UNIT 16

THE EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION

OUTLINE

1.

INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2.

A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION.

2.1. Changes from Old English to Middle English.
2.1.1. The phonological change: from a synthetic to an analytic system.
2.1.2. The morphological change: genitive case formation.
2.1.3. The syntactic change: the function of genitive case.
2.2. Changes from Middle English to Modern English.

3.

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION.

3.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notion of possession.
3.2. On defining possession: what and how.
3.3. Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes.

4.

THE EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION.

4.1. Morphology and possession.
4.1.1. Nouns.
4.1.2. Verbs.
4.1.3. Adjectives.
4.1.4. Pronouns.
4.1.5. Prepositions.
4.2. Phonology and possession.
4.3. Syntax and possession.
4.3.1. Main syntactic structures.
4.3.1.1. Saxon genitive structure.
4.3.1.2. Of-phrase structure.
4.3.2. Other syntactic structures.
4.3.2.1. The genitive with ellipsis.
4.3.2.2. The double genitive.
4.3.2.3. The group genitive.
4.3.2.4. Idiomatic expressions.
4.4. Semantics and possession.
4.4.1. Possessive genitive.
4.4.2. Appositive genitive.
4.4.3. Subjective genitive.
4.4.4. Objective genitive.
4.4.5. Descriptive genitive.
4.4.6. Partitive genitive.
4.4.7. Genitive of measure.

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4.4.8.

Genitive of origin.

5.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

6.

CONCLUSION.

7.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
Unit 16 is primarily aimed to examine in English the different ways of expressing possession,
namely achieved by means of nouns, and also by verbs, adjectives, pronouns, prepositions and other
types of clause structures. In doing so, the study will be divided into six main chapters.
Thus, Chapter 2 provides a historical account of the expression of possession from its very origins
up to the present situation in order to ease the subsequent analysis of it. So, the expression of
possession is addressed from two main periods in ancient times: first, the period from Old English
(OE) to Middle English (ME) and, second, the period from Middle English to Modern English
(ModE).
Within the first period, (1) from OE to ME, we shall approach those changes which, as a chain
reaction, shaped the expression of ownership into what we know today. These changes were due,
first, to phonological reasons which emerged from the change from a synthetic to an analytic
system; second, to morphological changes which gave way to the genitive case formation; and
finally, to syntactic changes where the function of genitive case was established. Within the second
period, (2) from ME to ModE, we shall approach the changes which finally shaped the notion of
possession into what we know it today, with little difference in shape.
Chapter 3 then provides a theoretical framework for the notion of possession, first, by examining
the linguistic levels involved; second, by introducing the notion of possession in terms of how it is
achieved and what it is; and finally, by presenting the grammatical categories involved in it. Once
this key terminology is defined in syntactic terms, the reader is prepared for the descriptive account
on the expression of possession in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 4 presents and defines the notion of possession with respect to four relevant fields:
morphology, phonology, syntax and semantics in order to get further details about it. Thus, in the
first place, we examine morphology and possession by reviewing the formation of nouns, verbs,
adjectives, pronouns and prepositions involved and, secondly, from the phonological field, we
examine the phonological features of these grammatical categories when pronounced.
Third, the expression of possession is analysed according to syntactic terms, and thus divided into
two types of structures: first, the two main syntactic structures (the saxon genitive and the of-phrase
structure) and second, other syntactic structures among which we may mention, first, the genitive
with ellipsis; second, the double genitive; third, the group genitive; and fourth, specific idiomatic
expressions. And finally, the notion of possession is classified in semantic terms by means of which
we distinguish eight main types of genitive structures: thus, possessive, appositive, subjective,
objective, descriptive, partitive, genitive of measure and, finally, genitive of origin.

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Once the notion of possession is established within the historical and linguistic framework, Chapter
5, then, provides an educational framework for the expression of possession within our current
school curriculum, followed by Chapter 6 which shall draw a conclusive summary of all the points
involved in this study. Finally, in Chapter 7 , bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

In order to offer an insightful analysis and survey on the expression of possession in English, we
shall deal with the most relevant works in the field, both old and current, and in particular,
influential books which have assisted for years students of English as a foreign language in their
study of this issue. For instance, a historical introduction is mainly given by Baugh, A. & Cable, A
History of the English Language (1993) and Conde Silvestre & Hernndez Campoy, An
Introduction to the History of the English Language II: Middle and Modern English (1998).
Furthermore, a theoretical framework for the expression of possession is namely drawn from the
field of sentence analysis, that is, from the work of Flor Aarts and Jan Aarts (University of
Nijmegen, Holland) in English Syntactic Structures (1988), whose material has been tested in the
classroom and developed over a number of years; also, another essential work is that of Rodney
Huddleston, English Grammar, An Outline (1988).
Other classic references which offer an account of the most important and central grammatical
constructions and categories in English regarding the expression of possession, are Quirk &
Greenbaum, A University Grammar of English (1973); Snchez Benedito, Gramtica Inglesa
(19759; Thomson & Martinet, A Practical English Grammar (1986); and Greenbaum & Quirk, A
Students Grammar of the English Language (1990).
More current approaches to notional grammar are David Bolton and Noel Goodey, Grammar
Practice in Context (1997); John Eastwood, Oxford Practice in Grammar (1999); Sidney
Greenbaum, The Oxford Reference Grammar (2000); Gerald Nelson, English: An Essential
Grammar (2001); Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Languag e (2002); and. Angela Downing and Philip Locke, A University Course in English
Grammar (2002).

2.

A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION.

In this section, we shall provide a historical account of the expression of possession in order to fully
understand the current expression of possession in Modern English (ModE). In doing so, we shall
divide our historical account into two parts: first, we shall trace back to the historical period from
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Old English (OE) to Middle English (ME) where relevant changes in morphology and syntax took
place; and second, the period from ME to Modern English (ModE) where those changes in ME
morphology and syntax made the expression of possession change and develop towards the
paradigm we know today: the paradigm of the genitive case and the of-phrase, together with other
structures.

2.1. Changes from Old English to Middle English.

Therefore, in order to historically review the expression of possession, we shall offer first a brief
account of those changes from Old English to Middle English which took place as a chain reaction:
first, (1) phonological changes which favoured the development from a synthetic system into an
analytic one; second, (2) general changes in ME morphology which affected case formation; and
third, (3) general changes in ME syntax which affected the function of cases, and especially, the
genitive case.

2.1.1.

The phonological change: from a synthetic to an analytic system.

First of all, several phonological changes gave way to the transformation of an originally synthetic
system (inflectional endings) into an analytic one (word order to indicate case). In other words, the
levelling of all OE unstressed vowels to schwa during the period from OE to ME and their eventual
loss led to a systematic reduction of OE noun declensions.
The effect of the phonological erasing of unstressed vowels in final syllables meant that the
language could not simply rely on case endings (synthetic means) in order to mark the function of
words in the sentence but needed to take account of analytic means, like the use of prepositions and
a relatively fixed word order. It is worth noting that, in general, the OE synthetic genitive coexists
in ME with the analytic of-phrase.

2.1.2.

The morphological change: genitive case formation.

Therefore, the effect of the phonological erasing of unstressed vowels in final syllables was the
basic reason for the new pattern of genitive case formation, which in ME was mainly realized by
noun morphology. Consequently, once grammatical gender was broken down, there was no longer a
necessity to keep so many noun patterns and the most dominant noun declensions, that is, those of
the formerly OE masculine/neuter a stem declension.
Generally, the new endings marking the case and number in ME nouns were analogically levelled to
common endings. For instance, -es for all cases in the plural: nominative, accusative, genitive and
dative (i.e. from OE domas (nom), domas (acc), doma (gen) domun (dat) to ME doomes in all
cases); and in singular es (for the genitive) and e or no ending for the rest of cases (i.e. from OE
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dom (nom), dom (acc), domes (gen), dome (dat) to ME doom (nom), doom (acc), doomes (gen),
domme (dat)).
Thus, for those marking genitive, ME nouns reduced the original OE endings e, -an, -a in singular
and a, -an, -ena in plural, to schwa and then to a complete loss. Instead, the prominent
masculine/neuter ending es was analogically extended to the singular genitive case, and also to the
plural genitive case, possibly due to its coincidence with the nominative, accusative and dative
plural regular ending es (from OE as). For instance, OE domes (singular) and doma (plural) to
ME doomes (singular and plural), meaning of the house(s).
However, we find some exceptions to this general rule. Thus, in singular, rests of early OE
declensions may be traced back in the existence of current feminine s less genitive (i.e. Lady day).
Another exception to the regular ending es is the lack of genitive ending with proper names (i.e.
Bush army ), nouns of family relationship (i.e. my brother wife) or when the following word starts
with a sibilant consonant (i.e Charles book).
Regarding plural nouns, despite the fact that the ending es already appears in Northern dialects in
the late twelfth century, in the south, another genitive case ending (OE an, ME en) resisted until
the fourteenth century (i.e. Englene lande=the land of the Angles).

2.1.3.

The syntactic change: the function of genitive case.

Yet, the decay of inflectional endings also had an influence on syntax. So long as OE inflections
served to indicate the cases of nouns, these were quite often accompanied by prepositions so as to
express function with greater clarity. In fact, word order was comparatively unimportant in OE, but
when ME nominative and accusative cases turned out to be identical in form, a fixed word order
was necessary to make clear the relevant distinction of cases at the sentence level.
This new syntactic pattern led to a general paradigm in singular and plural nouns and to the
reorganization of the whole OE system on the basis of noun morphology. Thus, regarding singular
nouns, in nominative cases the OE endings e (i.e. sunne=sun) and u (i.e. lufu=love) disappeared,
except for a few cases which kept the spelling e (i.e. ME love ) as well as accusative and dative
cases (OE a, -e, -an) which were also lost in ME. Therefore, the functions previously associated to
these cases are then expressed either by fixed word order or by means of prepositions, use which
became even more marked in the modern English period (Brook, 1958).

2.2. Changes from Middle English to Modern English.

Moreover, we shall review the changes which took place from Middle English to Modern English
so as to understand the current expression of possession in English. Notice that the changes in this
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period are the result of those changes mentioned above, such as the erasing of unstressed vowels in
final syllables and consequently, the new shape of noun morphology. These changes did not appear
all of a sudden and developed into the patterns we know today, that is, in syntactic terms, the
genitive case in its different ways of expression.
Following Baugh & Cable (1993), this period witnessed particular developments regarding the
genitive case, such as the his-genitive. In fact, in ME the es of the genitive, being unaccented, was
frequently written and pronounced is, -ys, which became often identical to the pronoun his when
unstressed. Therefore, since there was no difference in pronunciation between the forms stonis
and stone is (his), as early as the thirteenth century the ending started to be written separately as
though the possessive case were a contraction of a noun and the pronoun his.
However, although this notion was long prevalent in the eighteenth century, people were still
troubled by the illogical consequences of this usage (i.e. my sister her watch) when referring to the
contraction of his in expressions with feminine nouns (i.e. a womans beauty, a virgins delicacy).
Yet, it was a fact that the true source was the Old English genitive, but the error was detected to be
the use of the apostrophe (s), which we still retain as a graphic convenience to mark the possessive.

3.

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION.

Before describing in detail the different ways of expressing possession in English, it is relevant to
establish first a theoretical framework for this notion, since it must be described in grammatical
terms. In fact, this introductory chapter aims at answering questions such as, first, where this notion
is to be found within the linguistic level; second, what it describes and how and, third, which
grammar categories are involved in its description at a functional level.

3.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notion of possession.

In order to offer a linguistic description of the notion of possession, we must confine it to particular
levels of analysis so as to focus our attention on this particular aspect of language. Yet, although
there is no consensus of opin ion on the number of levels to be distinguished, the usual description
of a language comprises four major components: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out
of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic
(Huddleston, 1988).
First, the phonology describes the sound level, that is, how to pronounce the genitive case in
particular instances (i.e. Charless car). Secondly, since the two most basic units of grammar are
the word and the sentence, the component of grammar involves the morphological level (i.e.
genitive case and of-phrase formation) and the syntactic level (i.e. word order in the sentence).
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Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, lists vocabulary items which belong to different grammatical
categories but have in common the expression of possession.
Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is
semantics, or the semantic level, to which all four of the major components are related. We must not
forget that a linguistic description which ignores meaning is obviously incomplete, and in
particular, when dealing with the notion of expression, since it shall indicate us whether we are
referring to people (by means of saxon genitive) or things (by means of of-phrases).
Therefore, we must point out that each of the linguistic levels discussed above has a corresponding
component when analysing the notion under study. Thus, phonology deals with pronunciation of the
genitive case when using s (i.e. Williams, Jacks); morphology deals with the genitive case
formation (i.e. the addition of s); and syntax deals with which combinations of words constitute
grammatical strings and which do not (i.e. NOT: the Bettys car BUT Bettys car).
On the other hand, lexis deals with the expression of possession regarding the choice between
different types of grammatical categories (i.e. verbs: I possess this house; possessive pronouns:
this house is mine; possessive adjectives: this is my house, etc ), and other means such as other
specific realizations of these notions (i.e. a friend of my fathers) or idiomatic expressions (i.e. a ten
minutes walk, at a stones throw, for heavens sake); and finally, semantics deals with meaning
where syntactic and morphological levels do not tell the difference (i.e. genitive case so as to refer
to people (Janes brother, Janes car) vs. of -phrase structure so as to refer to inanimate things (the
roof of the house, the Houses of Parliament)).

2.2. On defining possession: what and how.

On defining the term possession we must link this notion (what it is) to the grammar categories
which express it (how it is showed). Actually, in English the term possession is intended to answer
to such questions as Whose is this?, What do you possess? and What are your personal
possessions? so as to indicate ownership or something possessed, as the things someone or
something possesses, that is, possessions, property, state (such as land, buildings, a business),
personal effects or belongings (movable possessions: a video game, a mobile phone), family
relationships (my mothers cousin ) and abstract relationships (Jims patience is amazing).
Actually, the idea of possession is defined as the fact and action of having or possessing
something, which may be either physical, referring to people (a brother, two sisters), animals (a
dog, five horses) and things (money, a nice house); or abstract (greed, soul). This idea of possession
is world widespread since all languages express it though in different ways, for instance, using ofphrase structures and adding the genitive case ending s in English and the use of preposition de
in Spanish.

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Moreover, the notion of possession is, psychologically speaking, one of the most primitive instincts
of human beings and, therefore, historically present in many events, as for instance, the biblical case
of Salomon, the third Hebrew king (970-931 BC) when deciding, on two mothers who claimed for
the same baby as their son, who the baby belonged to; the longing for possessing new territories in
America by Cristobal Columbus in 1492; or more recently, the buying of our personal belongings
nowadays.
Regarding how possession is expressed in English, it is mainly drawn by two devices: the saxon
genitive and the of-phrase structure (to be developed in detail in subsequent chapters) which work
at the level of the grammatical category of nouns since the notion of possession namely implies the
mention of people, things and animals. Moreover, there are other lexically specific grammatical
categories involved, such as possessive pronouns, possessive adjectives, verbs and prepositions as
well as other specific idiomatic expressions and phrase structures in order to convey the meaning of
ownership.

2.3. Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes.

So far, in order to confine the notion of possession to particular grammatical categories, we must
review first the difference between open and closed classes since possession cues involve both. Yet,
grammar categories in English can be divided into two major sets called open and closed classes.
The open classes are verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and are said to be unrestricted since they
allow the addition of new members to their membership, whereas the closed classes are the rest:
prepositions, conjunctions, articles (definite and indefinite ), numerals, pronouns, quantifiers and
interjections, which belong to a restricted class since they do not allow the creation of new
members.
Then, as we can see, when taking possessive relations to phrase and sentence level, we are dealing
with both classes. Thus open word classes, such as nouns since we are mainly dealing with common
nouns referring to things or animals (as possessed things), and also with proper nouns: Mikes
house, Mikes brother (as possessors); verbs since they refer to the fact of possession; and
adjectives, since they refer to possessive relations at the phrase level (i.e. my timetable).
Moreover, it is very often possible to repla ce open classes by an equivalent expression of closed
classes, as for instance, possessive pronouns and prepositions. For instance, regarding prepositions,
we may refer to the preposition of which expresses possession in of-phrases as well as to the rest
of prepositions which take part in idiomatic expressions (i.e. for Gods sake, in two years time).
Finally, it is worth noting that apart from grammatical categories, we may find other specific clause
structures, such as expressions used in poetry (i.e. For goodness sake) and idiomatic expressions
which may indicate time reference (i.e. yesterdays meeting, a weeks holiday) or everyday
expressions (i.e. For heavens sake).

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4.

THE EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION.

Once we have established a theoretical framework for the notion of possession within a linguistic,
notional and lexical level, the expression of ownership comes into force in this section as a
descriptive approach to the notion of possession regarding morphological, phonological, syntactic
and, mainly, semantic fields.
In the following sections, then, we shall examine the main issues that will provide the base for the
whole unit. Thus, (1) possession in terms of morphology, which shall review the genitive case
formation regarding different grammatic al categories; (2) possession in terms of phonology, which
shall examine pronunciation of possessive cases; (3) possession in terms of syntax, which shall
place the genitive case formation at sentence level, focusing on the two main genitive structures:
saxon genitive and of-phrase structure; and finally (4) possession in terms of semantics, which shall
clarify different types of possessive relationships.

4.1. Morphology and possession.

As stated before, possession is expressed by both open or closed classes, thus by means of nouns
(common and proper), verbs, adjectives, pronouns, prepositions and also by means of specific
clause structures and idiomatic expressions. Hence, in this section we shall briefly establish a link
between the morphology of these grammatical categories and the expression of possession so as to
provide a more relevant framework for our study.

4.1.1. Nouns.
In this section we shall examine first, how to express possession by means of nouns and, second, the
form of the possessive inflection in the genitive form when dealing with nouns. Yet, we must bear
in mind that the plural formation rules have a close relationship with the structure of the saxon
genitive since an s must be added to the end of the noun.
First of all, nouns can make a direct reference to possession when they are semantically explicit
forms, for instance, owner, master, keeper, slave, ruler, property, belongings, etc which convey
the meaning of ownership to some extent. Moreover, we can add the well-known nouns , all over
mentioned in this study, such as possessor, possessed, possession.
Secondly, when dealing with the formation of the possessive case, we must distinguish two cases:
first, (1) when we find only one possessor or second, (2) when we find several possessors.
(1) First, when we are dealing with only one possessor, the structure is as follows: possessor + s
+ the person or thing possessed (i.e. Marys sister). Note that when the possessive case is used, the
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article before the person or thing possessed disappears (i.e. the daughter of the President=the
Presidents daughter; the poetry of Lord Byron=Lord Byrons poetry). Moreover, there are some
general considerations to follow when we add the possessive s (Thomson & Martinet, 1986). For
instance:
(a) the s is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s (i.e. a mans job, mens
work; a girls voice, womens clothes).
(b) However, we just use a simple apostrophe () with plural nouns, usually common ones,
already ending in s (i.e. the eagles nest, the students exam) as well as with classical
names (i.e. Hercules labours, Sophocles plays) However, sometimes, following Snchez
Benedito (1975), other names ending in s can take s or the apostrophe alone (i.e.
Charless shirt or Charles shirt; Yeatss poems or Yeats poems).
(2) Second, when dealing with several possessors or compounds, the structure is as follows:
possessors (the plural form ending must be s) + the apostrophe + the person or thing possessed
(i.e. My sisters house; my friends party). However, if the noun is an irregular plural, not ending in
s, we apply the structure for only one possessor (i.e. the childrens toys; the sheeps dog ).
Moreover, there are some general considerations to follow:
(a) when names consist of several words, only the last word takes the s (i.e. my mother-inlaws will; the Prince of Waless helicopter).
(b) Similarly, when more than two possessors are joined by the conjunction and, only the last
word takes the possessive s (i.e. Peter and Susannes house). If not, compare: Peter and
Susannes house (the house belong to both of them) vs. Peters and Susannes house (each
one has a house).
(c) Finally, note that the possessive s can also be used after initials (i.e. the PMs secretary;
the VIPs escort).

4.1.2. Verbs.
Verbs can also indicate possession in a more direct way since they do not need any other
grammatical category to express ownership, especially in imperative forms (i.e. Hold it!). Within
this grammatical category we can distinguish, first, between those verbs which are strictly
possessive, semantically speaking, among which we may differenciate between transitive and
intransitive verbs; and second, those verbs which are not strictly possessive but their meaning
relates somehow to the notion of possession.
First, among those verbs whose meaning is strictly possessive we find: have or have got, own,
possess, keep, obtain and belong (to). For instance, I have a new mobile phone, Shes got many
friends, He owns an incredible castle on the mountain, They possess enterprises all over the
world, Could you keep my personal staff for some days?, He obtained the money he claimed

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for, This watch belongs to Cristine. Note that all of them are transitive verbs (i.e. have (got), own,
possess, keep, obtain) except for belong to.
Second, among those verbs whose meaning is not strictly possessive but conveys the meaning of
possession somehow, we shall mention: hold, grip, seize, monopolize, boast, enjoy, and
so on. For instance, Mark Starvik holds several diamond companies in Switzerland, The
frightened child gripped his mothers hand, The government seized Bobs goods for payment of
debt, Arabia monopolizes petrol companies around the world, He boa sts that he is the best
tennis player in the town, My father-in-law enjoys a good income (He has a benefit).

4.1.3. Adjectives.
The notion of possession is also expressed by means of adjectives. This open- class grammatical
category functions within the framework of noun-phrases, but we must distinguish between two
types of adjectives in terms of their grammatical function. For instance, first, adjectives which
qualify nouns, which is not our present concern; and second, adjectives which function as
determiners of nouns, and on which we shall focus in this section.
Possessive adjectives are to be found within a further distinction of adjectives as determiners, since
they are divided into: possessive, demonstrative, numerals, interrogative and indefinite adjectives.
As a general rule, possessive adjectives are: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their, and they agree
with the possessor but not with the person or thing possessed (i.e. her mother=Anas mother but
NOT Tims mother).
Hence, we find in English three forms for the third person singular: his (masculine reference), her
(feminine reference) and its (animal or thing reference) whereas the rest of possessive adjectives are
invariable for masculine/feminine or singular/plural (i.e. our house=Anas house, Charles house,
Mary and Marks house). Note that the form your is used both for the second person singular and
the second person plural.
The use of possessive adjectives in English differ to the use of possessive adjectives in Spanish in
that, first, they are invariable for singular and plural whereas in Spanish they are not (i.e. My
house(s) vs. mi casa, mis casas); second, in English they distinguish three different forms for the
third person singular, thus masculine, feminine and things/animals whereas in Spanish we do not
have that distinction (i.e. Her/his/its birthday vs. su cumpleaos); third, at the usage level, in
English possessive adjectives are used where Spanish use the article the (i.e. She washed her
hands vs. Ella se lav las manos).

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4.1.4. Pronouns.
Pronouns are to be found, as opposed to the above grammatical categories, under the classification
of closed-class grammatical category together with prepositions (next section). However, possessive
pronouns share many similarities and some differences with possessive adjectives, so this is the
reason why their description will be quite similar.
First of all, the main difference between both categories is to be found in the grammatical function
they perform at the sentence level. Thus, whereas possessive adjectives function as determiners of
nouns, possessive pronouns function as substitutes of nouns, that is, they substitute a whole nounphrase and keeps the same meaning with similar form (i.e. This is my book vs. This book is mine).
Possessive pronouns, as such, are to be found in the general classification of pronouns: possessive,
demonstrative, personal, reflexive, interrogative and relative pronouns. As a general rule, possessive
pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs and we can observe the outstanding
similarity with possessive adjectives, since some of them add a final s to the base form. As for
possessive adjectives, they agree with the possessor but not with the person or thing possessed,
that is, they agree in number and person with the possessor but not with the thing possessed (i.e.
This is Janes hat=This hat is hers).
Hence, we find in English three forms for the third person singular: his (masculine reference), hers
(feminine reference) and its (animal or thing reference) whereas the rest of possessive pronouns are
invariable for masculine/feminine or singular/plural (i.e. our house=ours). Note that the form
yours is also used both for the second person singular and the second person plural.
Similarly to possessive adjectives, the use of possessive pronouns in English differ to the use of
possessive pronouns in Spanish in that, first, some of them are invariable for singular and plural,
masculine or feminine whereas in Spanish they are not (i.e. It is mine=es mo/ma; This house is
yours=esta casa es tuya o vuestra); second, in English they distinguish three different forms for the
third person singular, thus masculine, feminine and things/animals whereas in Spanish we do not
have that distinction (i.e. This is hers/his/its vs. Esto es de ella/l/ello ).
Finally, it is relevant to mention some specific cases which are worth remembering. For instance,
(1) possessive pronouns do not admit the definite article the as in Spanish (i.e. el mo=mine); (2)
there are some special structures, such as the sequence of + possessive pronoun (i.e. This is a good
friend of mine) vs. the sequence of + possessive adjective + noun (i.e. This is one of my friends);
(3) note that the form ones is the possessive adjective of the pronoun one (i.e. Its disappointing
to have ones word doubted=One may be disappointed when someone doubts about you); (4)
sometimes we use own with the possessive adjective, and not with the pronoun, to emphasize a
fact (i.e. Have you a car of your own?). However, (5) when the emphatic very own follows a
possessive, there is no difference between the adjective and the pronoun (i.e. That is my very own
car vs. That car is my very own).
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4.1.5. Prepositions.
Again, prepositions are to be found under the classification of closed-class grammatical category
together with possessive pronous. Prepositions may express possession by direct means, such as
the preposition of or when related to other grammatical categories which express ownership,
such as verbs (i.e. belong to). Moreover, idiomatic expressions and specific structures also need of
prepositions to indicate possession (i.e. on my own; a friend of mine).
Actually, in subsequent sections, we shall examine ni depth the role of the preposition of within
the of-phrase structure, as opposed to the genitive case (or saxon genitive), where the choice of
paraphrasing the expression of possession or not with the preposition of denotes the semantic
reference to people (saxon genitive) or things/animals (of-phrase structure).

4.2. Phonology and possession.

As stated before, the notion of possession is namely conveyed in English by means of nouns (both
common and proper names) and therefore, subjected to spelling rules similar to those of plural
formation since English nouns have only two cases, the unmarked common case (Jane/boy) with
singular and plural forms, and the marked genitive (Janes/boys). This genitive form is called the
possessive by reason of one of the main functions of the case indicating belonging to.
The s genitive of regular nouns is realized in speech only in the singular since it takes one of the
following forms: /iz/, /z/, /s/ according to the rules for plural formation in nouns. However, in
writing, the inflection of regular nouns is realized in the singular by s and in the plural by putting
an apostrophe after the plural s-. As a result, the spoken form spy /spai/ may be pronounced in
different ways: The spies /spaiz/ were arrested (plural) vs. The spys /spaiz/ companion was
arrested (genitive) vs. The spies /spaiz or spaiziz/ companion were arrested (plural; genitive).
Actually, this genitive inflection is phonologically identical with the regular plural inflection with a
consequent neutralization of the case distinction in the plural. In being phonologically identical with
the plural, the regular genitive plural is sometimes called the zero genitive. Such a zero genitive is
common with:
(a) names that end in /z/, especially if they are foreign names: Moses /-ziz/ laws, Cervantes
works, and especially Greek names of more than one syllable: Socrates /-ti:z/ doctrines,
Euripides /-diz/ plays.
(b) older English names:, Guy Fawkes Day.
(c) with fixed expressions on the form for ... sake as in for goodness sake /s/, for conscience
sake /s/.

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(d) with many other names ending in /z/ where, in speech, zero is a variant of the regular /iz/
genitive. There is a vacillation both in the pronunciation and spelling of these names, but
most commonly the pronunciation is the /iz/ form and the spelling an apostrophe only. Note
the double pronunciation in: Dickens novels which may be pronounced /dikinz/ or
/dikinziz/ and in Mr Burns /z/ or Mr Burnss /ziz/.
To sum up, as well as with pronunciation rules for plural formation in nouns, the pronunciation of
the possessive s depends on the sound which precedes it. For instance:
(1) if the genitive s is preceded by voiceless sounds as in pops, Pats, Quirks, wifes,
mouths, it is pronounced /s/;
(2) if the genitive s is preceded by voiced sounds as in Bobs, dads, baths, bags
loves, mobiles, Pams, pins strings, roars, it is pronounced /z/.
(3) Finally, if the genitive s is preceded by sibilant sounds as in chess, horses,
Georges, smash, stretchs, televisions, it is pronounced /iz/.

4.3. Syntax and possession.

In English, the expression of possession is mainly drawn by two syntactic devices: first, by means
of the genitive case and second, by means of the of-phrase structure. In this section, we shall review
these two devices as well as other syntactic structures which would include specific clause
structures and idiomatic expressions. We must remember at this point that all these particular
structures will broadly review the different grammatical status of the genitive (both s genitive and
of-phrase) at a sentence level.
Thus, they shall mainly function as (a) determiners within noun phrases (i.e. my friends new
computer) or when the genitive itself is a phrase noun incorporating its own determiner ((i.e. my
good-looking friends new computer); (b) modifiers, where they have a classifying role (i.e. an olds
shepherds hut); (c) independent constructions, such as omission of s genitive (i.e. His car is like
his fathers) or the of-construction (i.e. The flats of New York are more difficult to buy than those of
Spain ); and finally, postposition genitives with a partitive role (i.e. One of Peters houses will be
sold this week).

4.3.1.

Main syntactic structures.

So, regarding the main syntactic structures, we shall state that, first, generally, genitives function
exactly like central definite determiners within noun phrases (compare: a new car, the new car, this
new car, Mikes new car) whereas of-phrases function as postmodifiers. However, in many
instances there is such an overlap between function and semantic identity, that is, between a noun in
the genitive case and the same noun as head of a prepositional phrase with of, that we make use of
prepositional phrases.

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We refer to the s genitive for the inflection and to the of-genitive for the prepositional form
(compare: What is the ships name? vs. What is the name of the ship?). Secondly, another factor
which may influence on their optional use is the information focus, where the s enables us to give
end-focus to one noun and the of-genitive to another. Compare: the girls success vs. the success
of the girls.
4.3.1.1. The s genitive.
The s genitive is not used with all nouns equally but tends to be namely associated with those of
animate gender, especially with those having personal and nonpersonal reference and, to a lesser
degree, with inanimate nouns, such as things, geographical names and temporal nouns. But before
examining each type, let us remember the complex pattern of gender classes, with sometimes some
overlapping, within the category of animate and inanimate nouns.
(1) Animate nouns include both personal and nonpersonal nouns. (a) First, nouns with
personal reference are commonly in male (i.e. boy) or female (i.e. girl) pairs, but
many personal nouns can be regarded as having dual gender, since they can be male
or female in reference as required (i.e. friend, guest, parent, lover, person ). Note
that most of these are nouns of agency (i.e. doctor, teacher, singer, student, writer),
and that countries and ships, although inanimate, are often treated as female:
Italy is decreasing her exports, The Tytanic sank when she struck an iceberg.
Other types deal with nouns where the sex of the people concerned is irrelevant, for
instance, first, common gender which applies to neuter nouns such as baby, infant,
child, adult, which though referring to male and female gender are addressed to
using the neuter pronoun it (i.e. The child lost its toys); and second, collective
nouns where, like the common gender nouns, the sex of the people is expressed by
the use of it and which (i.e. family, army, party, company, firm, police,
government, crew, team, jury, committee, etc).
Moreover, we may use it with the indefinite pronouns which represent people (i.e.
someone, somebody, nobody, anybody, etc ) and even with names of institutions,
countries, states, cities or activities related to people, as in Japans economic
boom, the countrys population, Californias immigrants, the citys museums,
and so on.
(b) Second, nouns with nonpersonal reference mainly include animals and, to a
lesser degree, things (since these are classified as inanimate). Among animals, there
is a further classification: familiar and less familiar animals. The former type
include those animals in which human society takes a special interest, and which
significantly has to do with familiar experience (farming, domestic pets). For
instance, birds, dogs, cats, bulls, cows, etc.

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As for nouns with personal reference, many of the nonpersonal nouns are
commonly in male (i.e. bull, horse) or female (i.e. cow, mare ) pairs. However,
many these nonpersonal nouns can be also regarded as having dual gender although
they have already their counterpart (i.e. dog vs. bitch, ram vs. ewe, etc). They can be
male or female in reference as required (i.e. horse, dog, cat, sheep, bird ), using he
or she to denote gender (i.e. This dog is two years old, isnt she beautiful?).
On the other hand, less familiar animals include most of creatures in the animate
world, and which do not take part in familiar experience as farming or pets. For
instance, squirrels, bears, starlings, snakes, spiders and moths may be also referred
to as neuter nouns, where the sex of the animal is irrelevant and, therefore, be
addressed to as he or she (i.e. Have you seen any spider in this room?- Yes, its
hanging from the lamp ). Note that they are often treated as inanimate nouns.
(2) Inanimate nouns, then, are those which do not refer to people or animals, that is,
things and objects (i.e. window, door, car, spoon, candle, etc). It is worth noting
however, that sometimes inanimate objects such as ships or boats are treated with
personal reference when dealing with human experiences or habits (i.e. the ships
bell, the yachts mast) as well as with countries (i.e. Greece is a beutiful place to
visit. Her tourism rate is increasing).
Therefore, we shall use the possessive genitive case to refer to the following eight cases. First, we
use the genitive case in any of the following four animate noun classes:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

personal names (i.e. Salamancas pupils, Beethovens house);

personal nouns (i.e. the boys new computer, my little sisters doll);
collective nouns (i.e. the polices meeting, the nations social security);
and higher animals when not specifying gender (i.e. the horses tail, the lions prey).

Moreover, the inflected genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns, such as
(5) geographical and institutional names (i.e. Asias future, Spains democratic party, the
museums workers, Londons monuments);
(6) temporal nouns (i.e. a moments thought, the circus seasons first big event, a weeks
holidays, todays lunch);
(7) measurement expressions of time (i.e. in two years time, ten minutes break, two hours
dela y) and distance (i.e. at a stones throw, at arms length );
(8) and nouns of special interest to human activity (i.e. the brains total weight, the minds
linguistic development, the films story, sciences influence).

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4.3.1.2. The of- genitive.

The of- genitive is namely used with nouns of inanimate gender, especially with those having object
reference (i.e. the last page of the book, the interior of the building) and, to a lesser degree, with
animate nouns, especially those with nonpersonal reference when emphasis is required, since they
often overlap (i.e. the tail of the dog). Note that sometimes, an s genitive would be also acceptable,
but in many instances this is not so, as in the hub of the wheel or the window of the houses.
However, the corresponding personal pronouns would normally have the inflected genitive: its
hub, their windows.
Therefore, we shall use the of-phrase construction in the following five cases:
(1) with inanimate possessors. However, since it oftens overlap with the s genitive, it is
possible to replace the sequence noun + of + noun (i.e. the walls of the room, the roof of the
shop, they keys of the car) by the sequence noun + noun (i.e. the room walls, the shop roof,
the car keys). It is worth noting that in this combination, the first noun becomes a sort of
adjective and is not made plural (i.e. the roofs of the shops = the shop roofs). Unfortunately,
according to Thomson & Martinet (1986), the sequence noun + of + noun combinations
cannot always be replaced in this way and the student is advised to use of when in doubt.
(2) when the possessor noun is followed by a phrase or clause (i.e. The children ran away,
obeying the directions of a man with a whistle; I took the advice of a couple I met in the
street);
(3) in certain expressions, such as those of measure, partition and apposition. First, (a)
regarding measure expressions, the of-genitive is the usual device (i.e. the height of the
tower, the length of the road, three kilos of tomatoes, five yards of cloth ) except for the
measure of time (i.e. two days journey) and distance (i.e. at arms length).
Measure expressions are directly related to (b) partitive expressions, since both count and
noncount nouns can enter constructions denoting part of a whole. Such partitive
constructions may relate to both (i) quantity and (ii) quality, and in either case the partition
may be singular (i.e. a piece of) or plural (i.e. two pieces of) followed by an of-phrase (i.e.
two pieces of cake). Note that partition may be expressed by treating the noun itself as
though it expressed a quantity or quality (i.e. two coffees=two cups of coffee).
Regarding (i) quantity, partition is expressed by, first, general noncount means (i.e. an item
of clothing, a bit of ), where some partitives occur with specific nouns (i.e. a blade of grass,
some specks of dust, two loaves of bread, five slices of cake); second, by plural count nouns
where partitives relate to specific sets of nouns (i.e. a series of meetings, a flock of sheep, a
bunch of rose s); and finally, by sin gular count nouns (i.e. a page of a book, two acts of a

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play, a piece of clothing). It is worth noting that quantity partitives may also express precise
measure by means of fractional partition (i.e. He drank a quarter/half of beer).
Regarding (ii) quality, partition is namely expressed with the items kind and sort and
even with type, variety and, especially with such materials as coffee, drinks and tobacco,
blend. For instance, with count nouns in singular (i.e. a new kind/type/sort of computer)
and plural (i.e. some kinds/types/sorts of computer(s)), and also with noncount nouns, in
singular (i.e. a delicious kind of meat, a fashionable sort of stamp) and in plural (i.e. some
delicious kinds of meat, several fashionable sorts of stamps).
Moreover, according to Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), since there is no necessary connection
between countability and referential meaning, many English nouns can simulate the plural
only by partitive constructions where their translation equivalents in some other languages
are count nouns with singular and plural forms. For instance, the English words news and
information (i.e. some information, some news) which indicate plural by the expression
pieces of (i.e. some pieces of information/news)
Finally, regarding (c) apposition expressions, they are intended to express a definite
genitive with a determiner role in the sentence by means of a partitive of-construction. For
instance, compare the sentences York is a city vs. the city of York, Annes sister is
coming tonight vs. One of Annes sisters is coming tonight vs. A sister of Annes is
coming tonight. It is worth noting that the latter example is called the post-genitive (or
double-genitive).
(4) Moreover, it is usual to find the of-construction in newspaper headlines, but often, perhaps
for reasons of space economy, it is substituted by the inflected form of s genitive. For
instance, the headline Camila Parker: Prince Charles new love might begin like:
Camila Parker: the new love of Prince Charles.
(5) Finally, we find a special of-construction use when the noun following the genitive is
ellipted if the reference is contextually clear, and is substituted by the demonstrative
adjectives that or those. For instance, The lifestyle of Switzerla nd is more fashionable
than that of Spain.

4.3.2.

Other syntactic structures.

Having examined the two main syntactic structures to express possession in English, we must
examine as well other syntactic structures which, although not so outstanding like the preceding
ones, are equally relevant when expressing ownership because of their own particular way of
construction. For instance, the ellipsis of the genitive case, which is commonly known as the
independent genitive; the double genitive construction, also called post-genitive; the group genitive;

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and finally, everyday idiomatic expressions, among which we highlight expressions related to
money and measurements.

4.3.2.1. The genitive with ellipsis.

First, the genitive with ellipsis, called later on the independent genitive by Greenbaum & Quirk
(1990) deals with cases in which the noun that is modified by the s genitive, may be omitted if the
context makes its identity clear. We may distinguish two cases: first, the ellipsis of the noun when
its reference is contextually clear and, second, when the unexpressed item refers to homes or
businesses, usually known as local genitive.
First of all, regarding those cases in which it is common to ellipt the noun following the genitive,
we find examples with the possessive genitive, for instance, He has a car like Johns (than Johns
car) or Cristines is the only face I know here (Cristines face); and also, by contrast, with the ofconstruction in similar contexts, where a pronoun is normally necessary. For instance, the pronouns
that or those usually replace the corresponding items in the following examples: The population
of New York is greater than that of Chicago and The cars of Italy are more expensive than those
of Greece.
Secondly, ellipsis is especially noteworthy in the local genitive, that is, expressions relating to
homes, businesses and establishments. For instance, You can find me at Toms tonight (where
Tom lives); When we arrived at Spikes, a new jazz group was playing (a well-known pub); Anne
went to the dentists this afternoon (the dentists professional establishment). Note that when
referring to local genitives, one could not specify uniquely the unexpressed item because it would
sound artificial in a fuller phrase (i.e. My bakers shop stays open late on Mondays).
Moreover, the same applies to proper names where these refer to commercial firms. This usage is
normal in relation to small one-man businesses (i.e. I buy fresh fruit at Smiths everyday).
However, when we deal with the names of major firms, what begins as a local genitive develops
into a plural, often so spelled and observing plural concord (i.e. Harrods is a famous department
store=Harrods is having a lot of sales). Furthermore, conflict between plurality and the idea of a
business as a collective unity results in variation in concord (i.e. Harrods is/are quite good on
sales).

4.3.2.2. The double genitive.

The double genitive, also known as the post-genitive (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990), refers to an ofphrase which can be combined with an s genitive construction (i.e. One of my best friends sisters).
Since the s genitive has a determiner role, this must be definite and personal (i.e. An opera of
Verdis BUT NOT: an opera of a violinists).

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It is worth mentioning that there are two main conditions which also affect the noun preceding the
of-phrase. Thus, first, it cannot be a proper noun (i.e. NOT: Mrs Whites Mary or Mary of Mrs
Browns); and second, this noun must have indefinite reference, that is, it must be seen as one of an
unspecified number of items attributed to the postmodifier (i.e. A friend of the doctors has arrived
BUT NOT: the daughter of the doctors has arrived).
The double genitive thus involves a partitive as one of its main components, as in one of the
doctors friends), which implies that he has more than one. Yet we are able, in apparent defiance of
this statement, to use demonstratives as follows (i.e. that friend of mine; this song of U2 ).

4.3.2.3. The group genitive.

According to Quirk & Greenbaum (1973), the group genitive refers to those cases in which, in some
postmodified noun phrases it is possible to use an s genitive by affixing the inflection to the final
part of the postmodification rather than to the head of the noun itself. Thus, the teachers book vs.
the teacher of Historys book. Hence, the noun phrase is constituted by premodifier (the teacher of
History) + s + the head (book).
This group genitive is regularly used with such postmodifications as in someone elses car, the
lawyer apparents life as well as prepositional phrases (i.e. after a two days journey). Other
examples involve coordinations, as in an hour and a halfs discussion, a week or sos sunshine.
Note that the group genitive is not normally acceptable following a clause due to syntactic reasons,
though in colloquial use one sometimes hears examples like A man I knows son has just won the
lotto, that old man what-do-you-call-hims house has been sold. Finally, remember that in normal
use, and writing in particular, -s genitives are replaced by of-genitives (i.e. The son of a man I know
has just won the lotto).

4.3.2.4. Idiomatic expressions.

Finally, idiomatic expressions mainly involve those referring to money, time and measurements.
Thus, we find expressions of money + worth (i.e. three pounds worth of ice-cream, five euros
worth of stamps); time (i.e. a weeks holiday, in two years time, todays paper, ten minutes break,
tomorrows weather, two hours delay); and specific expressions of measurement, such spatial
reference, distance, weight, etc. For instance, a months rest, ten minutes walk, two days journey,
at a stones throw, the journeys end, the waters edge, and so on.
Moreover, we also find some expressions related to everyday life and poetry by means of nouns,
verbs and specific constructions, as we mentioned at the beginning of the study. For instance, I
know the owner of this old house, the children have made the house of their own today, She has
nothing she can call her own, This room is for my brothers own use, they numbered a collection

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of diamonds among his possessions, for heavens sake and for goodness sake; and possessive
of-phrase constructions, such as a friend of mine.

4.4. Semantics and possession.

Actually, there are usually strong arguments for preferring one or other construction in a given case
(noun phrase with s genitive vs. prepositional phrase with of-phrase), and numerous environments
in which only one construction is grammatically appropiate. In fact, a relevant fac tor influencing the
choice of genitive emerges from the syntactic field with the information focus, where the s
genitive enables us to give end-focus to one noun and the of-genitive to another.
Thus, compare the following The explosion damaged the cars door vs. Having looked at the car,
he considered the most damaged part was the door of the car. This principle is congruent again
with the preference for the of-genitive with partitives and appositives where an s genitive would
result in undesirable or absurd final prominence: the problems part.
However, the degree of similarity and overlap has led grammarians to regard the two constructions
in semantic terms as variant forms of the genitive expressing different nuances. Actually, in many
instances there is such an overlap between syntactic function and semantic identity, that is, between
a noun in the genitive case and the same noun as head of a prepositional phrase with of, that we
need of semantic devices to make the appropriate choice.
The distinction between them will depend much on gender and on contextual viewpoint, far from
being syntactically explained. In general, the choice can be more securely related to the gender
classes represented by the noun which is to be genitive, thus the s genitive is favoured by the
expression of literal possession within the classes that are highest on the gender scale: animate
nouns, in particular people and animals with personal gender characteristics (i.e. Peters age, My
grandfathers cottage, but NOT the hat of John). However, the partitive genitive with of is
more suitable when attribution and partition are regarded.
Note that the relevance of gender is shown also in the fact that the indefinite pronouns with personal
reference (i.e. someones problem, everybodys enemy, etc) admit the s genitive while those with
non-personal reference do not (i.e. somethings problem, everythings enemy). The semantic
classification is part arbitrary. For instance, we could claim that cows milk is not a genitive of
origin but a descriptive genitive (the kind of milk obtained from a cow) or even a subjective genitive
(the cow provided the milk ). For this reason, meanings and sentential analogues can provide only
inconclusive help in choosing between s and of-genitive use.
All in all, we shall offer a semantic classification of genitive meanings following similar criteria
from Quirk & Greenbaum (1973), Snchez Benedito (1975) and Greenbaum & Quirk (1990),
which, in most cases, can be paraphrased (where possible) and are classified as follows: possessive
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genitive, subjective genitive, objective genitive, genitive of origin, descriptive genitive, genitive of
measure and partitive genitive, and finally, appositive genitive.

4.4.1.

Possessive genitive.

The possessive genitive expresses the genitive meaning in itself and, therefore, it is named as such.
One of its main features is that it is normally placed in often paraphrased with the verbs have,
own, and so on. For instance, Janes summer house (Jane owns a summer house), my sisters
mobile (my sister has a mobile); also, we find of-phrase structures, as in the chimney of my house
(my house has a chimney).

4.4.2.

Appositive genitive.

The appositive genitive (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973) which was later on called genitive of
attribution (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990) is to be enclosed within the syntactic definition of
apposition structures, in other words, postmodification involving explanatory paraphrase by means
of prepositional phrases, primary verbs (be, have, do), that-clauses and nonfinite clauses (-ing and
infinitive clauses).
Since this type of genitive deals with the prepositional use, we shall deal with certain constructions
such as of-phrases (the outstanding courage of the fireman) which would involve the notions of
characterized and characterization, that is, the noun fireman would be the characterized item
with personal reference, and the outstanding courage, the characterization with nonpersonal
reference regarding in the paraphrased sentence the fireman was very courageous.
The appositive genitive namely finds its expression through the of-genitive, which in fact resembles
a sentence with primary verbs (be, have). It is worth remembering that it is with have sentences
that we find the most relevant resemblance of the commonest prepositional postmodification with
of-phrases (i.e. a woman of courage=the woman has courage). For instance, observe the
paraphrasing in the courage of the fireman: the fireman is corageous, the fireman has courage.
Moreover, we may find nonappositive or appositive prepositional phrases which, in turn, may thus
be restrictive and nonrestrictive. So, we may find ambiguous phrases like the issue of student
grants, which is appositive and restrictive (with no commas); and also the issue, of student
grants,... which is appositive and nonrestrictive (with commas). However, the structure the
issue(,) of student grants(,) presents a nonappositive meaning in nonrestrictive function which is
similar to the objective of, meaning someone issued student grants. Yet, this function would be
rare and unnatural.

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4.4.3.

Subjective genitive.

The subjective genitive has a specific syntactic structure, where the noun of the genitive is actually
the subject and is often paraphrased in predicative position with intransitive verbs. For instance, the
boys application form (the boy applied), the economys unexpected increase (the economy
increased unexpectedly), the leaves fall (the leaves fell down), the girls screams (the girl
screamed); and also, note the use in of-phrase constructions, as in the rise of the sun (the sun rose).

4.4.4.

Objective genitive.

The objective genitive also has a particular syntactic structure, where the noun of the genitive is
actually the object of the sentence and, unlike the subjective genitive, is often paraphrased in
predicative position with transitive verbs. For instance, the friendss support (someone supports the
friends), the criminals release from prison (someone released the criminal from prison); and also,
note the use in of-phrases, as in a report of the news (someone reported the news).

4.4.5.

Descriptive genitive.

The descriptive genitive involves, as its name indicates, a description of the noun following the
genitive, and therefore, it is often paraphrased with modifiers, that is, appositive clauses or
prepositions. For instance, attributive clauses are used on paraphrasing in a lawyers job (the job is
as a lawyer), a doctors degree (the degree is a doctorate), childrens sport clothes (sport clothes are
especially designed for children), and also, prepositions are used in a womens college (a college for
women) and a winters day (a day in winter).

4.4.6.

Partitive genitive.

The partitive genitive is usually expressed by the of-construction since it is far from denoting literal
possession (expressed by the possessive genitive) and can be also paraphrased by transitive verbs.
As its name indicates, this type of genitive denotes partition as parts of a whole, where the noun
preceding the genitive indicates the whole part and the noun after it indicates the specific part of the
division (i.e. the brains two hemispheres).
In those cases where both genitive and of-phrases are grammatically possible, the choice often turns
on the syntactic field addressing the principle of end-focus or end-weight. Thus, observe the
following examples, an absence of three years/a three years absence (the absence lasted three
years), part of the inheritance (the inheritance is divisible into parts).

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4.4.7.

Genitive of measure.

The genitive of measure usually overlaps with the partitive genitive since they share similar
characteristics. Thus, also expressed by the of-construction, the genitive of measure can be also
paraphrased by transitive verbs. As its name indicates, this type of genitive indicates measure
regarding time, height, weight, distance, value, etc, as in the height of the tower (the tower is of a
certain height), the length of the river (the river is of a certain length). Note that it also denotes
partition as parts of a whole on specifying part of a division, as in a fraction of a second (a second
is divided into parts), the parts of a day (a day is divided into parts), and so on.
Again, in those cases where both genitive and of-phrases are grammatically possible, the choice
often turns on the syntactic field addressing the principle of end-focus or end-weight. Thus, observe
the following examples, a delay of five hours vs. a five hours delay (the delay lasted five hours).

4.4.8.

Genitive of origin.

The genitive of origin , as its names indicates, addresses directly to the origin or source of the noun
preceding the genitive, as in your grandmothers letter, Italys pizza,, Englands cheeses, the boys
story, and so on. As we can observe, the description of the noun preceding the genitive (your
grandmothers letter/Italys pizza/etc) is often paraphrased with modifiers, in predicative clauses
(the letter has been sent by your grandmother/the pizza has its origins in Italy/etc) or with
prepositions (the letter from your grandmother/the pizza from Italy /etc). Note that the same is
applied to the of-constructions (i.e. the wines of France=France produced the wines).

5.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

The main issue of this study, how to express possession in English, proves relevant to the learning
of a foreign language since differences between the vocabulary of the learner's native language (L1)
and that of the foreign language (L2) may lead to several problems, such as the incorrect use of
possession expressions, especially because of the syntactic, morphological, phonological and
semantic processes implied in these categories.
This study has looked at the expression of possession within lexical semantics, morphology,
phonology and syntax in order to establish a relative similarity between the two languages that
Spanish-speaking students would find it useful for learning English if these connections were
brought to their attention, especially when different structures may overlap, for instance, of-phrase
constructions and possessiv e genitive (i.e. the name of the dog/the dogs name).

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According to Thomson & Martinet (1986), a European student (for our purposes a Spanish student)
may find especially troublesome the use of these two structures, and in particular that of the saxon
genitive structure since, when communicating in English, first, he has to know in which
construction the saxon genitive is required or not and, second, which construction to use when a
certain possessive relationship is presented (i.e. people, things, places, etc).
This choice becomes problematic for our Spanish students when they try to find in his own
language a certain construction similar to the English one with the saxon genitive structure. For
instance, the most common mistake for Spanish students, both at ESO and Bachillerato level, with a
sentence like La casa de Sarah, is to express possession as in Spanish, by means of the preposition
of = de (i.e. NOT: The Sarahs house/The house of Sarah) and, often, it does not correspond
literally to the translation the students make. However, since there is certain similarity with ofphrases, students find it easier with this type of construction.
In the Spanish curriculum (B.O.E. 2002), the expression of possession is envisaged from earlier
stages of ESO in terms of grammar (possessive adjectives and pronouns, interrogative pronouns
related to possession: whose), phonology (pronunciation of saxon genitive s), morphology (when
adding apostrophe and s), simple descriptions of possession relationships, written or oral, related
to family (i.e. my mothers sister is my aunt), personal items (i.e. This is Antonios mobile/This is
Antonios) and everyday events (i.e. It is Charless birthday). At the higher stages of Bachillerato,
we move towards more complex descriptions of possession and a more accurate use of it,
addressing not only to the two main structures (possessive genitive and of-phrase ) but also to other
syntactic structures such as the group genitive (i.e. This is one of Martins sisters), ellipsis of
genitive marker (i.e. Your skirt is like Marias), and idiomatic expressions (i.e. two hours delay, in
ten days time).
The expression of possession has been considered a relevant element of any language teaching
curriculum because of its high-frequency in speech. We must not forget that the expression of
possession, drawn by a wide range of grammatical categories (nouns, adjectives, verbs,
prepositions, etc) is constantly present in our everyday lives and, therefore, in our students as well.
For instance, note its presence in clothes trade marks (i.e. Levis, Burberrys, Pepes), shops (i.e.
Toysrus, Harrods), fast food restaurants (i.e. McDonalds, Pacos pizza, etc ), and so on.
Hence, the importance of how to handle these expressions cannot be understated since students
must distinguish what type of relationship is to be established in order to use the appropriate
structure or grammar category. For instance, if we are dealing with people, the saxon genitive
proves relevant (i.e. Markus car) and when using possessive adjectives or pronouns, they must take
into account the differences in gender in the third person singular (masculine, feminine, neuter) as
in This is Markus car. Its his car. His car is his. However, learners cannot do it all on their own.
Language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, do not automatically recognize differences
which seem obvious to teachers, and need to have these associations brought to their attention.

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So far, in this discussion we have attempted to provide a broad account of the expression of
possession within the educational field in order to set it up within the linguistic theory, going from
the localization of different types of possession structures and the correct choice of them to a broad
presentation of the main grammatical categories involved in it. We hope students are able to
understand the relevance of handling correctly the expression of possession in everyday life
communication.

6.

CONCLUSION

Although the questions Whose is this? or What do you possess? may appear simple and
straightforward, they imply a broad description of the expression of possession from different
fields. The appropriate answer suitable for students and teachers, may be so simple if we are dealing
with ESO students, using simple grammatical structures or so complex if we are dealing with
Bachillerato students, who must be able to describe things addressing to a higher degree of
correction and appropriateness.
So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of the expression of possession
from its very beginnings up to present days, since we assume that there is an intrinsic connexion
between its sources and the current learning and everyday communication. Yet, we have provided a
descriptive account of Unit 16 dealing with The expression of possession, whose main aim was to
introduce the student to the different ways of expressing possession relationships in English.
In doing so, this study has attempted to provide a broad account of the expression of possession,
starting by a historical setting, which helped us enclose the notion of possession within time, theory
and development up to present days; second, a more current theoretical framework establishes this
notion within a grammar linguistic theory, where the notion is presented and defined. Then, a
proper descriptive chapter describes it in detail in terms of morphology, phonology, syntax and
semantics. Once presented, we go on a further educational discussion which encloses the notion of
expression in a classroom setting and school curriculum treatment.
In fact, the expression of possession through a variety of means, is currently considered to be a
central element in communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second language since
students must be able to use different ways of expressing possession relationships in their everyday
life and in many different situations. In fact, our students must have a good knowledge of the four
levels analysed above. First, on phonology, to pronounce correctly; secondly, since the two most
basic units of grammar are the word and the sentence, they must have good grammatical
knowledge, which involves the morphological level (i.e. how to add the s) and the syntactic level
(i.e. how to construct the specific structures).
Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, from which our students shall make the right choice when
deciding on how to express possession, that is, by means of nouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions,
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or other syntactic structures like possessive genitive or of-phrases. Finally, another dimension
between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, in
which students must be able to distinguish the overlapping of semantic fields within the same
notion (i.e. the name of the ship/the ships name), and so on.
To sum up, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative
competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real life
situations when expressing possession relationships. The expression of possession proves highly
frequent in our everyday speech, and consequently, we must encourage our students to have a good
managing of it.

7.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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