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Chapter 10

Sinusoidal SteadyState
Power Calculations
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6

Instantaneous power
Average power & reactive power
The rms value and power calculations
Complex power
Power calculations
Maximum power transfer

Overview

Nearly all electric energy is supplied in the form


of sinusoidal voltages and currents (i.e. AC,
alternating currents), because

1.

Generators generate AC naturally.

2.

Transformers must operate with AC.

3.

Transmission relies on AC.

4.

It is expensive to transform from DC to AC.

Key points

How to decompose a sinusoidal instantaneous


power into the average power and reactive
power components? What are the meanings?

How to decompose a sinusoidal instantaneous


power into the in-phase and quadrature
components?

Why and how to do power factor correction?

For a specific circuit, how to maximize the


average power delivered to a load?
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Section 10.1
Instantaneous Power

Definition

Instantaneous power is the product of the


instantaneous terminal voltage and current, or

p(t ) v (t ) i (t ).

Positive sign is used if


the passive sign
convention is satisfied
(current is in the direction
of voltage drop).
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Sinusoidal power formula


Absolute timing is
unimportant

v (t ) Vm cos(t ),
v (t ) Vm cos(t v ),

i (t ) I m cos(t ),

i (t ) I m cos(t i ),
;
v
i

cos cos
By cos cos

,
2
2
p(t ) Vm I m cos(t ) cos(t )

Vm I m
Vm I m

cos
cos(2t ).
2
2
Constant, Pavg Oscillating at frequency 2
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Relation among i(t), v(t), p(t)

Section 10.2
Average and Reactive
Power
1.

2.

3.

Decompose the instantaneous power


in different ways
Instantaneous powers of resistive,
inductive, and capacitive loads
Power factor and reactive factor
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Definitions

Vm I m
Vm I m
cos
cos(2t )
p (t )
2
2
Vm I m
cos cos 2t cos sin 2t sin

2
P 1 cos 2t Q sin 2t ,
where

In-phase

quadrature

Vm I m
Vm I m
cos , Q
sin .
P
2
2

Average power Reactive power (volt(watt, or W)


ampere reactive, or VAR)
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Relation among components of power

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What is average power ?

The power transformed from electric to nonelectric energy or vice versa.

The average of instantaneous power p(t).

The average of P(1+cos2t), which is a power


component in-phase with the current i(t).

The circuit dissipates (delivers) electric energy if


P > 0 (P < 0).

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What is reactive power ?

The power exchanged among (1) the magnetic


field in an inductor, (2) the electric field in a
capacitor, and (3) the electric source.

The magnitude of -Q(sin2t) (while its average


equals zero), which is a power component in
quadrature with i(t) (leading or lagging i(t) by
90 or T/4 in time).

Reactive power cannot do work.

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Power for resistive loads


v (t ) Ri (t ), 0, v (t ) and i (t ) are in - phase.
Vm I m Vm I m
Vm I m
1 cos 2t 0 .

cos 2t
p (t )
2
2
2

p(t) > 0 at all times, P is maximized, Q = 0.


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Power for inductive loads


v (t ) Li(t ), 90 , i (t ) lags v (t ) by T 4 .
Vm I m
Vm I m

p (t ) 0
cos(2t 90 ) 0
sin 2t .
2
2

p(t) is halved by 0-level, P = 0, Q > 0 is maximized.

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Power for capacitive loads


i (t ) Cv(t ), 90 , i (t ) leads v (t ) by T 4 .
Vm I m
Vm I m

p (t ) 0
cos(2t 90 ) 0
sin 2t .
2
2

p(t) is halved by 0-level, P = 0, Q < 0.


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Power factor & reactive factor

The above examples show that the relative


phase between v(t) and i(t) determines
whether the electric power is delivered to the
load or simply exchanges between EM fields.

Power factor and reactive factor, defined as:

pf cos , rf sin ,
quantitatively describe the impact of on power
delivery.
1.

Lagging pf: inductive, Q > 0, 0 < < 180;

2.

Leading pf: capacitive, Q < 0, -180 < < 0.

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Section 10.3
The rms Value and Power
Calculations

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Definition of root-mean-square (rms) value

The rms value of any periodic (not necessarily


sinusoidal) function y(t) of period T is the
square root of the mean value of the squared
function (Section 9.1).

Yrms

t0 T

t0

y (t )dt

The function square makes it suitable in


describing the concept of power.
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rms value of sinusoidal functions

Consider a sinusoidal voltage: v(t) = Vm cos(t + )

Vrms

Vm2

t0 T

t0

t0 T

t0

V cos (t )dt
2
m

Vm2 T Vm
1 cos(2t 2 )
dt

T 2
2
2

rms value is 1 2 times of the amplitude,


independent of frequency and phase .

The ratio of rms value to the function amplitude


changes with the functional shape.
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Power formulas in terms of rms values

The average power P and reactive power Q


due to sinusoidal voltage and current are:

Vm I m
P
cos Vrms I rms cos ,
2
Vm I m
Q
sin Vrms I rms sin .
2

A sinusoidal voltage source of rms value Vrms


and a dc voltage source of constant voltage Vs
deliver the same average power to a load
resistance R if Vrms = Vs.

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rms values in daily life

Voltage rating of residential electric wiring 220


V/110 V are given in terms of rms values.

E.g. A lamp rated by {120 V, 100 W} has:

1.

resistance R = (Vrms)2/P = 144 ;

2.

rms current Irms = Vrms/R = 0.83 A;

3.

peak current Im = 2Irms = 1.18 A, which is critical


in safety.

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Section 10.4
Complex Power

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Definition

The complex power S (volt-amps, VA) is:

S P jQ
|S|: apparent power
(VA)

Q: reactive power
(volt-amp-reactive,
VAR)

P: average power
(watts, W)
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Example 10.4

Q: An electric load has Vrms = 240 V, P = 8 kW, pf =


0.8 (lagging); (1) S = ? (2) Irms = ? (3) ZL = ?
(1) Lagging pf, Q > 0, (2) P > 0, 0 < < 90; (3)
cos = 0.8; = 36.87.
P = |S|cos, 8 kW = |S|(0.8), |S| = 10 kVA.
S = P + jQ = |S| =1036.87 = (8+j6) kVA.
P = VrmsIrmscos, Irms= (8 kW)/[(240 V)(0.8)] = 41.67 A.
ZL = VL/IL = (Vrms/Irms) = (5.7636.87) .
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Section 10.5
Power Calculations
1.
2.

Complex powers in a circuit


Power factor correction

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Power calculations by voltage & current phasors

Vm I m
Vm I m
S P jQ
cos j
sin
2
2
Vm I m
Vm I m
1 *
cos j sin

VI ,
2
2
2
where V Vm v , I I mi , v i .
Beides, S Vrms I*rms ,
where Vrms

Vm
Im

v , I rms
i .
2
2
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Power calculations by impedance

Vrms I rms Z , Z R jX ,
S I rms Z I
I

2
rms

PI

2
rms

*
rms

I rms Z

jX P jQ,
R, Q I

2
rms

Z = R+jX
= |Z|e j

X.

A power consumer has to suppress its load


reactance (power factor correction, making X 0)
such that a smaller apparent power |S| is
sufficient to deliver the specified average power.
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Example 10.5 (1)

Q: The complex powers delivered to the load,


line, and source.
ZLN
ZL

2500
Vs

5 36.87 A (rms).
IL
Z LN Z L 40 j 30

VL I L Z L 5 36.87 39 j 26 234.4 3.18 V (rms).


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Example 10.5 (2)


S L VL I*L 234.4 3.18 5 36.87 975 j 650 VA.
rms values

S LN I L Z LN 52 1 j 4 25 j100 VA.
2

S s Vs I*L 2500 5 36.87 1000 j 750 VA.


power delivered to the source,
passive sign convention

S L S LN S s

975 j 650 25 j100 1000 j 750 VA 0,

the complex powers are conserved.


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Example 10.6: PF correction (1)

Q: Let {P1 = 8 kW, pf1 = 0.8 (leading)}, {|S2| = 20 kVA,


pf2 = 0.6 (lagging)}. (1) How to make the total pf
=1? (2) What are the powers lost in the line PLN
before and after the pf correction?
ZLN

( f = 60 Hz)

(fixed VL)
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Example 10.6: (2)


pf1 = 0.8 (leading)

pf2 = 0.6 (lagging)

pftot = 0.89 (lagging)

To make pftot= 1, one has to add a parallel


capacitance C that gives {PC = 0, QC = -10 kVAR}.
2
2
2
V
V
V
2
Z C jX C , QC I rms
X C rms2 X C rms L ,
XC
XC XC

2502
VL2
XC

6.25 ,
QC 10 kVAR
1
1
1

424.4 F.
XC
,C
C
X C
2 (60)( 6.25)

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Example 10.6 (3)

The average power lost in the line is:


2

PLN I s RLN ,
where the line current phasor (rms) is:

I s S L VL , S L VLI*s .

PLN

SL
VL

2
2

RLN

SL

(0.05 )
2
( 250 V)

400 W, before pf correction, S L 22.36 kVA,

320 W, after pf correction, S L 20 kVA.


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Section 10.6
Maximum Power Transfer
1.
2.

Unrestricted optimal load impedance


Restricted optimal load impedance

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Conclusion

For a general circuit with 2 output terminals a, b,


the optimal load impedance that will consume
*
the maximum average power is Z L Z Th
, where
ZTh is the Thvenin impedance of the circuit.

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Proof (1)

The rms current phasor I through the load is:

VTh
VTh
I

,
Z Th Z L RTh RL j X Th X L
where ZTh RTh jX Th , Z L RL jX L .

The average power P delivered to the load is:


2

P ( RL , X L ) I RL

VTh RL

RTh RL X Th X L
2

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Proof (2)

The maximum average power occurs when the


two partial derivatives are zero:
2 VTh RL X Th X L
P

X L R R 2 X X 2
Th
L
Th
L
2

RL

0, X L X Th (1)

V 2 R 2 R 2
Th
L
Th
0, RL RTh ( 2)
4

RTh RL
X L X Th

*
Z L ZTh
.

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Example 10.8: Max power transfer w/n restriction (1)

Q: Without restrictions on ZL, determine (1) ZL


that results in the maximum average power Pmax
transferred to ZL, (2) the value of Pmax.

(not rms)

Apply source transformation to {200 V, 5 , 20


}, we got a simplified circuit:
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Example 10.8 (2)

Apply source transformation to {160 V, 4+j3 ,


-j6 }, we got the Thvenin circuit:
Z Th 4 j 3 //( j 6) 5.76 j1.68 .

160
I Nt
A, VTh I Nt Z Th 19.2 53.13 V.
4 j3
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Example 10.8 (3)

VTh
ZTh

Max power
occurs if
ZL = (ZTh)*

VTh
19.2 53.13
I

1.67 53.13 A,
Z Th Z L
2(5.76)
I rms I

2 1.18 A,

2
Pmax I rms
RL (1.18) 2 (5.76) 8 W.
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Example 10.9: Max power transfer with restriction (1)

Q: What are the optimal load impedance ZL that


lead to the maximum average power if 0 RL 4
k, -2 k XL 0 are required?

ZTh
ZL

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Example 10.9 (2)

Without restriction, ZL = (ZTh)*, RL = RTh = 3 k,


XL = -XTh = -4 k, respectively.

The result can be


verified by
calculating average
power P for possible
combinations of (RL,
XL).
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Example 10.9 (3)

Since XL = -4 k is outside the permitted range


of -2 k XL 0, one first sets XL as close to the
boundary as possible, XL = -2 k.

In this case, one has to modify the optimal RL


formula when XL -XTh:

RL

V 2 R 2 R 2 X X 2
L
Th
L
Th Th
0,
4

RTh RL
X L X Th

RL R X Th X L RTh .
2
Th

42

Example 10.9 (4)


RL R X Th X L
2
Th

3k 4k 2k
2

3.6 k RTh .

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Key points

How to decompose a sinusoidal instantaneous


power into the average power and reactive
power components? What are the meanings?

How to decompose a sinusoidal instantaneous


power into the in-phase and quadrature
components?

Why and how to do power factor correction?

For a specific circuit, how to maximize the


average power delivered to a load?
44

Practical Perspective
Hair Dryer

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Physics

A resistor heated by the sinusoidal current, and a


fan that blows the warm air out.

Heater tube is made of coiled nichrome (80%


nickel, 20% chromium) wire, because of

High resistivity: (= RA/L)


10-6 m, while other
metals have 10-8 m.

No oxidation when
heated red hot (longer
life time).

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Circuit

A connection partway divides the heater tube coil


into two pieces.

The position of a four-position switch controls the


heat setting.

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Low switch setting

The four-position switch makes R1 and R2 in


series, giving the lowest output power.

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Medium switch setting

The four-position switch makes R1 in vain, giving


the medium output power.

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High switch setting

The four-position switch makes R1 and R2 in


parallel, giving the highest output power.

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