Oil Palm Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

N deficiency symptoms
Nitrogen deficiency affects chloroplast development and function, and in N-deficient
leaves, proteins are hydrolyzed (proteolysis) to produce amino acids, which are
redistributed to younger leaves. Thus, N deficiency results in poor palm growth, and
affected palms appear stunted. Older fronds affected by N deficiency first appear
uniformly pale green, before turning pale or bright yellow (chlorosis), and may
subsequently be affected by die-back (necrosis) if severe and prolonged deficiency is
not corrected. When deficiency is very pronounced, necrosis develops first on the tips
and margins of pinnae. The rachis and midrib of severely deficient fronds are yellowish
orange, and pinnae are narrow and roll inwards. Deficiency symptoms are distributed
over the entire frond, but older leaves are affected first.
Nitrogen deficiency is found under the following conditions:
1) Acute shortage of N (e.g. sandy soils, soils with low organic matter status, acid peat
soils where the rate of N mineralization is small due to lack of biological activity).
2) Palms affected by severe competition from weeds (e.g. Imperata cylindrica and
Mikania micrantha).
3) Poorly drained soils where root development and soil N mineralization are
decreased under anaerobic soil conditions.
4) Palms affected by transplanting shock due to poor root establishment (i.e. seedlings
handled carelessly and planted in soil affected by moisture stress).
5) In addition to the application of mineral N fertilizers, N deficiency may be
prevented through proper soil preparation and planting standards, control of noxious
weeds, and the establishment of legume cover plants (LCP) (Giller and Fairhurst,
this volume).
Nitrogen fertilizer is the driving force for rapid vegetative palm growth, and an
adequate supply of N is particularly important during the first five years after planting.
When sufficient N fertilizer is applied and with good management, palms come into
production 24 months after planting with a yield of 59 t ha -1 fruit bunches, but
production may only commence 36 months after planting where insufficient N fertilizer
is applied and general crop care is poor.
A vigorously growing canopy of LCP returns about 230330 kg N ha -1 yr-1 to the soil
(Watson, 1964; Han and Chew, 1982). An adequate supply of P is required to maximize
biological N2-fixation in LCP. An application of 40130 kg P ha -1 in the form of a
reactive phosphate rock is required when LCP are sown on acid, infertile upland soils,
particularly where the land has been cleared from sheet alangalang (Imperata
cylindrica). A large amount of nutrients accumulates in the aboveground LCP biomass,
and these nutrients are returned to the soil surface as a protective mulch of leaf litter
(Giller and Fairhurst, this volume).

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P deficiency symptoms
In contrast with most other nutrients, P-deficient leaves do not show specific symptoms
in oil palm other than reduced frond length. Another visible symptom of P deficiency in
oil palm is stunted growth with short dark green fronds. Trunk diameter and bunch size
are also reduced, and palms show a pronounced pyramid shape due to the progressive
depletion of soil. There is some anecdotal evidence that premature desiccation of older
leaves is associated with P deficiency but no conclusive evidence is available at present.
Legume cover plants are difficult to establish in low P status soils. Phosphorus-deficient
LCP has small leaves and the groundcover is patchy and sparse (Shorrocks, 1964).
Under such situations, Imperata cylindrica and other grasses generally out-compete
LCP. Other plants that indicate acid, low P-status soils are Straits rhododendron
(Melastoma alabathricum) and tropical bracken (Dicranopteris linearis). In tropical
soils, most of the available P is contained in the topsoil. Thus, when sufficient P
fertilizer is applied to LCP at planting, the soil is covered with protective living mulch
that reduces the loss of P due to sheet erosion and surface water runoff. Replenishment
of soil P on sloping land must always be complemented with soil conservation measures
(terracing, platforms, bunds).

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K deficiency symptoms
Potassium deficiency does not immediately result in the appearance of visible
deficiency symptoms, but is indicated by reduced growth rates, decreased leaf turgor
and increased susceptibility to drought and diseases such as Cercospora leaf spot,
Ganoderma basal stem-rot and vascular wilt (Fusarium sp.) (Pendergast, 1957; Turner,
1981; Turner, this volume; von Uexkll, 1982) (Figure 6).
Bunch failure and plant failure are two physiological disorders that may be linked to an
inadequate K supply (Turner, 1981). In young palms, K deficiency results in a
flattopped appearance due to progressive frond shortening with each emerging leaf. A
considerable variety of symptoms has been associated with K deficiency in mature
palms, related to local differences in environmental and genetic factors.
A. Confluent Orange Spotting (COS), sometimes referred to as speckled bronzing or
speckled yellows
Orange spotting is the most common K deficiency symptom and starts with the
development of pale yellow, irregularly shaped spots along the pinnae of older
fronds in the canopy. As the symptoms become more severe, the spots turn orange
and, in severe cases, spots fuse together to form bright orange lesions, which
transmit light when the leaf is held against bright sunlight. At a more advanced
stage, brown spots appear in the centre of the orange spots and marginal necrosis
develops along leaflets, starting from the distal end. Pinnae also become brittle and
the edges of leaves become desiccated and shattered.
Occasionally single palms can be found with very intense and bright orange spotting
when surrounding palms appear to be normal. Such symptoms are usually of genetic
origin and are sometimes described as genetic orange spotting (GOS).
B. Diffuse yellowing or mid-crown yellowing
Symptoms of diffuse yellowing may be found on palms planted on K-deficient, acid
sands or peat soils, especially during or after periods of water stress. Pinnae in the
lower to middle part of the canopy become pale (dull khaki or ochre coloured
chlorosis) and then turn yellow or orange yellow. Later, a very clearly defined and
often necrotic band develops around the leaf margin of pinnae. In severe cases,
older fronds suddenly desiccate and die. These symptoms should not be mistaken
for peat yellows or Zn deficiency (see below).
C. Orange blotch or Mbawsi symptom
The first symptom of orange blotch is the appearance of large, elongated diffuse
olive-green blotches emerging in pairs half way along the pinnae of older fronds.
With increasing age and severity the blotches turn bright yellow to orange and
eventually brownish yellow before the pinnae desiccate and die.
D. White stripe

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White, pencil-like stripes occur on both sides of the mid-ribs of leaf pinnae, usually
in the middle to upper part of the crown of young palms 36 years after field
planting. White stripe is probably caused by a nutrient imbalance involving
excessive N use in relation to K (leaf N>2.5% and leaf K<1.0%) and probably a
lack of B. White stripe should not be mistaken for Chimera, which is a genetic
defect.
Mg deficiency symptoms
Magnesium-deficient pinnae of older palm fronds are chlorotic, and the symptoms are
commonly described as orange frond. The first symptoms appear on older, basal fronds
because Mg is mobile and translocated from older to younger tissues in Mg-deficient
palms. Under conditions of severe deficiency, the affected leaves turn ochre to bright
yellow and become desiccated. A diagnostic feature of Mg deficiency is that shaded
parts of leaves, though deficient in Mg, remain green whilst Mg deficient tissue fully
exposed to the sun turns yellow. The occurrence of chlorosis on pinnae or frond parts
exposed to the sunlight may be explained by an accumulation of photosynthates (i.e.
starch) in the leaf. This results in a feedback reaction that leads to the accumulation of
toxic oxygen species that finally cause the chlorosis and necrosis of Mg deficient
fronds. Severe Mg deficiency is thus often erroneously called sun-scorch.
Magnesium deficiency occurs commonly on palms planted on light-textured soils,
particularly where the topsoil has been eroded and the amount of soil exchangeable Mg
is < 0.2 cmol kg-1. Mg deficiency may also be induced by large concentrations of other
cations, e.g. Ca2+, K+, NH4+ on volcanic soils or H+, Al3+, Mn2+, K+ and NH4+ on acid
mineral soils with small buffer capacity.

S deficiency symptoms
The early stages of S deficiency resemble N deficiency. Sulfur-deficient pinnae are pale
and small. Under acute S deficiency, small brown necrotic spots may appear. Sulfur
deficiency may result in increased incidence of Cercospora disease (Cavez et al., 1976)
and has been identified in young palms grown on acid soils and poorly drained soils,
with low soil organic matter status, or those formerly covered by savannah vegetation
(Cavez et al., 1976). Despite its strongly acidifying effect on the soil, an application of
elemental S may be required particularly where non S-containing N-fertilizers (e.g.
urea) are used.

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B deficiency symptoms
Boron deficiency is the most widespread micronutrient disorder in oil palm. It is
particularly common under high rainfall conditions, and on sandy and peat soils where
B is readily leached from the soil.
Boron deficiency is more likely to occur where:
1) Soil pH is very low (<4.5) or high (>7.5);
2) Large application rates of N and K fertilizers result in vigorous vegetative growth
and large bunch yields; and
3) Boron removal in crop yields has increased after the introduction of the pollinating
weevil (Elaeidobius kamerunicus).
Meristematic growth is impaired in B-deficient palms, leading to retarded growth of
root tips and other apical tissues. Thus, B deficiency symptoms involve abnormalities in
leaf development such as crinkle leaf, hook leaf, little leaf, fishbone leaf, stump
leaf, and blind leaf. Boron-deficient leaves are also brittle and dark green. The
earliest symptom of B eficiency is the shortening of younger leaves (Rajaratnam, 1976),
often with narrow pinnae, and this gives palms a characteristic flat top appearance.
Leaf production stops completely under acute B deficiency. A large crater is formed in
the middle of the crown with the apical bud in the center. Yield reduction in B-deficient
palms may be caused by floral abortion because pollen germination and pollen tube
growth are impeded in B-deficient palms.

B deficiency symptoms (cont..)

Hook leaf
Crinkle leaf
Little leaf
Fishbone leaf
Leaf shattered
Round leaf
Blind leaf

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Cu deficiency symptoms
Palms affected by Cu deficiency are stunted, and during the early stages of deficiency,
chlorotic rectangular speckles (0.51 mm diameter) appear on the youngest open
fronds. Under more severe Cu deficiency, newly emerged fronds are shorter than older
leaves, and interveinal yellowing occurs on affected pinnae, starting from the distal end
of the leaf. Leaf tips and margins gradually become necrotic.
Copper deficiency was first observed on peat soils (where Cu is complexed by organic
compounds) and described as mid-crown chlorosis (Ng and Tan, 1974; Ng et al.,
1974). Since then Cu deficiency has been identified on coarse-textured ferrallitic and
ferraginuous soils poor in Cu, and calcareous soils developed from limestone. Copper
deficiency is accentuated by the application of N and P fertilizers, but decreased by the
application of K fertilizer (Wanasuria and Gales, 1990).
Mn deficiency symptoms
Manganese deficiency sometimes occurs in oil palms grown on highly leached tropical
soils, deep peat soils, or where large amounts of limestone have been applied to sandy
soils (<10% clay). Manganese deficiency results in reduced photosynthetic activity,
inhibition of root growth, reduced tissue lignification, and thus increased susceptibility
of roots to pathogenic attack.
Discontinuous interveinal chlorotic streaks first appear on younger fronds. These
longitudinal streaks eventually become chlorotic with a striped appearance. Newly
emerged fronds become progressively smaller and chlorotic, and the palm canopy
appears unthrifty and retarded. In severe cases, chlorosis and necrosis affect the newly
emerged spear before frond pinnae have expanded (Kee et al., 1995b).
Fe deficiency symptoms
Iron deficiency in oil palm is rarely recorded because tropical soils are usually well
supplied with Fe (Zakaria and Jamaludin, 1992). Iron deficiency was reported recently
in 9-year-old palms on a Histic Tropaquept in northern Riau, Sumatra (Setyobudi et al.,
1998). Iron deficiency may also occur:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

On calcareous soils;
On or near former termite mounds;
In soils overlying coral;
On poorly drained soils in the presence of Cu, Zn, and Mn; and
Where large amounts of P fertilizers have been applied.

Interveinal chlorosis appears on the youngest fronds but leaf veins remain green. The
youngest fronds later turn white but older fronds are yellow. Growth ceases and death
may occur after one year in severely Fe-deficient palms.

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