CHAPTER 16

Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

Formed and shaped parts in a typical automobile

Outline

16.1 Introduction
16.2 Shearing
16.3 Sheet-Metal Characteristics
16.4 Test Methods for Formability of Sheet Metals
16.5 Bending Sheet and Plate
16.6 Common Bending Operations
16.7 Tube Bending and Forming
16.8 Stretch Forming
16.9 Deep Drawing
16.10 Rubber Forming
16.11 Spinning
16.12 Superplastic Forming
16.13 Explosive, Magnetic-Pulse, Peen, and Other Forming Processes
16.14 The Manufacturing of Honeycomb Structures
16.15 The Dent Resistance of Sheet-Metal Parts
16.16 Equipment for Sheet-Metal Forming
16.17 The Economics of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Products made by sheet-metal forming processes are all around us;

they include metal desks, file cabinets, appliances, car bodies,
aircraft fuselages, and beverage cans.
Sheet
forming dates back to 5000 B.C., when household utensils and
jewelry were made by hammering and stamping gold, silver, and
copper.
Compared to those made by casting and by forging, sheet-metal
parts offer the advantages of light weight and versatile shape.
Because of its low cost and generally good strength and formability
characteristics.
low-carbon steel is the most commonly used sheet metal. For
aircraft and aerospace applications, the common sheet materials are
aluminum and titanium.
This chapter first describes the methods by which blanks are cut
from large rolled sheets, then further processed into desired shapes
by a wide variety of traditional methods as well as by such
techniques as superplastic forming and diffusion bonding.
5

Outline of Sheet-Metal Forming

Processes

Figure 16.1

Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Forming

Processes
TABLE 16.1
Process
Roll forming

Stretch forming
Drawing
Stamping

Rubber forming
Spinning
Superplastic
forming
Peen forming
Explosive
forming
Magnetic-pulse
forming

Characteristics
Long parts with constant complex cross-sections; good surface finish; high production rates; high
tooling costs.
Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low-quantity production; high labor costs; tooling
and equipment costs depend on part size.
Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates; high tooling and
equipment costs.
Includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and
coining; simple or complex shapes formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs
can be high, but labor cost is low.
Drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes; sheet surface protected by rubber
membranes; flexibility of operation; low tooling costs.
Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling costs, but labor costs can be
high unless operations are automated.
Complex shapes, fine detail and close tolerances; forming times are long, hence production rates are
low; parts not suitable for high-temperature use.
Shallow contours on large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment costs can be high; process is
also used for straightening parts.
Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisymmetric; low tooling costs,
but high labor cost; suitable for low-quantity production; long cycle times.
Shallow forming, bulging, and embossing operations on relatively low-strength sheets; most
suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates; requires special tooling.

16.2 shearing

Shearing

Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a

punch and die. This process with a punch and die. This
process is a common method of producing various
openings in sheet metals.
9

Characteristics of
Hole and Slug

Characteristic features
of (a) a punched hole
and (b) the punched
slug. Note that the slug
has been sealed down
as compared with the
hole.
10

Shearing

Figure 16.2 (a)

Schematic
illustration of
shearing with a
punch and die,
indicating some of
the process
variables.
Characteristic
features of (b) a
punched hole and
(c) the slug. Note
that the scales of the
two figures are
different.

11

16.2 SHEARING

Before a sheet-metal part is made, a blank of suitable dimensions is

first removed from a large sheet (usually from a coil) by shearing;
that is, the sheet is cut by subjecting it to shear stresses, typically
ones developed between a punch and a die (Fig. l6.2a).
Typical features of the sheared edges of the sheet and of the slug
are shown in Figs. l6.2b and c, respectively.
Note that the edges are not smooth, nor are they perpendicular to
the plane of the sheet.
Shearing usually starts with the formation of cracks on both the top
and bottom edges of the workpiece (A and B, and C and D in Fig.
l6.2a).
These cracks eventually meet each other and separation occurs.
The rough fracture surfaces are due to these cracks; the smooth
and shiny burnished surfaces on the hole and the slug are from the
contact and rubbing of the sheared edge against the walls of the
punch and die.

12

Clearance

Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As
the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In practice,
clearances usually range between 2% and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV)
contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in) thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: H. P.
Weaver and K. J. Weinmann.

13

16.2 SHEARING
The major processing parameters in shearing are the
shape of and the materials for the punch and die. the
speed of the punching, the lubrication, and the
clearance, c, between the punch and the die.
The clearance is a major factor in determining the shape
and the quality of the sheared edge. As the clearance
increases, the sheared edge becomes rougher, and the
zone of deformation (Fig. l6.3a) becomes larger. The
sheet tends to be pulled into the clearance zone, and the
edges of the sheared zone become rougher. Unless
such edges are acceptable as produced, secondary
operations (which will add to the production cost) may be
required, to make them smoother.
14

16.2 SHEARING
The width of the deformation zone in Fig. 16.3
depends on punch speed.
With increasing speed, the heat generated by
plastic deformation is confined to a smaller and
smaller zone; consequently, the sheared zone is
narrower, and the surface is smoother and
exhibits less burr formation.
A burr is a thin edge or ridge, as shown in Figs.
l6.2b and c. Burr height increases with increases
in the clearance and in the ductility of the sheet
metal.
15

16.2 SHEARING
Dull tool edges contribute greatly to burr
formation. The height, shape, and size of the
burr can significantly affect subsequent forming
operations.
Edge quality has been found to improve with
increasing punch speed; speeds may be as high
as 10-12 m/s (33-39 ft/s).
As shown in Fig. l6.3b, sheared edges can
undergo severe cold working, which is due to
the high shear strains involved.
The resultant work hardening can adversely
affect the formability of the sheet during
subsequent operations.
16

16.2.1 punch force

17

16.2.2 Shearing Operations

Several operations based on the shearing process are
performed.
In punching, the sheared slug is discarded (Fig. l6.4a).
In blanking, the slug is the part and the rest is scrap.
Die Cutting. Die cutting is a shearing process that
consists of the following operations ;",
a. perforating-punching a number of holes in a sheet;
b. parting-shearing the sheet into two or more pieces;
c. notching-removing pieces (or various shapes) from the
edges; and
d. lancing-leaving a tab without removing any material.

18

Shearing Operations
Figure 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various shearing operations on sheet
metal.

19

16.2.2 Shearing Operations

Fine Blanking. Very smooth and square edges
can be produced by fine blanking (Fig. 16.5a).
One basic die design is shown in Fig. 16.5b. A Vshaped stinger , or impingement, locks the sheet
tightly in place and prevents the type of
distortion of the material shown in Figs. 16.2b
and 16.3.
Slitting. Shearing operations can be carried out
by means of a pair of circular blades similar to
those in a can opener (Fig. 16.6); this process is
called slitting.
20

Fine Blanking
(a)

(b)

Figure 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fine-blanking (right)
techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool U.S. Operations.

21

Slitting

Figure 16.6 Slitting with rotary

knives. This process is similar to
opening cans.

22

16.2.2 Shearing Operations

Steel Rules. Soft metals (as well as paper, leather, and
rubber) can be blanked with steel-rule dies. Such a die
consists of a thin strip of hardened steel, bent into the
shape to be produced (a concept similar to that of a
cookie cutter) and held on its edge on a flat wooden
base. The die is pressed against the sheet, which rests
on a flat surface, and it shears the sheet along the shape
of the steel rule.
Nibbling. In nibbling, a machine called a nibbler moves a
small straight punch up and down rapidly into a die. A
sheet is fed through the gap, and many overlapping
holes are made. This operation is similar to the making
of a large elongated slot in a sheet of paper by the
successive punching of holes with a paper punch.
23

16.2.2 Shearing Operations

Scrap in Shearing. The amount of scrap
(the trim loss) produced in shearing
operations can be significant; it can be as
high as 30% on large stampings. A
significant factor in manufacturing cost,
scrap can be reduced substantially by
proper arrangement of the shapes on the
sheet to be cut (nesting). Computer-aided
design techniques have been developed
to minimize the scrap from shearing
operations.
24

Laser Welding
Figure 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body, by laser butt-welding and stamping.
Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

25

Examples of Laser Welded Parts

Figure 16.8 Examples of laser butt-welded and stamped automotive body components. Source:
After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
26

16.2.3 Shearing Dies

The features and types of various shearing dies are described in this
section.
Clearances. Because the formability of the sheared part can be
influenced by the quality of its sheared edges, clearance control is
important. The appropriate clearance is a function of the type of
material, its temper, and its thickness and of the size of the blank
As a general guideline, clearances for soft materials are less than
those for harder grades. Also, the thicker the sheet is, the larger the
clearance must be.
Clearances generally range between 2% and 8% of the sheet
thickness, but they may be as small as 1 % or as large as 30%.
In the use of larger clearances, attention must be paid to the rigidity
and the alignment of the presses and to the dies and their setups.
The smaller the clearance, the better the quality of the edge. In a
process called shaving (Fig. 16.9), the extra material from a rough
sheared edge is trimmed by cutting.

27

16.2.3 Shearing Dies

Punch and Die Shapes. Note in Fig. 16.2a that the
surfaces of the punch and of the die are both flat. The
punch force, therefore, builds up rapidly during shearing,
because the entire thickness is sheared at the same
time.
The location of the regions being sheared at any
moment can be controlled by beveling the punch and die
surfaces (Fig. 16.10). The geometry is similar to that of a
paper punch; you can see that by looking closely at the
tip of the punch. Beveling is particularly suitable for the
shearing of thick blanks, because it reduces the force at
the beginning of the stroke; it also reduces the
operation's noise level.

28

Shaving and Shear Angles

Figure 16.9 Schematic
illustrations of the shaving of a
sheared edge. (a) Shaving a
sheared edge. (b) Shearing and
shaving, combined in one stroke.

Figure 16.10
Examples of the
use of shear
angles on punches
and dies.

29

(a)

(d)

Compound and Progressive

Die
(b)

(c)

Figure 16.11 Schematic illustrations: (a)

before and (b) after blanking a common
washer in a compound die. Note the
separate movements of the die (for
blanking) and the punch (for punching
the hole in the washer). (c) Schematic
illustration of making a washer in a
progressive die. (d) Forming of the top
piece of an aerosol spray can in a
progressive die. Note that the part is
attached to the strip until the last
operation is completed.
30

Progressive Dies

(a) Schematic illustration of the making of a washer in a

progressive die. (b) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray
can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the
strip until the last operation is completed.

31

16.3 Sheet metal Characteristics

32

16.3 Sheet metal Characteristics

TABLE 16.2
Characteristic
Elongation

Yield-point elongation

Anisotropy (planar)

Anisotropy (normal)
Grain size
Residual stresses

Springback

Wrinkling

Quality of sheared edges

Surface
sheet

condition

of

Importance
Determines the capability of the sheet metal to stretch without necking and
failure; high strain-hardening exponent (n)and strain-rate sensitivity exponent
(m)desirable.
Observed with mild-steel sheets; also called Lueders bands and stretcher strains;
causes flamelike depressions on the sheet surfaces; can be eliminated by temper
rolling, but sheet must be formed within a certain time after rolling.
Exhibits different behavior in different planar directions; present in cold-rolled
sheets because of preferred orientation or mechanical fibering; causes earing in
drawing; can be reduced or eliminated by annealing but at lowered strength.
Determines thinning behavior of sheet metals during stretching; important in
deep-drawing operations.
Determines surface roughness on stretched sheet metal; the coarser the grain, the
rougher the appearance (orange peel); also affects material strength.
Caused by nonuniform deformation during forming; causes part distortion when
sectioned and can lead to stress-corrosion cracking; reduced or eliminated by
stress relieving.
Caused by elastic recovery of the plastically deformed sheet after unloading;
causes distortion of part and loss of dimensional accuracy; can be controlled by
techniques such as overbending and bottoming of the punch.
Caused by compressive stresses in the plane of the sheet; can be objectionable or
can be useful in imparting stiffness to parts; can be controlled by proper tool and
die design.
Depends on process used; edges can be rough, not square, and contain cracks,
residual stresses, and a work-hardened layer, which are all detrimental to the
formability of the sheet; quality can be improved by control of clearance, tool and
die design, fine blanking, shaving, and lubrication.
Depends on rolling practice; important in sheet forming as it can cause tearing
and poor surface quality; see also Section 13.3.

33

Stress-Corrosion Cracking
Stress-corrosion cracking. The
cracks developed over a period of
time. Brass and austenitic (300
series) stainless steels are among
metals that are susceptible to stresscorrosion cracking.

34

Yield-Point Elongation
(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 16.12 (a) Yield-point elongation in a sheet-metal specimen. (b) Lueder's bands in a low-carbon steel
sheet. Source: Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for household
products.

35

16.4 TEST METHODS FOR FORMABILITY OF SHEET METALS

36

16.4 TEST METHODS FOR FORMABILITY OF SHEET METALS

Sheet-metal formability is of great technological and

economic interest. It is normally defined as the ability of
the sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change
without such failure as necking or tearing.
sheet metals may (depending on part geometry) undergo
two basic modes of deformation: (a) stretching and (b)
drawing
This section describes the methods that are generally
used in manufacturing industries to predict formability.

16.4.1 Cupping Tests: Because sheet-forming is

basically a process of stretching the material, the earliest
tests developed to predict formability were cupping tests
(Fig. 16.13a).
37

Erichsen and Bulge-Tests

(a)

Figure 16.13 (a) A cupping

test (the Erichsen test) to
determine the formability of
sheet metals.

38

16.5 BENDING SHEET AND PLATE

39

16.5 BENDING SHEET AND PLATE

Bending is one of the most common forming operations.
look at the components in an automobile or an applianceor at a paper clip or a file cabinet-to appreciate how many
parts are shaped by bending.
The terminology used in bending is shown in Fig. 16.16.
Note that, in bending, the outer fibers of the material are
in tension, while the inner fibers are in compression.
Because of the Poisson's ratio, the width of the part
(bend length, L) in the outer region is smaller, and in the
inner region it is larger, than the original width (see Fig.
16.17c).
This phenomenon may easily be observed by bending a
rectangular rubber eraser.
40

Tearing and
Bending

Figure 16.15 The deformation of the grid pattern and the

tearing of sheet metal during forming. The major and
minor axes of the circles are used to determine the
coordinates on the forming-limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b.
Source: S. P. Keeler.

Figure 16.16 Bending

terminology. Note that the bend
radius is measured to the inner
surface of the bent part.
41

Bending
Figure 16.17 (a) and
(b) The effect of
elongated inclusions
(stringers) on
cracking, as a
function of the
direction of bending
with respect to the
original rolling
direction of the sheet.
(c) Cracks on the
outer surface of an
aluminum strip bent
to an angle of 90o.
Note the narrowing of
the tope surface due
to the Poisson effect.

42

16.5 BENDING SHEET AND PLATE

43

16.5.1 Minimum Bend Radius for Various Materials at Room

Temperature
TABLE 16.3
Material
Aluminum alloys
Beryllium copper
Brass, low-leaded
Magnesium
Steels
Austenitic stainless
Low-carbon, low-alloy, and HSLA
Titanium
Titanium alloys

Condition
Soft
Hard
0
6T
0
4T
0
2T
5T
13T
0.5T
0.5T
0.7T
2.6T

6T
4T
3T
4T

soft=smooth edges
Hard=rough edges------more stress concentration

44

R/T Ratio versus % Area

Reduction
Figure 16.18 Relationship between R/T
ratio and tensile reduction of area for
sheet metals. Note that sheet metal
with a 50% tensile reduction of area can
be bent over itself, in a process like the
folding of a piece of paper, without
cracking.

45

16.5.2 Springback

46

16.5.2 Springback
Figure 16.19 Springback in bending.
The part tends to recover elastically
after ending, and its bend radius
becomes larger. Under certain
conditions, it is possible for the final
bend angle to be smaller than the
original angle (negative springback).
Figure 16.20 Methods
of reducing or
eliminating
springback in bending
operations..

47

16.5.3 bending force

P=kYLT2/W
K=0.3 for wipping die
K=0.7 for U die
K=1.3 for V die
For V-die the above equation can be written as
P=(UTS)LT2/W

48

Bending Operations
Figure 16.21 Common die-bending
operations, showing the die-opening
dimension, W, used in calculating
bending forces.

Figure 16.22 Examples of various bending

operations.

49

16.6 common bending operations

50

Bending in a Press Brake

The edge is
folded over
itself
Figure 16.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations
in a press brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Verson
Allsteel Company.
51

Bending Operations In a Press Brake

Schematic illustration of various bending
operations in a press brake.

52

Bending Operations

Free
bendi
ng

Figure 16.22 Examples of various

bending operations.

53

Bead Forming

Figure 16.24 (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) Bead forming with two dies, in a press brake.

54

Flanging operations

First hole is
punched and
then
expanded in
a flang

Figure 16.25 Various

flanging operations. (a)
Flanges on a flat sheet.
(b) Dimpling. (c) The
piercing of sheet metal
to form a flange. In
this operation, a hole
does not have to be
prepunched before the
bunch descends. Note,
however, the rough
edges along the
circumference of the
flange. (d) The
flanging of a tube; note
the thinning of the edges
of the flange.

55

Roll-Forming Process

56

16.7 Tube Bending

57

16.7 Tube Bending

Figure 16.27 Methods of bending tubes. Internal mandrels, or the filling of

tubes with particulate materials such as sand, are often necessary to prevent
collapse of the tubes during bending. Solid rods and structural shapes can
also be bent by these techniques.
58

Tube Forming

A method of forming a tube with sharp angles, using axial compressive

forces. Compressive stresses are beneficial in forming operations because
they delay fracture. Note that the tube is supported internally with rubber or
fluid to avoid collapsing during forming. Source: After J. L. Remmerswaal and
A. Verkaik.
59

Bulging
Figure 16.28 (a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water
pitchers can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing,
by expanding tubular blanks under internal pressure. The bottomof the piece is then
punched out to produce a "T."

60

16.8 Stretch Forming

61

16.8 Stretch Forming

Figure 16.30 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins for
aircraft can be made by this method. Source: Cyril Bath Co.

62

16.8 Stretch Forming

In stretch forming the sheet metal is
clamped along its edge and then stretched
over a die or form block.
Die are generally made of zinc alloys,
steel plastic or wood.
Little or no lubrication
Various accessories
Low volume production, economical and
versatile.
63

16.9 Deep Drawing

64

65

Top of Aluminum Can

66

Steps in
Manufacturing
an Aluminum
Can

Figure 16.31 The metalforming processes

involved in manufacturing
a two-piece aluminum
beverage can

67

Deep Drawing

Figure 16.32 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-metal blank. The
stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Process variables in deep
drawing. Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters indicated in the figure are independent
variables.

68

Anisotropy
Figure 16.33 Strains on a tensile-test specimen
removed from a piece of sheet metal. These
strains are used in determining the normal and
planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.

Figure 16.34 The relationship

between average normal anisotropy
and the limiting drawing ratio for
various sheet metals. Source: M.
Atkinson.

69

Typical Range of Average Normal

Anisotropy, R, for Various Sheet Metals
TABLE 16.4
Zinc alloys
Hot-rolled steel
Cold-rolled rimmed steel
Cold-rolled aluminum-killed steel
Aluminum alloys
Copper and brass
Titanium alloys (a)
Stainless steels
High-strength low-alloy steels

0.40.6
0.81.0
1.01.4
1.41.8
0.60.8
0.60.9
3.05.0
0.91.2
0.91.2

70

Earing

Figure 16.45 Earing in a drawn

steel cup, caused by the planar
anisotropy of the sheet metal.

71

Drawbeads

Figure 16.36 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during the drawing of a boxshaped part, while using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of circular
grids in the flange in deep drawing.

72

Embossing

Figure 16.37 An embossing

operation with two dies.
Letters, numbers, and
designs on sheet-metal parts
and thin ash trays can be
produced by this process.

73

16.10 Rubber forming

74

16.10 Rubber forming

In the processes described in the preceding sections, it
has been noted that the dies are generally made of solid
materials. However, in rubber forming, one of the dies in
a set can be
made of a flexible material, such as a polyurethane
membrane.
Polyurethanes is used widely, because of their
resistance to abrasion, their resistance to cutting by
burrs or by sharp edges on the sheet metal, and their
long fatigue life.
In the bending and embossing of sheet metal, the female
die is replaced with a rub ber pad (Fig. 16.38). Note that
the outer surface of the sheet is protected from damage
or scratches because it is not in contact with a hard
metal surface during forming.
75

 When selected properly, rubber-forming

processes have the advantages of (a) low
tooling cost, (b) flexibility and ease of
operation, (c) low die wear, (d) avoidance
of damage to the surface of the sheet, and
(e) capability to form complex shapes.
Parts can also be formed with laminated
sheets of various nonmetallic materials or
coatings.
76

Forming with a Flexible Pad

Figure 16.38 Examples of bending and

embossing sheet metal with a metal punch and
a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source:
Polyurethane Products Corporation.
77

Hydroform Process

Figure 16.39 The hydroform (or fluid forming) process. Note that, in
contrast to the ordinary deep-drawing process, the pressure in the
dome forces the cup walls against the punch. The cup travels with the
punch; in this way, deep drawability is improved.
78

16.11 Spinning

79

16.11 spinning
Spinning is an old process which involves the forming of
axisymmetric parts over a mandrel, by the use of various
tools and rollers.
This process is somewhat similar to that of forming clay
on a potter's wheel.
As this section describes, there are three basic type
spinning techniques: conventional (or manual), shear,
and tube spinning.
The equipment used in these processes is similar to a
lathe, but it has special features.

80

16.11.1 Conventional Spinning

In conventional spinning, a circular blank of flat or
preformed sheet metal is held against a mandrel and
rotated, while a rigid tool deforms and shapes the
material over the manderel.
The tool may be activated either manually or by a
computer-controlled hydraulic mechanism.
The process involves a sequence of passes, and it
requires considerable skill
Part diameters may range up to 6 m .
Although most spinning is performed at room
temperature, thick parts, or metals with high strength or
low ductility, require spinning at elevated temperatures.

81

16.11.1 Conventional Spinning

Figure 16.40 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process. (b) Types of parts
conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.

82

Shapes in Spinning Processes

Typical shapes produced by the conventional-spinning process.

Circular marks on the external surfaces of components usually
indicate that the parts have been made by spinning. Examples
include aluminum kitchen utensils and light reflectors.
83

16.11.2 Shear Spinning

Also known as power spinning, flow turning,
hydrospinning, and spin forging, shear spinning
produces an axisymmetric conical or curvilinear
shape, while maintaining the part's maximum
diameter and reducing its thickness (Fig.
16.41a).
Although a single roller can be used, two rollers
are preferable in order to balance the forces
acting on the mandrel. Typical parts made are
rocket-motor casings and missile nose cones.

84

Spinnability
????

16.11.2 Shear
and Tube
Spinning

Figure 16.41 (a)

Schematic
illustration of the
shear spinning
process for
making conical
parts. The
mandrel can be
shaped so that
curvilinear parts
can be spun. (b)
Schematic
illustration of the
tube spinning
process.

85

Spinning Processes

Schematic illustration of spinning processes: (a) conventional

spinning and (b) shear spinning. Note that in shear spinning, the
diameter of the spun part, unlike in conventional spinning, is the same
as that of the blank. The quantity f is the feed (in mm/rev or in./rev).
86

16.11.3 Tube Spinning

Examples of external and internal tube spinning and the
variables involved.

87

Spinning of a Compressor
Shaft
Figure 16.42
Steps in tube
and shear
spinning of a
compressor
shaft for the
Olympus jet
engine of the
supersonic
Concorde
aircraft.

88

16.12 Super plastic forming

89

16.12 Super plastic forming

Superplastic alloys (particularly Zn-22Al
and Ti-6Al-4V) can be formed by such bulk
deformation processes as compression
molding, closed-die forging, coining,
hubbing, and extrusion.
Sheet forming of these materials can also
be carried out using such operations as
thermoforming, vacuum forming, and blow
molding (Chapter 18)
90

16.12 Super plastic forming

An important development is the ability to
fabricate sheet-metal structures by combining
diffusion bonding with superplastic forming
(SPF/DB). Typical structures in which flat sheets
are diffusion bonded (as described in Section
28.7) and formed are shown in Fig. 16.43.
After diffusion bonding the selected locations of
the sheets, the unbonded regions (stop-off) are
expanded into a mold by pressurized argon gas.
These structures are thin, and
they have high stiffness-to-weight ratios. As a
result, they are particularly important in aircraft
and aerospace applications.
91

Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic

Forming
Figure 16.43
Types of structures
made by diffusion
bonding and
superplastic
forming of sheet
metal. Such
structures have a
high stiffness-toweight ratio..

92

16.13
EXPLOSIVE, MAGNETIC-PULSE, PEEN,
AND OTHER FORMING PROCESSES

93

16.13.1 Explosive Forming

By controlling their quantity and shape,
however, one can use explosives as a
source of energy for metal forming

94

16.13.1 Explosive Forming

Figure 16.44 (a) Schematic illustration of the explosive forming

process. (b) Illustration of the confined method of explosive
bulging of tubes.
95

16.13.2 Magnetic-Pulse Forming

Figure 16.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulse forming

process used to form a tube over a plug. (b) Aluminum tube collapsed
over a hexagonal plug by the magnetic-pulse forming process.
96

16.13.3 Peen forming

97

16.13.4 other sheet forming

process

Laser forming
Laser assisted forming
Electrohydraulic forming (underwater
spark, or electric discharge forming :
source of the energy is spark between
electrodes
Gas mixtures: (the source of energy): as
internal combustion engines.
Liquefied gases: nitrogen ( liquid and gas
phase)

98

16.14 manufacturing honeycomb structures

Figure 16.46 Methods of manufacturing

honeycomb structures: (a) Expansion process; (b)
Corrugation process; (c) Assembling a honeycomb
structure into a laminate.

99

Questions
100

Stamping
Press and
Press
Frames

Figure 16.47 (a)

and (b) Schematic
illustration of
types of press
frames for sheetforming
operations. Each
type has its own
characteristics of
stiffness, capacity,
and accessibility.
Source:
Engineer's
Handbook, VEB
Fachbuchverlag,
1965. (c) A large
stamping press.
Source: Verson
Allsteel Company.

101

Cost Comparison for Spinning and

Deep Drawing
Figure 16.48 Cost
comparison for
manufacturing a round sheetmetal container either by
conventional spinning or by
deep drawing. Note that for
small quantities, spinning is
more economical.

102