PHYSICS PRACTICAL

CLASS XII
OBSERVATION NOTEBOOK

VHSS
2015-16

SECTION:B
Experiment:B1
AIM: To find the values of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror
and to find its focal length.
APPARATUS: An optical bench, three uprights, one mirror holder, two needles, concave
mirror.

THEORY: For an object placed at a distance u from the pole of a concave mirror of focal
length f, the image is formed at a distance v from the pole. The relation between these
distances (for a concave mirror) is
or
If an object (say, a pin) is placed in front of the reflecting surface of the concave mirror such
that the objects position lies in between the principal focus of the mirror, F and the centre
of curvature C, then a real, inverted and magnified image is formed in between the centre of
curvature C of the mirror and infinity.
Thus, the image formed in such a case would be clearer and easier to be seen. The focal
length of the mirror, using the above relation, can be determined by placing the object in
between the point 2F and focus F.

SIGN CONVENTIONS:
1. All the distances are measured from the pole P of the mirror (or the optical centre of
a lens).
2. The distance measured in the direction of propagation of incident rays are taken as
positive and those measured in the opposite direction are taken as negative.
3. The heights measured upwards (above the principal axis of the mirror/lens) are
taken as positive and the heights measured downwards are taken as negative

DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Rough focal length of the concave mirror= __________ cm
Observation table for finding u, v, 1/u and 1/v

S.No

Position of upright with

Concave
Object
Image
mirror P
needle O
needle I
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)

Observed distance
PO=u (cm)
PI=v (cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

RESULT: The focal length of the given concave (converging) mirror is

.. cm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and
mounted vertically.

2. The object pin should be kept in between the centre of curvature and
the focus of the mirror.
3. The aperture of mirror should be small otherwise the image formed will
not be distinct.
4. Eye should be placed at a distance of distinct vision (25 cm) from the
image needle.
5. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin must touch the tip of the
image pin and must not overlap. It should be ensured while removing
the parallax.
6. The image and the object pins should not be interchanged during the
course of the experiment.
7. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put in the formula
for calculating f and then a mean value of f should be taken. Calculations
for f must not be made using the mean values of u and v.
8. A white screen or plane background may be used for seeing the clear
image of the pin.
9. Image of the Sun should not be seen directly as it may hurt your eyes.

Experiment:B2
AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and
v or between 1/u and 1/v
APPARATUS: An optical bench, three uprights, one lens holder, two needles, convex lens.

THEORY: For an object placed at a distance u from the optical centre of a thin convex lens
of focal length f , a real and inverted image is formed on the other side of the lens at a
distance v from the optical centre. The relation between these distances is:

1
According to the new cartesian sign convention, u is negative but v is positive. Therefore the
Eq.1 takes the following
form for magnitudes of u and v.

2
In this result the positive values of u and v are substituted.
Eq.2 shows that 1/v versus 1/u graph is a straight line of negative slope. If 1/v equals zero
or 1/u equals zero, then respectively 1/u = 1/f or 1/v = 1/ f. The intercepts of the graph on
both axes are 1/f. Graph of u versus v is a hyperbola. When u = v, then each equals 2f. Eq 2
shows that values of u and v are interchangeable.
When an object (say, a pin) is placed in front of a thin convex lens at a distance equal to 2f, a
real and inverted image of same size as that of the object is formed at a distance equal to 2f
on the other side of the lens. If the objects position lies in between distance 2f and
distance f from the optical centre of the lens then a real, inverted and magnified image is
formed at a point beyond 2f from the optical centre on the other side of the lens.
Thus, by measuring the distances u and v, the focal length of the convex lens can be
determined using Eq2. The focal length of the lens may also be determined by plotting
graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.

D IAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Approximate focal length of the convex lens = ... cm

Sl.
No
.

Lens
uprigh
t
a (cm)

Object
1
Image
pin
Observed Observed
1/u
pin
uprigh
1/v
u=ab v=ac
cmupright
t
(cm)
(cm)
cm-1
1
c (cm)
b (cm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean
f=

CALCULATIONS:
A. Calculate the corrected values of u and v.
Compute the value of f. using Eq.2. Tabulate
them in the table and find the mean value of the
focal length of the given convex lens.
B. u v Graph: Take u along x-axis and v along yaxis. Scales of x- and y-axis should be same.
Draw a hyperbola curve for various values of u
and v as shown in fig. Note that six sets of

readings for u between f and 2f, give you

12 points on the graph by interchanging
values of u and v. The point u = 2f; v = 2f
is shown as point Z on u v graph. The
point Z is the point of intersection of a
line OZ bisecting the angle XOY with
hyperbola. Draw two lines AZ and BZ
perpendicular to Y- and X-axis,
respectively. The lengths AZ and BZ are
both equal to distance 2f. Thus by
plotting the u v graph, the focal length
of the lens can be obtained.
Distance OA (= 2f ) on y-axis = ... cm
Distance OB (= 2f ) on x-axis = ... cm
Mean focal length of the convex lens,
C. 1/u 1/v graph: Draw a straight line graph by plotting 1/u along the X-axis and 1/v along
the Y-axis. Both the
intercepts OA (on y-axis) and OB (on X-axis) will be equal to distance 1/f.
Intercept OA (= 1/f ) on y-axis =..cm1
Intercept OB (= 1/f ) on x-axis =...cm1
Mean focal length ( f ) of the convex lens =

RESULT:
The focal length of the given converging thin convex lens:
i) from calculations as shown in Observation Table f = .....cm (here f is mean value
of the focal length)
ii) from u v graph =...cm, and
iii) from 1/u 1/v graph =...cm.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically.
2. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be
distinct.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image needle.
4. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench is not
horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and optical centre of the lens are not at the
same horizontal level.
5. The image and object needles should not be interchanged during the performance of
the experiment, as this may cause change in index corrections for object distance
and image distance.
6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the tip of the image
needle and must not overlap. his should be ensured while removing the parallax.

7. The general instructions to be followed in all optical bench experiments (as given in
the description of optical ench) must be taken care of.
8. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put in the formula for
calculating f and then a mean of f hould be taken. Calculations for f must not be
made using the mean values of u and v.

Experiment:B3
AIM: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
APPARATUS: A convex lens, a convex mirror, an optical bench, four uprights, two lens
holders, two needles.

THEORY: An object AB is placed at point P in front of a thin convex lens such that its
real, inverted and magnified mage AB is formed at position C on the other side of the
lens . Now a convex mirror is introduced between the convex lens and point C and so
adjusted that the real and inverted image AB coincides with the object AB at point
P . This is possible if the light rays starting from the tip of the object, after passing
through the lens, fall normally on the reflecting surface of the convex mirror and retrace
their path. Any normal ray (perpendicular) to a spherical surface has to be along the
radius of that sphere so that point C must be the centre of curvature of the convex
mirror. Therefore, the distance P C is the radius of curvature R and half of it would be
the focal length of the convex mirror. That is,

DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Table : Determination of radius of curvature of convex mirror, R

Sl.No

Object Pin P1
a(cm)

Upright Position
Covex Lens
Covex
LL
mirror MM
b(cm)
c(cm)

Image Pin P2
d(cm)

Observed
R=cd

Focal
Length
f (cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mean R=
Calculate the mean value of radius of curvature of the convex mirror, R, and determine its
focal length using the following relation

RESULT: The focal length of the given convex mirror is f ... ... cm.
Here f is mean value of the focal length.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The uprights supporting the pins, lens and mirror must be rigid and mounted
vertically.
2. The apertures of the given convex lens and convex mirror should be small,
otherwise the image formed will be istorted.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance of about 25 cm or more from the image pin.
4. Optical bench should be horizontal. The tips of pins, centre of convex lens and pole
of the mirror should be at the ame horizontal level.

Experiment:B4
AIM: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias.
APPARATUS: The p-n junction diode characteristics apparatus, connecting wires.
THEORY: A pn junction conducts when it is forward biased. The current increases with
increase in applied voltage but the increase is non linear ration of the forward bias voltage
to the forward current is called the static resistance of the pn junction. The forward
resistance of the pn junction is always low.

The resistance of pn junction is said to be dynamic if it measures the ratio of the change in
forward potential to the corresponding change in the forward current.

It is measured in Ohm.
The pn junction offers high resistance when it is reverse biased.
The voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called the knee voltage. It is
0.7V for a silicon diode and 0.3V for a germanium diode.
If large current passes through the diode, excessive heat will damage it.

DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Least count of the voltmeter =__________________ V
Least count of milliammeter = __________________mA

S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Forward bias voltage (Volt)

Forward Current (mA)

Plot a graph taking forward potential along x-axis and forward current along y-axis.

Calculate the static and dynamic resistance at any point on the graph.

RESULT:
For the given pn junction diode,
Static resistance = _______ ohm
Dynamic resistance = _________ohm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat and tight
2. The current should be passed for minimum possible time
3. The forward potential should not be very large as it may damage the pn junction

Experiment:B5
AIM: To draw the characteristic curve of a zener diode and to determine its
reverse breakdown voltage.
APPARATUS: A p-n junction Zener diode characteristics apparatus, connecting wires.
THEORY: Zener diode is a specially designed pn junction used to operate in reverse
breakdown region. A zener diode is used to provide constant voltage and is an important
component of voltage stablisers. In the reverse breakdown region, any amount of current
can be drawn from the diode at a fixed potential.
If we connect a zener diode across a practical voltage source as shown the terminal remains
constant at Vz ( the reverse breakdown voltage or zener voltage) whatever be the current
flowing through the zener diode.

DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Least count of micro-ammeter = _________ A
Least count of voltmeter = __________ V
S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Voltmeter reading V (Volt)

Ammeter reading (A)

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Plot the graph taking reverse bias V along X-axis and reverse current along Y-axis. Mark the
zener voltage on the graph.

RESULT:
Zener voltage for the diode = ________ V
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat and clean
2. The negative terminal of the power supply should be connected to the p-terminal and
positive to the n-terminal of the zener diode
3. The voltage should be increased gradually.

Experiment:B6
AIM: To study the characteristic of a common emitter n-p-n or p-n-p transistor and to find
out the values of current and voltage gains.

APPARATUS: One p-n-p transistor characteristics apparatus connecting wires.

THEORY: In a common emitter circuit of a transistor, the emitter base junction is forward
biased and is called the input circuit. The base-collector circuit is reverse biased and is called
the output circuit. The input resistance is low and the output resistance is high.

DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Least count of voltmeter Vbe = ___________ V
Least count of voltmeter Vce = ____________ V

Least count of milli ammeter = ______________ mA

Least count of micro ammeter = ______________ A
Table for Input characteristics:
S.No

Base Voltage Vb

Vc = _____ V

Base current Ib (A) for

Vc = _____ V

Vc = _____ V

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Table for Output characteristics:
S.No

Collector
Voltage Vc

Ib = _____ A

Collector current Ic (mA) for

Ib = _____ A
Ib = _____ A
Ib = _____ A

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1. Calculation of Input resistance Ri
Plot a graph between base voltage Vb and base
currentIb for fixed values of Vc to get different
input characteristics curves.

2. Calculation of Output resistance Ro

Plot graphs between Vc and Ic for
different fixed values of the base current.

3. Calculation of current gain ac

4. Calculation of voltage gain Av

RESULT:
For the given transistor
Current gain = ac = _________
Voltage gain Av= ____________
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat and tight.
2. Pass the current only when the circuit is in use.
3. The voltages should not cross the breakdown voltage.