LITERATURE REVIEW

1.

INTRODUCTION

The act of guiding the vehicle is called steering. Wheeled vehicles are steered by aiming or
pointing the wheels in the direction we want the vehicle to go. The driver of a car or truck
guides it by turning the steering wheel. The function of a steering system is to convert the
rotary movement of the steering wheel in driver's hand into the angular turn of the front
wheels on road. Additionally, the steering system should provide mechanical advantage over
front wheel steering knuckles, offering driver an easy turning of front wheels with minimum
effort in any desired direction. The steering system of cars and trucks consists of levers, links,
rods, and a gearbox and sometimes a hydraulic system that assists the driver's steering effort.
The steering system is of critical importance in the safe operation of the vehicle. There must
be no looseness between the steering wheel and the front wheels if the driver is to keep
control over the direction the wheels point. The tires must meet the road at the correct angle
to get good traction and to prevent unnecessary tire wear. Also, the driver should be able to
hold the wheels in the straight ahead position and change them to the right or left with very
little effort.
The steering system is the key interface between the driver and the vehicle. The main
requirement is that the steering should be precise, with no play. In addition, the steering
system should be smooth, compact and light. It must also provide the driver with a perfect
feel for the road surface and help the wheels return to the straight-ahead position. The
standard steering arrangement is to turn the front wheels using a hand-operated steering
wheel via the steering column. The steering column may contain several joints to allow it to
deviate somewhat from a straight line. These joints may also be part of the collapsible
steering column design to protect the driver in frontal crash situations.
The steering system components are a common source of driver complaints. Tire wear is
almost completely dependent on the condition and adjustment of the steering components.
This chapter covers the construction and operation of both conventional and rack-and-pinion
steering systems. The direction of motion of a motor vehicle is controlled by a steering
system.
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A basic steering system has three main parts: A steering box connected to the steering wheel.
The linkage connecting the steering box to the wheel assemblies at the front wheels. And
front suspension parts to let the wheel assemblies pivot. When the driver turns the steering
wheel, a shaft from the steering column turns a steering gear. The steering gear moves tie
rods that connect to the front wheels. The tie rods move the front wheels to turn the vehicle
right or left. There are two basic types of steering boxes - those with rack-and-pinion gearing,
and those with worm gearing. In both cases, the gearing in the steering box makes it easier
for the driver to turn the steering wheel, and hence, the wheels.
A rack-and-pinion steering system has a steering wheel, a main-shaft, universal joints, and an
intermediate shaft. When the steering is turned, movement is transferred by the shafts to the
pinion. The pinion is meshed with the teeth of the rack, so pinion rotation moves the rack
from side to side. This type of steering is used on passenger vehicles because it is light, and
direct. This steering system has worm gearing. It provides a gear reduction, and a 90 degree
change in direction. It has more parts and joints than the rack type, but it is more robust, and
may be used on heavier vehicles.
To allow heavy transport vehicles to carry extra weight, two steering axles may be used.
Theyre connected by a link to a common steering box. These vehicles are called tandem, or
twin-steered vehicles. Some passenger vehicles also steer the rear wheels slightly. This gives
improved maneuverability. The system is known as 4-wheel steering. It can be controlled
mechanically, through a direct connection, between the front and rear steering boxes. Or it
can be computer-controlled. With heavier vehicles, increased use of front-wheel-drive, and
wider, low-profile tyres, more steering effort is needed, so power steering is used. An enginedriven hydraulic pump provides pressure that helps the driver steer the vehicle. The power
steering system is designed so that the vehicle can still be controlled, even if the engine or the
power steering system, fails.

2.

FUNCTIONS OF A STEERING SYSTEM

The steering system is a group of parts that transmit the movement of the steering wheel to
the front, and sometimes the rear, wheels. The primary purpose of the steering system is to
allow the driver to guide the vehicle. When a vehicle is being driven straight ahead, the
steering system must keep it from wandering without requiring the driver to make constant
corrections. The steering system must also allow the driver to have some road feel (feedback
through the steering wheel about road surface conditions). The steering system must help
maintain proper tire-to-road contact. For maximum tire life, the steering system should
maintain the proper angle
Control of front wheel (sometimes rear wheel) direction.
Transmit road feel (slight steering wheel pull caused by the road surface) to the
drivers hand.
Maintain correct amount of effort needed to turn the wheels
Absorb most of the shock going to the steering wheel as the tire hits holes and bumps
in the road.
Allow for suspension action.

3.

LAYOUT OF A STEERING SYSTEM

1. Steering Wheel
The only part of the steering system the average driver is familiar with is the steering wheel.
Older wheels are made of hard plastic, are larger in diameter, and are relatively thin when
compared to modern steering wheels. The modern steering wheel is generally padded. Most
steering wheels have two or three spokes or a large center section that connects the wheel
portion to the hub. To prevent slippage, the steering wheel hub has internal splines, which
match external splines on the steering shaft. Some shafts and steering wheels have a master
spline, which is larger than the others. The master spline prevents the installation of the wheel
in the wrong position. A large nut holds the hub to the steering shaft.
2. Steering Column
The steering shaft is installed in the steering column. Bearings are generally used to hold the
shaft in position. The shaft and column assembly is usually removed and replaced as a unit.
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However, individual parts are often replaced without removing the shaft or column. In this
section, we will discuss the individual parts that make up the steering column and shaft
assembly.
3. Steering Shaft
Modern steering shafts are made of two sections of steel rod. One section is hollow and the
other is solid. The solid section slides into the hollow section. This design allows the steering
shaft to collapse when the vehicle is in a collision. For this reason it is called collapsible
shaft. Collapsible shafts are often referred to as telescoping shafts, since the shaft length is
reduced as one section of the shaft slides into the other in the same way a portable telescope
is collapsed. During normal driving, the two halves of the steering shaft are held in position
by shear pins. Shear pins are purposely made of a relatively weak material, usually plastic.
Their purpose is to break when sufficient pressure is placed on them, preventing injury to the
driver. If a collision occurs that is severe enough to cause the driver to strike the steering
wheel, the shear pins break, allowing the shaft to collapse.
4. Steering gear box
The heart of the steering system is the steering gear. This unit is also called steering
mechanism. This unit is ordinarily fixed to the bottom of the steering column. This unit is
located between the steering shaft and the steerable stub axles which carry the road wheels.
The input shaft of the steering gear is operated by the steering shaft. The steering gear
performs two functions: 1. It converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel into linear
motion of the steering linkage which moves the front wheels. 2. It introduces a leverage
between the steering wheel and the stub axles. This leverage reduces the effort that has to be
applied by the driver to the steering wheel in order to overcome the frictional forces opposing
the turning of the stub axles and the road wheels. In order to have the above leverage, the
steering wheel has to be turned through larger angles than the stub axles. In the case of
automotive vehicles, normally the road wheels are deflectable to about 500 on each side of
the straight ahead position. The extreme wheel positions are called full lock positions of the
wheels. To effect this extent of turning of the road wheels, the steering wheel may have to be
turned through from 4 to 9 or 10 times that angle. This relationship is called steering ratio.
The term steering ratio is the ratio of the 6 number of degrees of movement at the hand wheel
(steering wheel) which will produce one degree of movement of the front wheels. The
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amount of leverage provided by the steering gear depends upon several factors. The most
important among them are the weight of the vehicle and the type of tyre used. The typical
gear ratios are 14:1 or higher. In heavy duty vehicles this ratio is sometime as high as 30:1 to
35: 1. The greater the ratio, steering gear ratio, the easier the steering wheel turns. Trucks are
provided with higher leverage than cars. The steering gear incorporates another important
feature called back locking. The steering gear is so constructed that it is easy to turn the
vehicle by the steering wheel but it is difficult to turn the steering wheel by turning the front
wheels. This irreversible character of the steering gear prevents the bumps and shocks
experienced by the wheel at the road surface from being transmitted to the steering wheel, but
still give the driver the feel of the road. The steering gear is mounted to the vehicle frame by
bolts in the mounting pad of the steering gear.
5. Pitman arm
It is also called the drop arm. It converts the output torque from the steering gear into a force
to the drag link. It is attached to the sector shaft of the steering gear by a split joint. In this
construction either full serrations or partial spline is used to transmit the torque from the
sector shaft to the pitman arm. The split arm is tightened around the sector shaft by the
clamping bolt to mate the male and female serrations or splines. The end of the pitman arm
which connects with the drag link has a taper hole in it. The ball stud on the drag link is fitted
into this hole.
6. Drag link
It connects the pitman arm and the steering arm. In some cases, it is a one piece forging with
a ball joint socket formed in the end.
7. Steering arm
It is usually a forged component and is attached to the steering knuckle. It converts the drag
link force into a turning moment about the left king pin. The steering arm is attached to the
spindle by a keyway, a locking taper and a nut. The arm extends either to the front or rear of
the spindle, depending upon the package constraints and then bends to locate the steering arm
ball joint at the correct geometric location. The end of the steering arm which connects with
the drag link has a tapered hole in it to accept the ball stud on the drag link.
8. Tie rod
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The tie rod is a tubular member which connects the left and right tie rod arms. As such it
transmits the force between these two components. The tie rod ends have female threads. The
ball joint shafts have mating male threads. The threaded connections can be held together
firmly by the locking clamps after the proper length has been set. The length of the tie rod has
to be adjusted so that the front axle toe in will be to the specified amount. Right tie rod arm,
spindle and kingpin - The right tie rod arm is a mirror image of the left. This converts the
force from the tie rod into a moment to turn through the knuckle arm, the right spindle wheel
and the tyre about the king pin. The right spindle and the king pin assembly is similar to the
assembly on the left side except that it has no steering arm attached to it.

4. STEERING SYSTEMS

4.1 Types of steering systems

The purpose of steering gear is to enable the driver to alter the vehicles steered direction with
a minimum of effort. Three of the most common types in use are
1. Worm and peg steering system
2. Recirculating ball steering system
3. Rack and pinion steering system
1. Worm and peg steering system
A worm drive is a gear arrangement in which a worm (which is a gear in the form of a screw)
meshes with a worm gear (which is similar in appearance to a spur gear, and is also called a
worm wheel). The terminology is often confused by imprecise use of the term worm gear to
refer to the worm, the worm gear, or the worm drive as a unit.
With with this type of steering mechanism the lower part of the steering column shaft is
machined with a worm-type screw thread, which meshes with a peg protuding from the arm
of the cross-shaft. When the steering wheel is rotated, worm moves the peg along and the arm
transfered to a steering drop arm and linkage to move the roadwheels.

Worm and peg steering system

2. Recirculating ball steering system
The recirculating ball steering mechanism contains a worm gear inside a block with a
threaded hole in it; this block has gear teeth cut into the outside to engage the sector shaft
(also called a sector gear) which moves the Pitman arm. The steering wheel connects to a
shaft, which rotates the worm gear inside of the block. Instead of twisting further into the
block, the worm gear is fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which transmits the
motion through the gear to the pitman arm, causing the road wheels to turn.

The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the gear in two
parts. The first part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has gear teeth cut
into the outside of it, which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm (see diagram above).
The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt, that sticks into the hole in the
block. When the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt. Instead of twisting further into the
block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is held fixed so that when it spins, it moves the
block, which moves the gear that turns the wheels.

3. Rack and pinion steering system

It is very simple and common type mechanism, the system is shown in simplified sketch.
This type is very well suitable in an independent suspension system. The system consists of a
rack housed in a tubular casing. The casing is supported on the frame near its ends. The ends
of the rack are connected to the track rods with the help of ball and socket joints. The pinion
shaft is carried in the plain bearings housed in casing. The pinion is meshed with the rack and
the clearance is adjusted with the adjusting screw. When the pinion is given rotary motion

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with the steering wheel, then the rack slides in either sides. This sliding motion of the rack is
used through the track rods to turn the wheels in desired side.

Rack and pinion steering system

4.2 Power steering

Power steering, assists the driver of an automobile in steering by directing a portion of the
vehicle's power to traverse the axis of one or more of the road wheels. As vehicles have
become heavier and switched to front wheel drive, particularly using negative offset
geometry, along with increases in tire width and diameter, the effort needed to turn the
steering wheel manually has increased often to the point where major physical exertion is
required.
A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven
pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric power steering (EPS) is
more efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since the electric power steering motor only
needs to provide assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump
must run constantly. In EPS, the assist level is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed,
and even driver preference.
There are a couple of key components in power steering in addition to the rack-and-pinion or
recirculating-ball mechanism

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Pump
The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a rotary-vane pump (see diagram
below). This pump is driven by the car's engine via a belt and pulley. It contains a set
of retractable vanes that spin inside an oval chamber

Rotary

Valve

A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting force on the
steering wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force
(such as when driving in a straight line), the system shouldn't provide any assist. The
device that senses the force on the steering wheel is called the rotary valve.
The key to the rotary valve is a torsion bar. The torsion bar is a thin rod of metal that
twists when torque is applied to it. The top of the bar is connected to the steering
wheel, and the bottom of the bar is connected to the pinion or worm gear (which turns
the wheels), so the amount of torque in the torsion bar is equal to the amount of torque
the driver is using to turn the wheels. The more torque the driver uses to turn the
wheels, the more the bar twists.

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Steering linkage

The steering linkage is a combination of rods, and arms, that transmit the movement of the
steering gear to the front wheels. It must transmit this movement to the front wheels, while
still allowing for any up-and down movement they may make, while the vehicle is in motion.
The type of steering mechanism, and the number of linkages, depends on the type of steering
box, its location, and the type of suspension on the vehicle.

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5. STEERING MECHANISMS
5.1 Introduction to a Steering Gear Mechanism
The steering gear mechanism is used for changing the direction of two or more of the wheel
axles with reference to the chassis, so as to move the automobile in any desired path. Usually
the two back wheels have a common axis, which is fixed in direction with reference to the
chassis and the steering is done by means of the front wheels. A good steering mechanism is
must for a vehicles stability at the time of turning. Steering of four wheeler is designed in a
manner so that it will not permit lateral slip of front wheels during steering. There must be
true rolling of wheels at the time of steering. The front wheels are mounted on front axles to
allow their left and right swing for steering the vehicle. Steering is done by providing a
suitable gearing and linkage between front wheels and steering wheel

5.2 Condition for correct steering

In automobiles, the front wheels are placed over the front axles, which are pivoted at the
points A and B, as shown in Fig. These points are fixed to the chassis. The back wheels are
placed over the back axle, at the two ends of the differential tube. When the vehicle takes a
turn, the front wheels along with the respective axles turn about the respective pivoted points.
The back wheels remain straight and do not turn. Therefore, the steering is done by means of
front wheels only.

Steering gear mechanism

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In order to avoid skidding (i.e. slipping of the wheels sideways), the two front wheels must
turn about the same instantaneous centre I which lies on the axis of the back wheels. If the
instantaneous centre of the two front wheels do not coincide with the instantaneous centre of
the back wheels, the skidding on the front or back wheels will definitely take place, which
will cause more wear and tear of the tyres.
Thus, the condition for correct steering is that all the four wheels must turn about the
same instantaneous centre. The axis of the inner wheel makes a larger turning angle than
the angle subtended by the axis of outer wheel.
Let

a = Wheel track,
b = Wheel base, and
c = Distance between the pivots A and B of the front axle.

Now from triangle IBP,

BP
Cot = -------IP
and from triangle IAP,

Cot =

AP
AB + BP
AB
BP
c
--------- = ------------- = -------- + ------ = ------ + cot
IP
IP
IP
IP
b

Cot - Cot =

c
-------b

This is the fundamental equation for correct steering. If this condition is satisfied, there will
be no skidding of the wheels, when the vehicle takes a turn.

5.3 Steering gear mechanisms

The following are commonly used layouts
1. Davis steering gear principle
2. Ackermann steering principle

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1. Davis steering gear principle

The Davis steering gear is shown in Fig. It is an exact steering gear mechanism. The slotted
links AM and BH are attached to the front wheel axle, which turn on pivots A and B
respectively.
The rod CD is constrained to move in the direction of its length, by the sliding members at P
and Q. These constraints are connected to the slotted link AM and BH by a sliding and a
turning pair at each end. The steering is affected by moving CD to the right or left of its
normal position. C D shows the position of CD for turning to the left

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2. Ackermann steering principle

To ensure that the front steered wheels rotate around a common centre the inner and outer
roadwheels must be moved by differnt amounts. This achieved by setting the steering arms at
an angle so that their projected centrelines meet on or near the centre of the rear axle.

The intention of Ackermann geometry is to avoid the need for tyres to slip sideways when
following the path around a curve.[2] The geometrical solution to this is for all wheels to have
their axles arranged as radii of a circle with a common centre point. As the rear wheels are
fixed, this centre point must be on a line extended from the rear axle. Intersecting the axes of
the front wheels on this line as well requires that the inside front wheel is turned, when
steering, through a greater angle than the outside wheel.

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6. STEERING GEOMETRY
When a four wheeler takes a turn, all its four wheels should roll without slipping laterally.
This is possible only when the axes of four wheels intersect at one point. This point is the
centre about which the vehicle turns at that instant. At this instant, rear rotate along two
circles, where the centre of two circles is at O. The front wheels have their different axes.
These wheels also rotate along two other circles with same centre O. Figure shows the
steering geometry of all the four wheels of the vehicle. For correct steering, the centre of the
wheels of the rear axles and centre of front wheels must coincide.

1. Camber angle
Camber angle is the angle between the vertical line and centre line of the tyre when viewed
from the front of the vehicle. Camber angle is positive when this is outward. This happens
when wheels are further apart at top than at bottom. On the contrary, camber angle is negative
when angle is inward. This happens when wheels are further apart at bottom than at top. The
camber, should not be more than 2 degrees, because this causes uneven or more tyre wear on
one side than on other side. The front wheels are usually fitted with positive camber angle.
This is done to prevent tilting of top of wheels inward due to excessive load or play in the
king pin and wheel bearing. The load brings the wheels to vertical position. Excessive camber
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is not good because it prevents proper wheel contact with the road. Front Axle and Steering
Unequal camber causes the vehicle in that direction in which camber is more. This disturbs
the directional stability.

Camber angle
2. King pin inclination
It is the angle between king pin centre line and vertical line when seen from the front of the
vehicle. It is also called steering axle inclination. King pin inclination and caster are used to
improve directional stability in cars. Because of these provisions wheels tend to return to the
straight ahead position after the vehicle completes any turn (due to steering left or right). This
is also used to reduce steering effort when steering a stationary vehicle. In addition to this, it
reduces tyre wear. This inclination varies from 4 to 8 degrees in modern cars. The king pin
inclination is shown in Figure. It should be equal on both sides, i.e. on both front wheels.

King pin inclination

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3. Caster angle
Caster angle is the tilt of king pin centre line towards front of back from the vertical line. It is
the angle between the vertical line and king pin centre line in the p wheel plane when looked
from side. It is shown in Figure. Caster Angle (Positive) Caster angle is positive when top of
the king pin is backward and negative when it is forward. The value of this angle in vehicles
ranges from 2 to 8 degrees. The caster angle provides directional stability to vehicle by
making wheels to follow in the direction of movement of vehicle. The vehicle tends to roll
out on turns when caster angle of both front wheels is positive. But it tends to back or lean in
on turns when caster angles are negative. Positive caster angle increases the steering effort
and tends to keep the wheels straight. Negative caster is provided in heavy duty vehicles to
reduce steering effort.

Caster angle
4. Toe in and Toe out
The front wheels are slightly turned in at front side such that the distance between wheels at
front is little less than the distance at back when seen from top. This difference in distance is
called to-in. It is shown in Figure. The distance B is greater than A by 3 to 5 mm.

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Purpose of Toe-in
(a) To ensure that wheels are rolling parallel.
(b) To stabilize steering and prevent slipping towards sides.
(c) To prevent excessive tyre wear.
(d) To offset the effect of small deflections in the wheel support system.
The wheels are set with to-in but they move parallel when car moves forward.
The difference in the angles between the two front wheels and frame of the car during turns is
called toe-out. While taking the turn, the inside wheel makes larger angle than outer wheel to
satisfy the condition of correct steering. The toe-out is shown in Figure.

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At turns, inner wheels makes an angle which is more than angle of outer wheel. Toe-out is set
by maintaining proper relation between the steering knuckle arm, tie rods and pitman arm.

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REFERENCES
[1] http://research.omicsgroup.org/index.php/Steering
[2] http://www.ijrame.com/vol2issue3/V2i305.pdf
[3] http://www.ijettjournal.org/2015/volume-22/number-8/IJETT-V22P274.pdf
[4] http://www.ijser.org/researchpaper%5CZero-Turn-Four-Wheel-Steering-System.pdf
[5]http://www.ijser.org/onlineResearchPaperViewer.aspx?Comparision-Of-Steering
Geometry-Parameters-Of-Front-Suspension-Of-Automobile.pdf

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