Introduction

A long structural member subject to a compressive load is called a strut. Struts with large cross sections compared with the length
generally fail under compressive stress and the conventional failure criteria apply. When the cross section area is not large
compared to the length i.e the member is slender, then the member will generally fail by buckling well before the compressive yield
strength is reached.
The notes below relate to uniform straight members made from homogeneous engineering materials used within the elastic
operating range. It is assumed that an end load is applied along the centroid of the ends. The strut will remain straight until the end
load reaches a critical value and buckling will be initiated. Any increase in load will result in a catastrophic collapse and a
reduction in load will allow the strut to straighten. The value of the critical load depends upon the slenderness ratio and the end
fixing conditions. The slenderness ratio ( )is defined as the effective length =Le / the least radius of gyration = k of the
section The principal end fixing conditions are listed below

The principal end fixing conditions are listed below

Pinned (hinged) at both ends

Fixed (built-in) at both ends
Fixed at one end and free at the other
Fixed at one end and pinned at the other

Symbols
A = Area (m2)
k = radius of gyration of section (m)
W = End force on strut. (N)
We = Euler end force on strut. (N)
WR = Rankine end force on strut. (N)
L = Length of strut (m )
Le = effective length of strut (m)
x = position along strut
y = strut deflection at x <m)
R= Radius of bend (m)
Pc= Allowable stress (N/m2 )
M = moment (Nm)
</m)

I = Moment of inertia (m4)

e = Euler stress (N/m2)
c = compressive failure stress (N/m2)
R = compressive failure stress (N/m2)
= slenderness ratio
E = modulus of elasticity (Young's Modulus) (N/m2)
Wc = Compressive failure Load
We = Euler Load

Eulers Theory
The simple analysis below is based on the pinned-pinned arrangement. The other arrangements are derived from this by replacing
the length L by the effective length Le.
For the pinned-pinned case the effective length Le = L.
For the Fixed -Fixed case the effective length Le = L/2.
For the Fixed-Free case the effective length Le = L x 2.
For the Fixed-Pinned case the effective length Le approx. L x 0,7.

Curvature
Quick derivation for curvature (1/R)

Beam equation
Note: The derivation below is based on a strut with pinned ends. A similar method can be used to arrive at the Euler loads for other
end arrangements which will confirm the basis for the factors in arriving at the equivalent length b.

M/I=/y=E/R

When x = 0 y = 0 and therefore A cos .0 + B sin .0 = A = 0 therefore A = 0

When x = b , y = 0 and so B sin b = 0.
B cannot be 0 because there would be no deflection and no buckling which is contrary to experience.
Hence sin Le = 0. therefore Le = 0, , 2, 3 etc
(W/EI) Le 2 = 2, 4. 2, 9. 2 etc
therefore
W = 2 E.I / Le2 , 2 E.I / (Le / 2) 2, 2 E.I / (Le / 3) 2
The lowest value of W results from 2 E.I / Le2

The lowest value of W resulting from this procedure is called the Euler load (We ) and failure of long slender beams due to buckling
results from this much earlier than failure due pure compression.
As the moment of inertia I = A.k 2 and the end force W = A. The formula can be rewritten

Important Note: The value of I and the equivalent value of k are assumed to be the minimum values for the section under
consideration

Validity of Eulers theory

This theory takes no account of the compressive stress. For a metal with a compressive strength of less than 300 N/mm2 and a
Young's Modulus of about 200 kN/mm2. The strut will tend to fail in compression if the slenderness ratio (Le/ k) is less than
80. Therefore for steel Eulers equation is not reliable for slenderness ratios less than 80 and really should not be used for
slenderness ratios less than 120.

Rankine - Gordon Criteria

This criteria is based on experimental results.
This criteria suggests that the strut will fail at a load given by.

1 / W R = 1 / Wc + 1 / We
Wc = Compressive failure Load
We = Euler Load

Substituting c = c / ( 2 E) - A constant for each material

This design criteria provides more accurate buckling loads than the euler theory especially at lower slenderness ratios. At higher
slenderness ratios the two methods yield similar results. The experimental values for c are not in direct agreement with the
theoretical values. BS 449-2:1969 includes tables for the safe working stresses for all slenderness ratios and a range of steel
specifications.
Table showing approximate values of c
Material

Mild Steel

1/7500

Wrought Iron

1/9000

Cast Iron

1/1600

Wood

1/3000

Perry Robertson formula (BS 449449-2 )

Important ..The notes and equation and table below is provided for general guidance. For detail structural design it is important to
refer to the identified standards. The information below is only a trivial relative to the level of detail provided in the standard.
The equation below is used as the basis for the allowable design stresses as provided in the relevant tables in BS 449 and is
considered the most reliable of the methods available for buckling loads for long slender struts..The equation below is similar to
that provided in appendix B of BS 449 part 2 :1969

pc = Permissible average compressive stress

k2 = Load coefficient ( normally 1,7)
y = Yield stress N/m2
y = Euler stress N/m2
= 0,3 ( Le / 100k )2
Table of Allowable stress values pc for structural steels
The table is based on table 17 in BS 449 and relates to BS 4360 steels. Which is superseded by BS EN 10025 the grades of which are identified ().
Grade
43
(S275)
Le/ k

Grade
50
(S355)

Grade
55
(S420)

MPa

Grade
43
(S275)

Grade
50
(S355)

Le/ k

Grade
55
(S420)

MPa

170

215

265

95

89

100

108

167

212

262

100

82

92

99

10

165

210

258

110

71

78

83

15

162

207

255

120

62

67

71

20

159

205

252

130

54

58

61

25

157

202

248

140

47

50

53

30

154

200

245

150

41

44

46

35

152

197

241

160

37

39

41

40

150

193

236

170

33

35

36

45

147

189

230

180

29

31

32

50

144

184

222

190

26

28

29

55

139

177

212

200

24

25

26

60

135

169

200

210

22

23

24

65

129

160

186

220

20

21

22

70

123

150

172

230

18

19

20

75

116

140

157

240

17

18

18

80

109

129

143

250

16

16

17

85

102

119

130

300

11

11

12

90

95

109

118

350