthatyearheemigratedtoJapanandreturnedto
Istanbul(Turkey)in1936.Heendedhislifeherein1938asanexileandwasburiedastheonlynonMuslimat
theEdirnekapiMartyrsCemetery(JUNGHANNS,1983).
BrunoTautmadein1918asetofdrawings,whichwerepublishedin1920as:DieAuflsungderStdteoderDie
ErdeeineguteWohnungoderauch:DerWegzurAlpinenArchitekturbyFolkwangVerlag(Hagen/Westfalen).
ThisseriescommonlyknownasAlpineArchitecturemadeanartisticstatementandbecamehisprincipal
theoreticalwork(SCHIRREN(2004).Hereconstructedinfivepartsandthirtydrawingsafantasticand
utopianworld.Thefirstpart(Kristallhaus),infourfolios,depictedaCrystalBuilding.Thesecondpartwas
concernedwiththeshapesofthemountainsingeneral.GrotesqueRegionsinSwitzerland(Matterhorn,Monte
Rosa)weredrawnasvalleyswithglassbuildingsandmountaintopswitharches.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

21/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.675TheCityCrownwasthecentralpartofaproject,drawnupin1915/1916byBrunoTautasavisionofa
futurecityandpublishedin1919asDieStadtkrone.
ThethirdandmainpartoftheseriesdealswithAlpineBuildinginSwitzerland(UpperEngadin),Austria(Tyrol)
andItaly(DolomitesandLakeLugano).HisAppealtotheEuropeans(Plate16of30)givesamapoftheareasof
interestandatextwrittentoformacross.ThissymbolofChristsPassioncontains,accordingtoMatthias
Schirren,theunderlyingmoralmessageofAlpineArchitecture.Thefourthpartoftheserieshastodowiththe
earthscrustbuilding(Erdrindenbau).TheRalikandRatakIsland(theSunriseandSunsetislands,partofthe
groupoftwelvehundredMarshallIslandsintheSouthPacific)whichwereclaimedbyKaiserWilhelmIIto
counteracttheYellowPerilwererepresentedwithgarlandslikelines.TheislandofRgenintheBalticSeawas
adornedwithornamentalstructureslikearches,spinesandcrystals.Itisnotclearwhattheserepresentations
hadtodowiththeearthcrustexceptsomeabstractnotionofalivingearththeearthasanorganism.
ThelastpartoftheAlpineArchitectureisconcernedwithspeculativeastralbuilding.Acathedralstar
(Domstern)lookslikeacosmictheaterinacrystalsurroundedbycometsandstars,whichseemstorotatearound
averticalaxis.TheinfluenceofthepoetandphilosopherPaulScheerbart(18631915),whoalsocomposed
aphoristicpoemsaboutglassarchitecturefortheGlassPavilion,waseminentinthisdrawing.Tautsimageofthe
SolarSystemisprobablythemostelaborateandcomplexdrawingofthesequence.Thetextthespheres,the
circles,thewheelspointedtoadynamicculminationofacosmicexperience.Somesortofcyclicconsciousness
comesintoviewhere.
Thefinalsheet(Ende)onlygavethefollowingtext:stars,worlds,sleep,death,thegreat,nothingness,the
nameless,end.Thewordsseemtoindicate,intheirRomanticsettingasusedbyTaut,avaguereferencetoa
BuddhistsNirvana.Thequadralecticinterpretationwouldplacetheseexclamationsintheinvisibleinvisibilityof
aFirstQuadrant(I)andtheendcanbeexperiencedasavoid(betweenthecommunicationcycles)inthefinal
partoftheFourthQuadrant(IV).
TautdidnotreallyimprovewithhissketchesinAlpineArchitectureonhisideasoftheGlassHousein1914.
Hisexpectationsmighthavebeentoohighstrungatatimeofrecuperationafterthewar.However,his
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

22/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

contributiontoModernistarchitectureingeneralisstillconsiderable.HishorseshoehousingprojectinBerlin
Neuklln(fig.676)theBritzHorseshoeSettlement(19251929)reflected,accordingtoSchirren(2004,p.
19)theprinciplesexplainedinAlpineArchitecture:thatofanempatheticinterpretationofnaturallyexisting
formsonthepartofanarchitectwhosemindisreceptivetotheomnipresenceofoppositionsinnature.Thispoint
ofviewisderivedfromlowerdivisionthinking,whichcouldberightinTautscase.

Fig.676ThehorseshoeshapedhousingdevelopmentBritzinBerlinNeukllnwasoneoftheworksofBruno
Taut,whichwasexecutedbetween1925and1929.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

23/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

HousingdevelopmentBritzinBerlinNeuklln(Photo:MartenKuilman,Oct.2010).
AnevaluationofTautsworkinquadralectictermsdoesnotgiveabundantevidenceofhismindenteringinto
higherdivisionthinking,exceptmaybehisearlyworkintheGlashaus(1914)andDieStadkrone(1919).The
AlpineArchitecturehasfivepartsandnohinttotetradicfeatures.HispublicationofafuturisticHausdes
HimmelspresentedinanewspapersupplementcalledFrhling(Spring)in1920usedthe
triangle/hexagonalshape.TautemphasizedthatdieheiligenZahlen7und3verbindensichinihmzurEinheit
(theholynumbers3and7areconnectedinthebuildinginunity).Thehorseshoeplanof1925wasoriginal,but
withlittlereferencetothefourfold.
TheModernistspiritoftheearlytwentiethcenturyfoundinItalyastrongandawkwardsupporterinFilippo
TommassoMarinetti(18761944).HisManifestoofFuturismwaslaunchedintheFrenchnewspaperLe
Figaroin1909.Itsmessagecalledfortheglorifyingofwarseenastheworldsonlyhygienemilitarism,
patriotism,thedestructivegestureoffreedombringers,beautifulideasworthdyingfor,andscornforwomen
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

24/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

andthedestructionofmuseums,libraries,academiesofeverykindandafightagainstmoralism,feminismand
everyopportunisticorutilitariancowardice.
MarinettiwasoneofthefirstsupportersandmembersoftheFascistPartyunderBenitoMussolini.Thisattention
towarandviolence,whichcamesocloselyrelatedtotheFuturistsmovementinItaly,isinquadralectic
perspectiveasignofaThirdQuadrantmentalityshowingits(ugly)faceintheSecondQuadrantofideas,the
conceptualplacewherefuturisticcitiesareborn.
Draftsofafuturisticcity(LaCittnuova)wereproducedbyAntonioSantElia(18881916),aComoborn
builder,draughtsmanandarchitect.HisgraduationprojectinBolognadealtwithmonumentalcathedrals,which
couldbeapproachedbylongflightsofsteps.Somespectaculardrawingsofhighrisebuildingswereshownatan
exhibitionoftheNuoveTendenzegroupattheFamigliaArtisticainMilantogetherwithMarioChiattone(1891
1957).ThelatterwrotebooksTheBuildingofaModernMetropolisandBridgeandStudiesofVolumeand
sharedastudiowithhim.Adrawingofsoaringtowersthattouchedtheskyandroomsthatwereonlythreefeet
widewasanotherofChiattonescontributionstoearlyFuturism.Multiplicitygonewildwasthenameofthegame
here.SantElialaunchedinthesameyear(August1914)hisLarchitetturafuturista(ManisfestoofFuturist
Architecture)inthenewspaperLacerba.
SantEliawaskilledin1916inoneoftheskirmishesbetweentheAustroHungariansandtheItalianarmiesalong
theRiverIsonzoinpresentdaySlovenia,buthisfameasaFuturistremained.Hisimaginarybuildingswerevast
withanemphasisonhorizontalandverticallines.Modernityandprogresswerevisibleintheliftsontheoutside
ofthebuildinganddifferentlevelsofroadusers.LaterarchitectslikeLeCorbusierpickeduphismessagio.There
arenoindicationsthatthisshortlivedItalianfuturisthadaninclinationtowardshigherdivisionthinkingandhis
franticsearchforidentity(nationalism)ratherpointstotheopposite.
EnricoPrampolini(18941956)wasapainter,sculptoranddesigneddecorsasascenographer.Hehadtoleave
theartacademyinRomeafterwritingafuturisticmanifest(1912),whichwasfollowedin1924inhisManifesto
dellartmeccanicafururista.HehadconnectionswithTheovanDoesburgandtheDutchDeStijlgroupandother
representativesoftheEuropeanavantgardemovementsliketheDadaists,DerStrm,theNovembergruppeand
theBauhaus.HisFuturistPavilionattheexhibitionheldintheParcoValentinoinTurin(1928)isamature
exampleoffuturisticarchitectureinaconcreteform(fig.677).

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

25/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.677TheFuturistPavilionattheexhibitionintheParcoValentinoinTurin(1928)wasdesignedbyEnrico
Prampolini.Itmarks,togetherwiththeWarMemorialinComo,ahighlightofPrampoliniscontributionto
Futuristarchitecture.
ThearchitectandscenographerVirgilioMarchi(18951960)metMarinettiduringtheFirstWorldWarin1916.
FuturistsideashadreachedastageofselfconfidencebythetimeMarchisbookArchittetturafuturista(1924)
waspublished.Marchiwasaprolificessayist,theoreticianandteacherandgaveavisionofbuildingsashabitable
sculpturesratherthanconceptsofthemachineforlivinginoftheRationalists.Fig.678isagoodexampleof
suchanapproach,leadingtoasuperbuseofspace.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

26/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Volg

Volg Quadralectic
Architecture
Ontvang elk nieuw bericht
direct in je inbox.
Voerjeemailadresin

Fig.678TheBaroftheCasaBragagliabyVirgilioMarchi(Rome,1921)wasastatementofarchitectonic
Meldmijaan

futurism,whichprovedfeasibleandfounditssubsequentfollowers.
Maak een website met WordPress.com

ThetimeoftheInterbellumwasfruitfulfordaringdevelopmentsinotherpartsoftheworldaswell.Forinstance,
anambitiousplanningprojectwasrealizedintheModelTown,situatedinasuburbofLahore(Pakistan).This
newtownwasestablishedin1921andfollowedacrossandcircleinasquarelayout(fig.679).

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

27/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.679ThismapofModelTowninasuburbofLahore(Pakistan)wasgivenbyEstatemanProperties
InternationalinIslamabadandshowsacrossandcircleinasquare.Thecommunitywasstartedin1921byDewan
(primeminister)ChemChandasacooperativebasedontheprinciplesofselfhelp,selfgovernanceand
cooperation.Eightsmallersquares(AG)arethecentersofthelocalcommunityblockswiththeirownmarket,
playgroundsandmosques.Thecityhasatotalpopulationofabout100.000.ThecircularModelTownParkwas
builtin1990andisoneofthelargestpublicparksofLahore.Barriersareplacedattheentrances,whichare
closedafter9pmandonlyfourentrancesareopenatnight.
ThecooperativeprincipleswhicharestillinforcetodayintheModelTownwerefirstpopularizedbyGeorge
JacobHolyoake(18171906),anEnglishsocialreformer.Hewasthelastpersontobeconvictedforblasphemy
andspentsixmonthsinjail.Soonthereafterhecoinedthetermsecularismin1846anddescribeditasaformof
opinion,whichconcernsitselfonlywithquestions,theissuesofwhichcanbetestedbytheexperienceofthislife.
Secularism,asadoctrine,canbedescribedasanyphilosophy,whichformsitsethicswithoutreferenceto
religiousdogmasandpromotesthedevelopmentofhumanartandscience.
AlastupsurgeoffuturisticcityinspirationinGermanytookplaceduringWorldWarII,whenthearchitectAlbert
Speer(19051981)followingHitlersconceptfeaturedaGrandNorthSouthBoulevardwiththeArcof
TriumphandtheGreatHalloftheReich(fig.680)aspartofarenovationofBerlin.AdolfHitlersenvisageda
modernBerlin,calledWelthauptstadtGermania(WorldCapitalGermania),asacityfullofmarblearchitecture,
whichwouldbecomparablewiththeachievementsoftheEgyptians,BabyloniansandRomans.Hisendeavors
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

28/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

addedlittletothehistoricalroleofarchitectureasanartisticadventure,exceptperhapsthesizeofthebuildings
andsquares.ThedomedGreatHallwassupposedtoaccommodateacrowdofhundredandfiftythousand
people.

Fig.680TheGreatHalloftheReich,asplannedbyAlbertSpeer,wassupposedtobethecenterpieceofa
reshapedBerlin,calledGermania.Themegalomaniacbuilding,withitsmarkeddualsymmetry,wasneverbuilt.
TheaestheticvisionoftheNazis(andHitler)wasborninoppositionalthinking,anddidnotreachabovealevelof
longstraightboulevardsandTriumphalArches.
ThedevelopmentoffuturecitiesinAmericawasinitiallyincorporatedinthegrowthofurbanlifetheUnited
Statesasawhole.Inotherwords,thecitiesintheyoungcountryweredevelopingsofast,thatmanyideasof
futuretownswererealizedstraightaway.ThearchitectFrankLloydWright(18671959)submittedinThe
LadiesHomeJournalofJuly1901,featuringanenormousartillerygunonitscover!adesignforsuburban
houseswhichcanbebuiltatmoderatecostsandproposedaQuadrupleBlockPlan.Thisbasicplanofsmall
squareblocksoffourequalsizedlotssurroundedonallsidesbyroadssurpassedthetraditionalpracticeoflot
allocation.Thetitleofthe1901articleAHomeinaPrairieTownresultedinthenamePrairieStyleforthe
residentialhouses,whichweredesignedbyWrightintheperiodbetween1901and1917.TheRobieHouse,builtin
Chicagoin1909,canbeseenasthemasterpieceoftheprairiestyle,showingtheopenplantothefull.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

29/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.681AplanforasubdivisionofatypicaldevelopmentlotbyFrankLloydWright,1913.Thequadrupleblock
planningonanurbanscalewasdirectlyderivedfromthelargegridpatterns,whichdividedthecountryassoonas
colonizationhadsetin.However,thetetradicconcepthereinacheckerboardpatternwasenhancedwithnon
symmetricalvariationofhousingblocksandparks.
ThequadrupleideaswereexpandedintheCityClubofChicagoLandDevelopmentCompetitionin1913.The
QuadrupleBlockPlanincludednowseveralsociallevelsandhadtheamenitiesofasmallcity(fig.681).The
decentralizationwasfurtheremphasizedintheBroadacreCitydesign,firstpresentedinanarticleinThe
DisappearingCityin1932andconstantlybeingreviseduptothelargefoldoutinfullcolorinTheLivingCity
(WRIGHT,1958).
ThisprojectexecutedinthesecondhalfofFrankLloydWrightscareerdisplayedafuturecitywithweird
towersandairplanes.Thissciencefictiontypeofvisiondidnotaddtoapracticalurbandevelopment.His
studentsconstructedascalemodelin1932atTaliesin,FrankLloydWrightsestateinSpringGreen,Wisconsin.It
wasexplainedonamappublishedinWhenDemocracyBuilds(1945).Theplanindicatedfoursquaresections(A
D)ofminimumhousessurroundedbylittlefarms,mediumhouses,vineyardsandorchards,atouristcamp,
smallindustries,anairport,acirculararenaandlargerhouses.
Thebroadacrecity,whereeveryfamilywillhaveatleastanacreofland,istheinevitablemunicipalityofthe
future...Welivenowincitiesofthepast,slavesofthemachineandoftraditionalbuilding.Wecannotsolve
ourlivingandtransportationproblemsbyburrowingunderorclimbingover,andwhyshouldwe?Wewill
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

30/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

spreadout,andinsodoingwilltransformourhumanhabitationsitesintothoseallowingbeautyofdesignand
landscaping,sanitationandfreshair,privacyandplaygrounds,andaplotwhereontoraisethings.
Thisquotation(WRIGHT,1932/1935)conveyedamessageofexpansionasthefinalsolutionforacongestedinner
city.Mobilitywascelebratedasapanaceaagainsttheillsofovercrowding.Thisremedycanbeplacedinthe
contextoftheAmericanculture,whichreachedadecisivestagearound1890(seefig.551andfig.619).Theyoung
culturalentityexperiencedinthatyearitsFirstMajorApproach(FMA),whichimpliedafirstproofofitsreal
existence,expressedinlowCFvalues(CF=6).Americashapedunknowinglyitsidentityatthatverypointof
thecommunication(withatwentyfirstcentury,Europeanobserver).
Thelastdecadeofthenineteenthcenturywerefranticyearsofexpansionandbuilding.Theskyscraperbecamethe
hallmarkofAmerica,atypeofconstruction,whichwasnevertriedbeforeonsuchascaleinanyknown
civilization.ThefirstskyscrapertheHomeInsuranceBuildingwasbuiltin1884usingastructuralsteel
skeletonasitsframeandlightermasonrywallswerehungfromthesteelframeworklikecurtains.
SoonadisputeonthistypeofbuildingarosewhenaMinneapolisarchitectnamedLeroyS.Buffingtonwas
grantedapatentin1888.Heproposedatwentyeightstorycloudscraper(orstratospherescraper),whichwas
ridiculedbythearchitecturalpressofthetime.ChicagoarchitectsstartedacampaigntodiscreditBuffington,with
theaimtoavoidpayingroyalties.TheirargumentwasthattheideawasalreadytriedintheHomeInsurance
Building(thebuildingwasdemolishedin1931).Theyweresuccessful,partlybecauseBuffingtondamagedhis
causebyforgingdatesonhisdrawingstopredate1885.
TheEquitableLifeAssuranceCompanyBuildingonthecornerofBroadwayandCedarStreet(nearWallStreet,
Manhattan)inNewYorkisprobablythefirsthighrisecommercialbuildingwithallthetechnicalfactorslikea
structuralsystem,elevatorsandutilities,asresearchedbytransdisciplinaryscholarCarlW.Condit(19141997).
Thisbuildingwascompletedin1870withsevenandahalfstories.Thispossiblecandidatetobethefirstreal
skyscraperwasdestroyedbyfirein1912,butleftitsmarkasaturningpointinAmericanculturalhistory.The
revolutionarymomentwastheintroductionofthefirstelevator.Lifeinsurancewasarelativelynewproductin
Americaandhadtobeintroducedinaspectacularwaywithmaximumpublicity.Therefore,acompetitionforthe
designofthebuilding(in1868)hadonlyonerequirement:thebuildingshouldincludeapassengerelevator.Many
prominentarchitectstookpartinthecontest.
Thisradicalnovelideaofanelevatorcreatedamajorpsychologicalshiftinthevaluationofmultistoried
buildings.Thetopfloorsofbuildingswerehistoricallyregardedaslessattractive,becausetheflightsofstairs
requiredphysicaleffort.Subsequently,lowerrentswerereceivedfromtheupperfloors.Theelevatorchangedall
this.Suddenly,thetopstoriesweremorevaluable(withhigherrents),awayfromstreetnoiseandtowardsthe
light.Therefore,theEquitableLifeAssuranceCompanyBuildinganditselevatoropenedapsychologicaldomain,
whichcanhardlybeexaggerated.Suddenly,anewtypeofstairwaystoheavenwasopened,andpeoplewithpower
andinfluencewereonlytoowillingtogothatway.
ArealconjurerofcitiesofthefutureinAmericawasHughFerriss(18891962),anarchitecturaldraftsmanand
architectborninSt.Louis.Hemade,asadelineator,agreatnumberofperspectivedrawingsofbuildingswith
darkandmoodyappearances(fig.682).TheAveryDrawingsandArchivesoftheColumbiaUniversityLibraries
hasmostofhisdrawingsstored,whichareaccessibleontheironlinecatalogCLIO.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

31/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.682ThistypicalHughFerrissdrawing,fromhisbookMetropolisofTomorrow(1929)gaveaviewof
apartmentsonbridgesinadramaticsetting.
The(dualistic)themeoflightanddarkwasmasteredbyFerrisstotheextreme.Hisvisualizationofthecity
environmentasadrama,hungryforemotionalresponses,placedhiminaFourthQuadrantsetting,despitethe
useofThirdQuadranttechniques.Thiscrossbordermovement(betweenquadrants)isattheheartofany
creativeprocess.
FerrisswasinvolvedasaplanningconsultantattheWorldExhibitioninNewYorkbetween19361939.Someof
hismostexpressiveworkwasgeneratedinthisperiod,withhugecircularstructuresasitshallmark(fig.683).

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

32/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.683ThesegraphicperspectivedrawingsbyHughFerrissoflargeperispheresatFlushingMeadowswere
madefortheNewYorkWorldsFair19391940.TheTrylonandPerispherewerethehighlightsofthismost
memorableworldsfaireverheld.
FerrissdrawingoftheJohnsonWaxAdministrationBuildinginRacine(Wisconsin)whichwasdesignedby
FrankLloydWrightisanotherpossibleindicationofhis(later)interestinthecircularratherthanthelinear(fig.
684).TheJohnsonWaxAdministrationBuildingwasatrulyfuturisticcreationatthetime(19361939).The
constructionofthedendriformcolumnsintheGreatWorkroomcausedcontroversywithbuildingregulationsand
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

33/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

wasonlyallowedafteratestofoneofthecolumns.Thecalyxcouldholdsomesixtytonsofmaterials.Wright
addedlater(in1947)afourteenfloorResearchandDevelopmentTowertothecomplex,withnovisiblesupport
undertheouterwalls.Abridge,consistingofplateglassandglasstubing,connectedthebuildings.

Fig.684ThisdrawingbyHughFerrissoftheinterioroftheJohnsonWaxAdministrationBuildinginRacine
(Wisconsin)wasmadecirca1941.Thisstructure,designedbyFrankLloydWright,isafuturisticpremisescome
true.
AlesserknownfuturisticcityintheshapeofacubewascreatedbytheReverendLouisTucker.Hewasinspired
bydescriptionsoftheBible(Revelation4:68)tocreatehisutopianworld(fig.685).Hisstory,asdescribedinthe
magazineScienceWonder(Sept.1929),ispartofanupsurgeoffictionalwritingsandfantasticpicturesinthe
earlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.TheFrenchnovelistJulesVerne(18281905)mighthavestartedthis
trendinthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturywhenasenseofunlimitedtravelmesmerizedthepublicifonlyas
ameanstoescapefromthetimesofturmoil,warandeconomicdepression.Sciencefictionhassincethattime
createdavirtualworld,whichheavilydrewonimaginativedraftsmenlikeFerriss.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

34/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

Fig.685TheCubicCitywasproposedin1929byReverendLouisTuckerwiththeintentiontostackawholecity,
likeNewYork,intoacube.Atruemiraclewouldbenecessarytobringthissciencefictionworldintoreality.
The1920to1930swerealsotheyearsofgreatfuturisticprojectsbyFrenchandRussianarchitects,whowere
earlierencounteredinrelationtothesuperquadrasinBrasiliaandthecitydevelopmentoftheRussian
(de)urbanists(COOKE,1995).

Fig.686ThisdesigninaNKTPDraftcontestbytheVesninBrothers(1934)isagrandioseexampleoffuturist
architecture.
TheSwissarchitectCharlesdouardJeanneretGris(18871965),whonamedhimselfLeCorbusier,was
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

35/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

possiblythemostprominentrepresentativeinFrance,whileNikolaiLadovsky(18811941)canberegardedas
thegreatRussianavantgardearchitect.ThelatterdesignedanewcurriculumfortheMoscowSchoolof
Architecture(calledOBMASorUnitedWorkshop),emphasizingthatthearchitectsmaterialisspace,notstone.
OneofOBMASgraduateswasGeorgyKrutikov(18991958),theauthoroftheFlyingCityontheAerialPaths
ofCommunicationCommunalHouse(1928),autopiancityinthesky.
TheNarkomtiazhprom(NKTP)wasanarchitecturalcontestin1934fortheCommissariatofHeavyIndustries,to
beconstructedontheRedSquareinMoscow.SomeofthecontestantsincludedIvanLeonidov(19021959),
KonstantinMelnikov(18901974),theVesninBrothers(fig.686)andIvanFomin(18721936).Thisspiritof
futurism(andassociatedescapism)waskeptaliveinRussianarchitecture.Itdidnotgettheworldwideattention
atthetime(likeLeCorbusier)duetotherestrictednatureoftheCommunisticgovernment.However,abuilding
likethePalaceofMarriageinTbilisi(Georgia)hadallthecharacteristicsofrealfuturistarchitecture(fig.687),
justliketheRoadsMinistry(1975)inthesamecity.ThePolytechnicUniversityinMinsk(Belarus,1981)andthe
DruzhbaHolidayCenterHallinYalta(Ukraine,1984)aresomesamplesofinnovativetypesofarchitecturein
morerecenttimes.

Fig.687ThePalaceofMarriageintheGeorgiancityofTbilisiisagoodexampleofthemanyfuturistic
architecturalprojects,whichwererealizedintheSovietperiodinRussia(DrawingbyMartenKuilman).
BadriPatarkatsishvili,alocalbusinesstycoon,boughtthestateownedWeddingPalacein2002,andturnedthe
buildingintohishomeandcampaignheadquarters.ItbecameaPalaceofSolemnCeremoniesagain(in2008),
afterPatarkatsishvilisdeathinBritain.
LeCorbusierproposed,afterhisformalstatementsforanewarchitectureinhisbookVersunearchitecture
(1923),aPlanVoisin(1925)forParis.His(idealistic)aimtochangethemindsofthecaptainsofthecarindustry
(PaulCitroenandLouisRenault)failed,buttheaircraftcompanymanagerGabrielVoisin(alsoadirectorofacar
manufacturingdivision)waspreparedtopayfortheplansprintingandexhibitioncosts.ThePlanVoisininvolved
atotalrestructuringofRightBankofParis(LaDefense)withlargecruciformtowers.
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

36/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

HisContemporaryCityorCityforThreeMillionPeopleconsistedofanorthogonalstreetgridwithparkspace
(fig.688).Thisfuturecitywasmuchcriticizedandneverreachedreality,buthisfundamentalideasaboutmass
urbanizationgeneratedinspirationformanyarchitectsindecadestocome.LeCorbusiersLaVilleradieuse(The
RadiantCity)of1935showedsomechangesin(social)conceptions.ThecentraldistrictoftheRadiantCityisnow
residentialandclassbasedstratificationisabandoned.

Fig.688TheCityforThreeMillionPeopleisamegalomaneprojectbyLeCorbusierinafuturisticsetting.The
cruciform,centralofficeblocksaresurroundedbyblocksofflats.
AnevaluationofthefuturisticworkofLeCorbusierandhisRussiancontemporariesisnoteasytomake.A
comparison(analogy)withanotherhistoricalvisibilitymightshedsomelighthere.Itisevidenttoapresentday
observerthattheperiodfrom1910to1935isextremelyimportantinthehistoryofarchitecture,duetoits
futuristicelement.Thistimespan(19101935=CF7.306.50)intheEuropeanculturalhistoryissituatedin
thefirstpartoftheFourthQuadrant(IV,1seealsofig.267)andcanbecomparedtoitsRomancounterpart(see
fig.88).ThesameCFvalues(7.306.50),iftransferredtotheRomanculturalera,correspondtotheyears217
238AD.
ThisepochoftheRomanEmpirestartedwiththeassassinationofEmperorCaracalla(217AD)inSyriaandcovers
turbulenttimes.EmperorMacrinuswasmurderedin218.EmperorElagabalus,whoestablishedaSyriansungod
(ElGabalorBaal)asamajorRomangod,wasmurderedinalatrinein222AD.AlexanderSeverusbecame
EmperorandhadtofightawarwiththeSassaniddynastyofPersia(230232AD)andledcampaignsagainstthe
Alemmani(233).Thecrisisofthethirdcenturystartedwhenhewasmurderedbyhistroopsin235andlasted
until268AD(CF6.606.72).TheseCFvaluesoftheRomanculturalperiodarecomparablewithsimilarvalues
oftheperiodbetween19321972intheEuropeanhistory.TheSecondMajorApproach(SMA)whichisthe
(second)momentofultimatetruthinacommunicationcanbepinpointedat250ADintheRomanandat1950
ADintheEuropeanculturalhistory.
https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

37/38

11/7/2015

4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity|QuadralecticArchitecture

ThemostrecentfuturecityinAmericawasprobablycreatedbyWaltDisney(19011966)inthemiddleofthe
twentiethcenturyinhisEpcotCenter.EPCOTstoodfortheExperimentalPrototypeCityofTomorrowandwasa
largerandmoreelaborateversionofDisneylandwhichwasfirstbuiltinAnaheim(LosAngeles,1955)andlater
asDisneyWorldinOrlando,Florida(1971).
TheideaofafunparkforthepeoplewasinspiredbythefamousTivoliParkinCopenhagen(Denmark),which
openedonAugust15,1843andistheoldestamusementparkintheworld.ThemottoofthecreatoroftheTivoli
Park(GeorgCarstensen,18121857)waswhenthepeopleareamusingthemselves,theydonotthinkabout
politics.Theaterswithmusic,gardens,restaurants,amusementridesandmerrygoroundwerethemain
constituencesofthepark.
TheEPCOTinFloridawouldbeanAmericaninterpretationofthesesamehumaninterests,whichincludedgolf
coursesandresorthotels.Disneydidnotlivelongenoughtoseehisdreamcometrue,buthiscontributiontoa
newcommunityremainedintact.TheEpcotThemeParkisnowoneofthefourparksofWaltDisneyWorldresort
andisdividedintoFutureWorldandWorldShowcase.Theformerfocusesontechnologicaladvancementsand
innovation.SpaceshipEarthintheformofagiantgolfballistheiconofthethemepark.Disneysarchitectonic
achievementshadatouchoffairytaleRomanticism,withaneclecticuseofpaststylesandgearedtowardsthe
fantasyworldofchildren.
TheFutureCitywillbeleftbehindhere.Thepromiseofabetterfutureisenclosedinitsboundariesandtimewill
tellifthevisionsoftodaycanstandtherigorofprogress.Thefuturewillbeaplaygroundforthedistinctionsof
divisionthinking.IntheendandevenatthebeginningtherearefourFutureCitieswiththeirown
characteristics.(I)Thefirstwillbeafuturecity,whichisneverseen.Thesecond(II)isafuturecity,whichwill
lingeronasanidea.Thethird(III)isafuturecity,whichbecomesreality.Finally(IV)thereisafuturecityina
quadralecticsetting,inwhichitsvariousdisguisesareunderstood.

Delen:

Twitter

Facebook

10

Google

Like
Eenbloggervindtditleuk.

Eenreactieop4.1.4.2.TheFutureCity
Pingback::|TanyaMelamori

QuadralecticArchitecture
HetTwentyTenthema.

BlogopWordPress.com.

https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4representation/41form/414citiesinthemind/4142thefuturecity/

38/38