WEST SAMPLING AND EAST IMMERSING:

THE ANTECEDENTS OF INVOLVEMENT OF

ANALYTIC VS. HOLISTIC THINKERS
Faye J. Kao, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, USA
Nobuhide Zushi, University of Marketing and Distribution Sciences, Kobe, Japan
Akira Adachi, University of Marketing and Distribution Sciences, Kobe, Japan
Yung-Chien Lou, National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan
(This study was sponsored by Yoshida Hideo Memorial Foundation, Japan. The authors wish to
thank Professor Gary M. Victor at Eastern Michigan University for his helpful comments.)
Abstract
This study proposes that cultural capital and language associated with products are two
antecedents of involvement in a cross-cultural context. This study relies on the theory of
analytic-holistic thinking (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001) to investigate the
characteristics of these two antecedents.
The Antecedents of Involvement in a Cross-Cultural Context
Although culture has been identified as an antecedent of involvement (Andrews, Durvasula and
Akhter, 1990), no study has compared and contrasted the culture-related antecedents in a crosscultural consumption context.
(1) Cultural capital. Bourdieu (1984) defines cultural capital as consisting of a set of socially
distinctive tastes, skills, knowledge, and practices. Cultural capital is found to be embodied in
product categories (McCracken, 1986; Thompson & Haytko, 1997; Holt, 1998). For example,
sushi is the result of the rice-eating culture and abundant fresh sea food in Japan. Brands can
also be culture carriers (Aaker, Jennifer Lynn & Veronica Benet-Martinez, 2001). For example,
McDonalds is considered an iconic representation of American fast food culture. Therefore, we
consider the cultural capital associated with products or brands as a first antecedent of
involvement.
(2) Language. Language serves as a means for communication. Language also influences
memory (Schmitt, Pan & Tavassoli, 1994; Tavassoli & Han, 2001), and moderates advertising
processing (Luna & Peracchio, 2001). Consumers use language proficiency as a cue to evaluate
marketers sensitivity to their culture (Koslow, Shamdasani & Touchstone, 1994). In addition,
language is an important mediator of cultural identities (Northover, 1988). The language you
speak defines both who you are and your place in society. Therefore, we consider language as a
second antecedent of involvement.
On the basis of the above discussion of cultural capital and language, we offer the following
proposition:
Proposition 1: Cultural capital and language are two culture related antecedents of involvement.

Analytic vs. Holistic Thinking

Nisbett, Pend, Choi & Norenzayan (2001) propose a theory on the relationship between systems
of thought and culture. They posit that the difference between cultural practices affects
individuals cognitive processes and results in analytic vs. holistic thinking characterized by
Western vs. Eastern cultures. The difference between these two cognitive processes can be
traced back to two different cultures of ancient Greece and China.
(1) The analytic Greek model. The ancient Greeks thought of the individual as the center of
power. The Greeks defined personal agents as the focus of their social existence. Self is
perceived as separable from the outside world (Nisbett, Pend, Choi & Norenzayan, 2001).
Therefore, as the analytic thinkers process the culture-related knowledge associated with the
products, they are capable of detaching their own existence from the product cultural context.
The culture related knowledge associated with the products is perceived as sets of features. The
analytic thinkers may develop their own evaluations toward those features. However, the
evaluations do not have to be based on any self consumption experience. The analytic thinkers
are capable of relying on abstract thinking to evaluate the cultural-related knowledge as a piece
of art. Therefore, we propose that
Proposition 2.1: Analytic thinkers perceive the culture-related antecedents as independent of
themselves.
(2) The holistic Chinese model. The Chinese sought group harmony as the most desirable
condition. The Chinese defined group agents as the focus of their social existence. The holistic
thinkers perceived self as inseparable from the outside world (Nisbett, Pend, Choi &
Norenzayan, 2001). Therefore, as the holistic thinkers process the culture-related knowledge
associated with products, they inevitably think of the necessity to immerse themselves in the
culture context associated with the products. If the culture is foreign to them, they involuntarily
think of the necessity to adjust their current behavior so that self will not be isolated from the
product cultural context. Therefore, we propose that
Proposition 2.2: Holistic thinkers perceive the culture-related antecedents as inseparable from
themselves.
Methodology
The measurement instrument. We developed the following items to measure the above
constructs. In addition, the Personal Involvement Inventory scale (Zaichkowsky, 1994) was used
to measure cognitive and affective involvement. Each subject was asked to rate two products, a
sushi restaurant and karate, and two brands, McDonalds and Las Vegas. The scale was
developed in English. It was translated into Japanese, and back-translated into English to ensure
the meanings were not lost in the translation.
Cultural Capital items:
The object involves some unique technique that is not common in my home culture.
The object involves some unusual practice that is not common in my home culture.
The object involves some value that is not common in my culture.

Language items:
Foreign language plays an important role in learning about the object.
Proficiency in the foreign language will help me understand the object.
Adopting the object requires me to learn the foreign language.
Self items:
The object gives me an opportunity to experience the foreign culture.
Consuming the object lets me understand the foreign cultural life-style.
If I adopt the object, I will need to change my current routine.
Adopting the object requires me to change my current habit.
Adopting the object will change my life-style.
The sample. These questionnaires were administered to students in USA and Japan. The USA
group represented the analytic thinking group; the Japanese group represented the holistic
thinking group. There were 101 samples from each country. The USA profile consisted of fortyfour percent male and fifty-six percent female. The mode of age was twenty-one. Subjects
belonged to diverse ethnic groups: African American 20%, Asian American 30%, Caucasian
American 23%, Hispanic American 13%, and Others 14% (including international students).
The Japanese profile consisted of sixty-five percent male and thirty-five percent female. The
mode of age was twenty-one. All subjects were of Japanese ethnicity.
Study 1: Identifying the dimension and content of culture-related antecedents. Exploratory
factor analysis with varimax rotation was performed separately for USA and Japanese groups.
The USA model resulted in three dimensions with eigenvalue greater than one (Table 1). The
first dimension accounted for the cultural capital antecedent. The second dimension was the
language antecedent. The third dimension reflected the perceived need to change ones own
behavior. We named the third dimension as self behavior. The Japanese model yielded two
factors with eigenvalue greater than one. The scree plot also suggested a two-factor solution.
Hence, the two-factor structure was retained (Table 2). The first factor accounted for the
cultural capital dimension. The second dimension accounted for the language dimension.
Discussion. The results from the factor analyses support proposition 2.1 and 2.2. In the
Japanese model, those items measuring self behavior are combined with either cultural capital or
language items. The two-factor structure of Japanese data reflects the self-context-dependent
cognition process in holistic thinking. For the Japanese, products reside within a cultural
context. Self is inseparable from the cultural context. They feel the need to behave so that the
self will be harmonious with the outside context. Therefore, they consider the cultural capital
associated with the products directly related to their own behavior change. Speaking another
language is considered part of the cultural experience. In the USA model, items measuring
perceived behavior change are independent from the other two dimensions. The three-factor
structure of USA data reflects the self-context-independent and attribute-based cognition process
in analytic thinking. For the Americans, products carry cultural knowledge. They consider
consuming products from another culture as a way to experience that culture. But it is not
necessary to change their behavior. Language is a means to learn about the products.

Table 1: The USA Factor Model

Item-tototal corr.

CC

1.

The object involves some unique technique that is not common in my home
culture.

.55

.70

2.

The object gives me an opportunity to experience the foreign culture.

.50

.62

3.

The object involves some unusual practice that is not common in my home
culture.

.60

.59

LG

SB

4.

The object involves some value that is not common in my culture.

.46

.55

5.

Consuming the object lets me understand the foreign cultural life-style.

.47

.50

6.

Foreign language plays an important role in learning about the object.

.51

.84

7.

Proficiency in the foreign language will help me understand the object.

.47

.81

8.

Adopting the object requires me to learn the foreign language.

.53

.68

9.

If I adopt the object, I will need to change my current routine.

.55

.80

10.

Adopting the object requires me to change my current habit.

.48

.64

11.

Adopting the object will change my life-style.

.45

.64
69%
.78

Variance explained by each dimension (proportion)

Cronbach alpha of each dimension
(Cronbach alpha of the 11-item scale is .83)
(CC: Cultural Capital, LG: Language, SB: Self Behavior)

26%
.87

15%
.79

Table 2: The Japanese Factor Model

Item-tototal corr.

CC

LG

1.

If I adopt the object, I will need to change my current routine.

.51

.78

.02

2.

Adopting the object will change my life-style.

.53

.77

.06

.64

.64

.34

.68

.59

.44

.59

.55

.29

3.

4.
5.

The object involves some unusual practice that is not common in my home
culture.
The object involves some value that is not common in my culture.
The object involves some unique technique that is not common in my home
culture.

6.

Adopting the object requires me to change my current habit.

.38

.47

-.07

7.

The object gives me an opportunity to experience the foreign culture.

.55

.17

.72

8.

Proficiency in the foreign language will help me understand the object.

.43

.05

.66

9.

Foreign language plays an important role in learning about the object.

.58

.13

.75

10.

Consuming the object lets me understand the foreign cultural life-style.

.32

.08

.50

11.

Adopting the object requires me to learn the foreign language.

.57

.24

.46

46

39%

Variance explained by each dimension (proportion)

Cronbach alpha of each dimension

(Cronbach alpha of the 11-item scale is .84)
(CC: Cultural Capital, LG: Language)

.83

.78

Study 2: Testing the relationship between culture-related antecedents and involvement.

Regression analyses were performed to investigate the relationship. The culture-related
antecedents in study one were the independent variables. Therefore, in the American model,
there were cultural capital, language, and self behavior. In Japanese model, there were cultural
capital and language. Cognitive and affective involvements were the dependent variables. The
average scores of the dimensions were used as inputs. Regressions were performed
independently for the cognitive and the affective involvement models for both USA and Japan.
Totally, there were four independent regression models. The result was showed in Tables 3 and
4.
Result and Discussion. All the beta-coefficients of the four models are significant although the
R2 values were low. The results from the regression models support proposition 1. The rather
low R2 values are consistent with the existing involvement theory in that it is the interconnected
network of various product related knowledge that defines involvement (Laaksonen, 1994).
Since only culture-related antecedents are considered in this study, these antecedents are not
sufficient to explain involvement.
Table 3: The USA Regression Model
R2

Model

Error Variance

COG = 3.10 + 0.06 * CC + 0.06 * LG - 0.13 * SB

.04
.67
(0.30) (0.09)
(0.11)
(0.09)
AFF = 3.00 + 0.17 * CC + 0.24 * LG - 0.11 * SB
.13
.75
(0.32) (0.09)
(0.12)
(0.10)
(COG: Cognitive Involvement; AFF: Affective Involvement; CC: Cultural Capital, LG: Language, SB: Self
Behavior)

Table 4: The Japanese Regression Model

R2

Model

Error Variance

COG = 4.25 - 0.43 * CC + 0.15 * LG

.19
.85
(0.29) (0.10)
(0.12)
AFF = 3.34 - 0.27 * CC + 0.38 * LG
.09
.98
(0.32) (0.10)
(0.13)
(COG: Cognitive Involvement; AFF: Affective Involvement; CC: Cultural Capital, LG: Language)

Conclusions and Implications

Analytic and holistic thinking are habits of thought shaped by culture. This study is the first
attempt to investigate how different cognition processes influence the interpretation of culturerelated attributes associated with products. First, this study concludes that cultural capital and
language are antecedents of involvement in a cross-cultural context. However, for holistic
thinkers, cultural capital associated with products means the necessity to change their behavior
so that the self will not become irrelevant to the cultural context. Both cultural capital and
languages are media for the holistic thinkers to immerse in the culture. On the other hand, for
analytic thinkers, the cultural capital associated with products offers them an opportunity to
experience the culture although they do not perceive the need to change their behavior. The
analytic thinkers sample culture through consumption. And, for them, language is a means to
learn more about the culture. Second, the difference in cognition processes can inform the scale
development methodology in a cross-cultural research. This study suggests using exploratory

factor analysis in cross-cultural research. In this study, holistic vs. analytic thinking is reflected
in the exploratory factor dimensions and contents. Using a standardized fixed-dimension factor
analysis will otherwise fail to capture the difference in the habits of thought.
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