ITT575 - Chapter 5

ITT575 - Wireless and Mobile
Computing
Chapter 5
Cellular Networks
Mohd Faisal Ibrahim

Faculty of Computer and Mathematical
Sciences, UiTM, Shah Alam
Contents
1
Cellular Concept
1G 4G Networks
Global System for Mobile Communications
24
5
Future
Works
GPRS
& UMTS
Propagation Effects and Handoff
Specific Instructional Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the student will be
able to:
Understand the key concept of cellular networks such as
cellular concept, frequency reuse, cluster formation,
propagation, handoff, and directional antenna
Describe the basic GSM, GPRS, EDGE, CDMA and WCDMA/UMTS architecture
Distinguish between first, second, third and fourth-generation
cellular networks
What is a Cellular Network?

Cellular networks are radio networks
consisting of several transmitter.
Each transmitter or base station
covers a certain area which is called
a cell.
Each cell can varies from tens of
meters to several kilometers.
The shape of a cell is influenced by the
environment (buildings, etc) and usually neither
hexagonal nor a perfect circle, even though this is
the usual way of drawing them. [Schiller2003]
What is a Cell?
Cell is a
geographical
area covered by
an antenna in
the center.
BTS
BSC XCDR
BTS
BSC
BTS
MS + SIM
The Core Idea: Cellular Concept

The core idea that led to todays system was the
cellular concept.
The cellular concept: multiple lower-power base
stations that service mobile users within their
coverage area and handoff users to neighboring
base stations as users move. Together base
stations tessellate the system coverage area.
Cellular Concept
Thus, instead of one base station covering an
entire city, the city was broken up into cells,
or smaller coverage areas.
Each of these smaller coverage areas had its
own lower-power base station.
User phones in one cell communicate with the
base station in that cell.
Cellular Network
g
Covered area are tesselated

in cells
g
g
One antenna per cell

Cells are controlled by Mobile
Switching Centers
A mobile communicates with

one (or sometimes two)
antennas
Cells are modeled as
hexagons
Cells interfere with each other
To increase the capacity of
the network, increase the
number of cells
3 Core Principles
Small cells tessellate overall coverage
area.
Users handoff as they move from one cell
to another.
Frequency reuse.
Tessellation
Some group of small regions tessellate a large
region if they cover the large region without any
gaps or overlaps.
There are only three regular polygons that tessellate
any given region.
Three regular polygons that always tessellate:
Equilateral triangle
Square
Regular Hexagon
Triangles
Squares
Hexagons
Definition: A tessellation is created when a shape is repeated over and over again covering a plane without any gaps or overlaps.
Shape of Cells
Square
Width d cell has four neighbours at distance D and four at
distance 2D
Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon
Provides equidistant antennas
Radius defined as radius of circum-circle
Distance from centre to vertex equals length of side
Distance between centres of cells radius R is 3 R

Not always precise hexagons
Topographical limitations
Local signal propagation conditions
Location of antennas
Cellular Geometries
Square pattern
Hexagonal pattern
Circular Coverage Areas

Original cellular system was developed assuming
base station antennas are omnidirectional, i.e., they
transmit in all directions equally.
Users located outside
some distance to the
base station receive
weak signals.
Result: base station has
circular coverage
area.
Circles Dont Tessellate

Thus, ideally base stations have identical,
circular coverage areas.
Problem: Circles do not tessellate.
Circle Don't
Tessellate
The most circular of the regular polygons that

tessellate is the hexagon.
Thus, early researchers started using
hexagons to represent the coverage area of a
base station, i.e., a cell.
Thus the Name Cellular

With hexagonal coverage area, a cellular network is
drawn as:
Base
Station
Since the network resembles cells from a

honeycomb, the name cellular was used to describe
the resulting mobile telephone network.
Frequency Reuse Factor

No. of subscribers who can use the same set of
frequencies (channels) in non-adjacent cells at the
same time in a small area (city) is dependent on the
total number of cells in the area.
Number of simultaneous users is called the
frequency reuse factor (FRF).
FRF =
N
C
where: FRF = frequency reuse factor (unit less)

N = total number of full-duplex channels in an area
C = total number of full-duplex channels in a cell
Frequency Reuse
Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies
to avoid interference or crosstalk
Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
Transmission power controlled to limit power at that
frequency escaping to adjacent cells
The issue is to determine how many cells must intervene
between two cells using the same frequency
Channel (frequency) assignment strategies

Fixed: each cell is allocated a predetermined set of
channels
Dynamic: each time a call request is made, the serving
base station requests a channel from the MSC
Note: * 50 frequency (channels) per cell if cluster size is 7, so this means approximately 350 channels per provider
Frequency Reuse
In characterizing frequency reuse, the
following parameters are commonly used:
D = minimum distance between centers of cells that use
the same band of frequencies (called co-channels)
R = radius of a cell
d = distance between centers of adjacent cells (d = 3R)
N = number of cells in repetitious pattern (reuse factor),
each cell in pattern uses a unique band of frequencies.
Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse Patterns

Frequency Reuse
Pattern for N=4
Frequency Reuse
Pattern for N=7
Circle with
radius D
Black cell indicates a

frequency reuse for N=19
10
Reuse Distance
Clustering of Areas
Cell radius will differ in size depending on expected
density of users
Real coverage of a cell
is often different from
idealized mode
Ideal coverage
pattern would
generate no holes
and no cell
superposition
11
Cluster Formation
Geometry of a hexagon is such that the number of cells per
cluster can only have values that satisfy the equation
where N = number of cells per cluster

i and j = nonnegative integer values
N = i + i*j+ j
Process of finding tier with nearest co-channel cells (1st-tier)

is:
1. Move i cells through the center of successive cells.
2. Turn 60o in a counterclockwise direction.
3. Move j cells forward through the center of successive cells.
Cluster Formation (Continued)

Cells are organized into clusters. eg. cluster size N = 7
Thus cluster sizes of 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, ... are
possible
With decreasing of cluster size the capacity of the network increases

But the interference will increase (tradeoff)
7
3
3
2
1
f2
2
1
2
f3
f1
f6
K=3
7
6
f5
2
1
5
f7
f1
f4
3
4
f2
f3
K=7
12
Cluster size of 7
Assume a cluster size of 7. This means that
the total 395 voice channels are divided into
groups of seven.
Thus, each cell has about 56 voice channels.
This is the most number of users that can be
supported in a cell, i.e., roughly 10 square
miles in normal environments.
This may/may not be sufficient based on the
distribution of users.
Cluster size of 7 (Continued)

To see what a system with clustersize of 7
looks like, color a cell with color 1.
This cell (if drawn as a hexagon) has 6
neighbors. Color each of the seven neighbors
using a different color (also different from
each other).
Now repeat this rule to get the overall reuse
pattern.
13
Cluster size of 7, Reuse Pattern
What if we had a smaller cluster?

Now consider a system with a cluster of 4.
Then the number of voice channels per
cell is 395/4, which is roughly 98.
Thus, in theory, we can hold more users
per cell if this were true.
But there is a problem with a clustersize.
14
Problem with Smaller Cluster size
Interfering cells are closer by when clustersize is smaller.
Problem with Smaller Cluster size

If interfering cells are closer, then the total
interference power will be larger.
With higher interference power, the quality of the
speech signal will deteriorate.
To reduce the interference power, we can make the
cells larger.
With larger cell, the number of users covered per
unit area reduces. So, the gain (total number of
users supported) of a smaller cluster size is not as
high as we think.
15
Directional Antenna
One way to get more capacity (number of
users) while maintaining cell size is to use
directional antenna.
Assume antenna which radiates not in
alldirections (360 degrees) but rather in
120 degrees only.
Directional Antenna at Base Station

With 120 degree antenna, we draw the cells as:
16
Directional Antenna (Continued)

Because these directional antenna only
receive signals in particular direction, the
amount of interference power they receive
assuming a cluster size of 7 is reduced by
1/3.
With less interference power, the speech
quality is much better than it needs to be.
So we can reduce the cluster size (increase
interference power) and still have good
speech quality.
Directional Antenna (Continued)

Trials show that in systems with 120 degree
antenna, the clustersize can be as small as 3.
This allows more users to be supported, while
keeping cell size fixed.
Because of the benefits offered by 120
degree antenna, these are most readily used
by base station towers.
17
3 Sector (120o) Antenna Towers
Why so many Antennas?
18
Antennas for Mobile Base Stations
Cell Towers
Occasionally local zoning laws prevent
towers from being put up, so they have to
be camouflaged
19
Frequency Reuse Example

Assume a system of 32 cells with a cell radius
of 1.6 km, a total frequency bandwidth that
supports 336 traffic channels, and a reuse
factor of N = 7.
Height = 5 x 3 x 1.6 = 13.9 km
If there are 32 total cells, determine the

following:
1. What geographic area is covered?
2. How many channels are there per cell?
3. What is the total number of concurrent
calls that can be handled?
Width = 11 x 1.6 = 17.6 km

Cell radius = 1.6 km
Solution:
1. Cell area = 1.5(1.6)23 = 6.651km2
Covered area: 32*6.651=212.834km2
2. Channels/cell = 336/7=48
3. Total channel capacity: 32*48=1536 channels
D = reuse distance
R = cell radius
q = D/R = frequency reuse factor
Area of the hexagon =
Distance between adjacent cells =
1.5R 2 3
d = 3R
Frequency Reuse Example

Assume a system of 64 cells with a cell radius
of 0.8 km, a total frequency bandwidth that
supports 336 traffic channels, and a reuse
factor of N = 7.
Height = 10 x 3 x 0.8 = 13.9 km
If there are 64 total cells, determine the

following:
1. What geographic area is covered?
2. How many channels are there per cell?
3. What is the total number of concurrent
calls that can be handled?
Width = 21 x 0.8 = 16.8 km

Cell radius = 0.8 km
Solution:
1. Cell area = 1.5(0.8)23 = 1.663km2
Covered area: 64*1.663=106.24km2
2. Channels/cell = 336/7=48
3. Total channel capacity: 64*48=3072 channels
20
Principles of Cellular Networks - Overview

Figure shows a high level view of a cellular communication network.
The cellular network is comprised of many cells that typically cover 2 to 20 miles in
area.
The users communicate within a cell through wireless communications.
A Base Transceiver Station (BTS), is accessed by the mobile units in each cell by
using wireless communications.
One BTS is assigned to each cell. Regular cable communication channels can be
used to connect the BTSs to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)/
Base Station (BS)
Accessed by the mobile units in each

cell by using wireless communications.
One BTS is assigned to each cell.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC)/

Mobile Telecommunications
Service Center (MTSC )
Heart of cellular networks.

Determines the destination of the call
received from a BTS and routes it to a
proper site, either by sending it to
another BTS or to a regular telephone
Network.
Home Location Register (HLR)

Visitor location Register (VLR)
Used by MTSC to locate the mobile users.
How Cellular Phones Work A Quick Look

Each cell in a cellular network is assigned a band of
frequencies.
In general, 10 to 50 frequencies are assigned per cell.
The allocated frequencies are divided into two types
of channels:
Control Channels - used to set up and maintain calls.
Traffic Channels - used to carry voice and data traffic.
Types of
Channels
For the sake of simplicity, let us assume that each

channel is assigned a unique frequency and that one
user can only use one channel.
For example, if the frequency band of a cell is
subdivided into 30 traffic channels, then only 30 users
can talk simultaneously. User 31 is blocked and gets
a busy signal.
21
How Cellular Phones Work User Initiation

The user turns on the phone and scans for the
strongest control signals from the various
BTSs.
It detects and selects the BTS with the
strongest control signal as its home cell.
In most cases, a user is assigned to the
closest BTS.
The selected BTS informs the MSC about
location of the user.
The MSC then registers the user in a
directory to indicate its location
How Cellular Phones Work Cellular to Cellular Call

The cellular user places a call; the BTS finds a free traffic
channel and then routes the call to the MSC for call-setup.
The MSC finds and pages the called user by using the
location services.
The called users BTS receives the page and uses its
setup control channel to be scanned by the mobile units.
The called mobile unit detects its number when it scans
the setup channel and responds to its BTS to accept the
call.
The BTS now informs the MSC of the call acceptance.
The MSC determines that a free traffic channel is available
on both sides and enables the call.
If free traffic channels are not available, the user gets a
busy signal.
22

f1
Occupied
f2
Occupied
.
.
.
.
.
The cellular user places a call.
f30
The BTS finds a free traffic channel.
The BTS routes the call to the MSC for call-setup.
23

Home
Location
Register
(HLR)
The MSC finds and pages the called

user by using the location services.
The cellular systems use Cell ID to keep track of the

cellular user by coordinating the home location register
(HLR) and visiting location register (VLR) databases.

BTS in
Shah Alam
The called users BTS receives

the page and uses its setup
control channel to be scanned
by the mobile units.
The called mobile unit detects its number when

it scans the setup channel and responds to its
BTS to accept the call.
24
The BTS now informs the

MSC of the call
acceptance.
BTS in Shah Alam
The MSC determines that a free traffic channel is

available on both sides and enables the call. If free traffic
channels are not available, the user gets a busy signal.
How Cellular Phones Work Cellular to PSTN Call
The cellular user places a call; the BTS finds a

free traffic channel and then routes the call to
the MTSO for call-setup.
The MTSO finds that the called user is not part
of the cellular network (by looking into its
directories HLR and VLR).
The MTSO directs the call to the PSTN, used
for regular telephone calls.
The called phone responds to the telephone
switch to accept the call.
25
1, 2: connection request
3, 4: security check
5-8: check resources (free circuit)
9-10: set up call

f1
Occupied
f2
Occupied
.
.
.
.
.
The cellular user places a call.
f30
The BTS finds a free traffic channel.
26
The BTS routes the call to the MSC for call-setup.

Home
Location
Register
(HLR)
The MTSO finds that the called user is not part of

the cellular network (by looking into its directories
HLR and VLR).
Visiting
Location
Register
(VLR)
27
The MSC Gateway directs the

call to the PSTN, used for regular
telephone calls.
Point of
Damarcation
Local
Loop
How Cellular Phones Work PSTN to Cellular Call

The PSTN user places a call; the PSTN determines that
the called number is not part of the PSTN and routes the
call to an appropriate MSC for call-setup. This implies that
PSTN and cellular network operators have to know about
each other and route calls between them.
The MSC finds and pages the called user by using the
location services.
The called users BTS receives the page and uses its
setup control channel to be scanned by the mobile units.
The called mobile unit detects its number when it scans
the setup channel and responds to its BTS to accept the
call.
The BTS now informs the MSC of the call acceptance. The
MSC determines that a free traffic channel is available on
both sides and enables the call. If free traffic channels are
not available, the user gets a busy signal.
28

1: calling a GSM subscriber
2: forwarding call to GMSC
3: signal call setup to HLR
4, 5: request (Mobile Station
Roaming) Number MSRN from
VLR
6: forward responsible MSC to GMSC

7: forward call to current MSC
8, 9: get current status of MS
10, 11: paging of MS
12, 13: MS answers
14, 15: security checks
16, 17: set up connection
Point of
Damarcation
The PSTN user

places a call
Local
Loop
Bugatti Veyron
The PSTN determines that the

called number is not part of the
PSTN and routes the call to an
appropriate MSC for call-setup.
29

Home
Location
Register
(HLR)
The MSC finds and pages the called

user by using the location services.
The cellular systems use Cell ID to keep track of the

cellular user by coordinating the home location register
(HLR) and visiting location register (VLR) databases.
But now lets say the person
is in Barcelona, Spain.

Home
Location
Register
(HLR)
The HLR and VLR will be updated by the MSC to

indicate that the person you try to contact is in
Barcelona so that the incoming calls can be routed
to him.
Visiting
Location
Register (HLR)
30

BTS in
Barcelona
The called mobile unit
detects its number when it
scans the setup channel
and responds to its BTS to
accept the call.
The called users BTS
receives the page and
uses its setup control
channel to be scanned
by the mobile units.
BTS in
Valencia
BTS in
Madrid
The BTS now informs the

MSC of the call
acceptance.
The MSC determines that a free traffic channel is

available on both sides and enables the call. If free traffic
channels are not available, the user gets a busy signal.
BTS in Madrid
31
How Cell-based Location Services Work

The cellular systems use Cell ID to keep track of the cellular
user by coordinating the home location register (HLR) and
visiting location register (HLR) databases.
Suppose you live in Princeton, New Jersey; your HLR will
indicate that Princeton is your home town and the Princeton
VLR will have an entry for you because you make most of your
calls, one assumes, from Princeton.
Every time you turn on your cellular phone in Princeton, the
BTS communicates with the MTSC to verify that you are still in
Princeton, so no location updates take place.
Let us assume that you travel from Princeton to Philadelphia.
Upon arrival in Philadelphia, you turn on your cellular phone.
The cell phone will now communicate with a BTS in
Philadelphia that will inform the MTSC about your new location.
Basically, now the HLR and VLR will be updated by the MTSC
to indicate that you are in Philadelphia so that the incoming
calls can be routed to you.
How Cell-based Location Services Work

How does it work? When a mobile unit (a
cellular phone) crosses a cell boundary, it starts
communicating with the new BTS, which
automatically sends its location update request
to the new cells MTSC.
The MTSC updates the HLR to indicate the
new VLR (i.e., now your HLR indicates that
your VLR is in Philadelphia).
In addition, the Princeton VLR is updated to
cancel your visiting status. Thus your HLR will
indicate that you are in Philadelphia now, as
indicated in your VLR.
32
Cellular Networks
Cellular telephones and residential cordless telephones
(wireless systems) were introduced in the mid-80s.
The cellular networks are evolving through several generations .
The older generations (1G and 2G) provide lower data rates,
while the new and future ones (3G and beyond) offer higher
data rates.
The Cellular Landscape
33
The Cellular Network Generations
The Cellular Network Generations (Continued)
34
1G Cellular Networks
Designed for voice communication.
One example is Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) used in
North America.
AMPS is an analog cellular phone system.
It uses 800 MHz ISM band and two separate analog channels;
forward and reverse analog channels.
The band between 824 to 849 MHz is used for reverse
communication from MS to BS.
The band between 869 to 894 MHz is used for forward
communication from BS to MS.
Each band is divided in to 832 30-KHz channels as shown in
Figure 1.
As each location area is shared by two service providers, each
provider can have 416 channels, out of which 21 are used for
control.
AMPS uses Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) to divide
each 25-MHz band into 30-KHz channels as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1: Frequency
bands used in AMPS
system
Figure 2: FDMA medium

access control technique
used in AMPS
35
2nd Generation (2G) cellular networks,
introduced in the late 1980s, are based on
digital transmission.
The primary differences between 1G and 2G
cellular networks:
Digital traffic channels 1G systems are almost purely
analog; 2G systems are digital.
Encryption all 2G systems provide encryption to prevent
eavesdropping.
Error detection and correction 2G digital traffic allows for
detection and correction, giving clear voice reception.
Channel access 2G systems allow channels to be
dynamically shared by a number of users.
GSM The Popular 2G System

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications.
Although there are many competing technologies in the 2G
cellular network landscape, GSM by far dominates the world
today, with over 200 million users in over a hundred countries.
Data rate up to 9.6 Kbps
Using 124 channels per cell

each channel can support 8 users through TDMA (maximum 992 users per cell, in practice
about 500)
Operate in the following three frequency ranges:
GSM 900 (GSM) operates in the 900 MHz frequency range and is the most common in
Europe and the world.
GSM 1900 (PCS-1900, DCS-1900) the only frequency used in North America for GSM.
Note that the term PCS is commonly used to refer to any digital cellular network operating
in the 1900 MHz frequency range, not just GSM.
GSM 1800 (PCN, DCS-1800) operates in the 1800 MHz frequency range, and is found in
a rapidly increasing number of countries including France, Germany, Switzerland, the UK,
and Russia.
Dual-band and tri-band phones are available to provide support

everywhere
36
GSM Roaming Support

Let us assume that you have a single-band GSM 1900 phone.
This phone will only work in North America.
But after landing in Europe, you can transfer your SIM (Subscriber
Identity Module) card to a phone of the correct frequency.
This is called SIM-roaming.
It means that once you arrive in Europe, you must rent a GSM phone
from a local network operator so that youll have a phone that uses
the correct frequency.
Then you simply take the SIM out of your home phone and insert it
into the rented phone (please do remember to take your SIM card
back!).
SIM-Roaming offers the advantage of letting you use your home
phone number and being billed to your home account.
Make sure that your local network operator has a roaming agreement
with the destination country.
Many North American companies have roaming agreements with
countries abroad; some do not.
GSM Network Architecture

Mobile station (MS) - represents the mobile user and communicates across the air
interface (Um) with a base station transceiver in the same cell as the MS.
The main part of MS is mobile equipment (ME) - telephone or PDA.

SIM
An ME includes a radio transceiver, a digital signal processor, and a subscriber identity
module (SIM).
SIMs are used to support roaming.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS) - consists of a base station controller (BSC) and
one or more base transceiver stations (BTS).
Each BTS defines a single cell and includes radio antenna, radio transceiver and a link to a
base station controller (BSC).
BSC reserves radio frequencies, manages handoff of mobile units from one cell to another
within BSS, and controls paging.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) - provides links between cellular networks and
public switched telecommunications networks.
MSC controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs

Authenticates users and validates accounts
Enables worldwide roaming of mobile users.
To support these features, an MSC consists of the following databases:
Home location register (HLR) database stores information about each subscriber that belongs to
it
Visitor location register (VLR) database maintains information about subscribers physically in
the region currently
Authentication center (AuC) database used for authentication activities; holds encryption keys
Equipment identity register (EIR) database keeps track of the type of equipment that exists at the
mobile station
37
GSM Network Architecture
GSM 2G Architecture
38
2G CDMA Cellular (IS-95)

Has different structures for its forward (base station to mobile station) and
backward links.
The forward link consists of up to 64 logical CDMA channels, each
occupying the same 1228 kHz bandwidth.
The forward channel supports 4 different types of channels:
Traffic channels (channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63) these 55 channels are used to carry the
user traffic (originally at 9.6 Kbps, revised at 14.4 Kbps).
Pilot (Channel 0) used for signal strength comparison, among other things, to determine
handoffs
Synchronization (Channel 32) a 1200 bps channel used to identify the cellular system
(system time, protocol revision, etc.).
Paging (channels 1 to 7) messages for mobile stations.
All these channels use the same frequency band the chipping code (a 64bit code) is used to distinguish between users.
Thus 64 users can theoretically use the same band by using different codes.
The voice and data traffic is encoded, assigned a chipping code, modulated
and sent to its destination.
The overall architecture of 2G CDMA-based systems are similar to the
TDMA-based GSM systems (see Figure 8-10). The main difference is that
the radio communication between the Base Station Subsystem and Mobile
System uses CDMA instead of TDMA.
CDMA - Advantages
Network capacity
In CDMA, the same frequency can be reused in adjacent cells because
the user signals differentiate from each other by a code.
Thus frequency reuse can be very high and many more users (up to 10
times more) can be supported as compared to TDMA.
Reliability and graceful degradation

CDMA-based networks only gradually degrade as more users access the
system.
This is in contrast to the sudden degradation of TDMA based systems.
For example, if the channel is divided between ten users, then the
eleventh user can get a busy signal in a TDMA system.
This is not the case with CDMA because there is no hard division of
channel capacity CDMA can handle users as long as it can differentiate
between them.
In case of CDMA, the noise and interference increases gradually as
more users are added because it becomes harder to differentiate
between various codes.
39
CDMA - Advantages
Privacy
Privacy is inherent in CDMA since spread spectrum modulates data to
signals randomly (you cannot understand the signal unless you know the
randomizing code).
Frequency diversity
CDMA uses spread spectrum, thus transmissions are spread over a
larger frequency bandwidth.
Consequently, frequency-dependent transmission impairments that occur
in certain frequency ranges have less effect on the signal.
Environmental
Since existing cells can be upgraded to handle more users, the need for
new cell towers decreases.
CDMA - Drawbacks
Self-jamming
CDMA works better if all mobile users are perfectly aligned
on chip (code) boundaries.
If this is not the case, then some interference can happen.
This situation is better with TDMA and FDMA because time
and frequency guard bands can be used to avoid the overlap.
Soft handoff
An advantage of CDMA is that it uses soft handoff (i.e., two
cells can own a mobile user for a while before the handoff is
complete).
However, this requires that the mobile user acquires the new
cell before it relinquishes the old a more complex process
than hard handoff used in FDMA and TDMA schemes.
40
GSM Coverage
2.5G Cellular Networks

2.5 G wireless cellular networks have been
developed as a transition path to 3G.
Example - GPRS.
These systems build packet-switching systems
on top of existing 2G systems to improve data
rates significantly.
41
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

GSM networks offer circuit-switched data services at 9.6 Kbps.
Most GSM carriers are developing a service called General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS), a 2.5G technology.
GPRS can theoretically provide IP-based packet data speeds up to a
maximum of 160 Kbps.
However, typical GPRS networks operate at lower data rates.
One proposed configuration is 80 Kbps maximum (56 Kbps typical)
for the downlink and 20 Kbps maximum (14.4 Kbps typical) for the
uplink.
GPRS supports both IP and X.25 networking.
The main component of a GPRS network is the GSN (GPRS Support
Node) that receives the packet data and transfers it to the Internet or
other GPRS networks.
To provide GPRS services on top of GSM, the network operators
need to add a few GSNs and make a software upgrade to BSCs and
few other network elements.
This quick upgrade capability has fueled the popularity of GPRS.
2.5G Architectural Detail
42
2.75G Cellular Networks

2.75G wireless cellular networks have been
developed as an enhanced data rates for GSM
and GPRS evolution.
Example - EDGE.
Builds packet-switching systems on top of
existing 2G systems to improve data rates
significantly.
Was developed so that network operators who
did not succeed in acquiring 3G licenses could
still offer high data rates to their customers.
EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution)

Can generally be considered as a 3G technology.
Introduces new methods at the physical layer, including
a new form of modulation (8 PSK) and different ways of
encoding data to protect against errors.
Maximum data rates up to 384 Kbps.
EDGE has been designed to address some of the
limitations of GPRS.
For example, GPRS impacts a networks existing cell
capacity because voice and GPRS calls both use the
same network resources.
The extent of the impact depends upon the number of
timeslots, if any, that are reserved for exclusive use of
GPRS.
There are a number of key elements in the upgrade
from GSM or GPRS to EDGE.
43
EDGE (Continued)
The GSM EDGE technology requires a number of new elements to
be added to the system:
Use of 8PSK modulation

In order to achieve the higher data rates within GSM EDGE, the modulation format
can be changed from GMSK to 8PSK.
This provides a significant advantage in being able to convey 3 bits per symbol,
thereby increasing the maximum data rate.
Base station
8PSK Modulation
Apart from the upgrade to incorporate the 8PSK modulation capability, other small
changes are required to the base station.
These are normally relatively small and can often be accomplished by software
upgrades.
Upgrade to network architecture

GSM EDGE provides the capability for IP based data transfer.
As a result, additional network elements are required such as:
Gateway GPRS Service Node (GGSN) - Connects to packet-switched networks such as the
Internet and other GPRS networks.
Serving GPRS Service Node (SGSN) - Provides the packet-switched link to mobile stations.
Mobile stations:
It is necessary to have a GSM EDGE handset that is EDGE compatible.
As it is not possible to upgrade handsets, this means that the user needs to buy a
new GSM EDGE handset.
EDGE Specification Overview
44
WHAT IS UMTS?
UMTS is Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System.
It is one of the THIRD GENERATION(3G)
mobile phone technology
It is standardized by 3GPP, and is the European
answer to the ITU IMT-2000 requirements for 3G
cellular radio systems
It is an evolution of GSM technology

UMTS, the 3G successor to GSM which utilizes
the W-CDMA air interface and GSM
infrastructures.
UMTS
The overall idea is that UMTS users will be able to use 3G
technology all over the world under different banners.
This roaming ability to use devices on different networks
will be made possible by satellite and land based
networks.
UMTS provides a consistent service environment even
when roaming via Virtual Home Environment (VHE).
A person roaming from his network to other UMTS
operators experiences a consistent set of services,
independent of the location or access mode (satellite or
terrestrial).
Designed to raise the data rate to 2 Mbps
144 Kbps when driving
384 Kbps for outside stationary use or walking speeds
2 Mbps for indoors.
45
TYPES OF UMTS SYSTEM

There are two types of UMTS systems:
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) Wideband Code
Division Multiple Access (FDD/WCDMA)
Uses two frequencies, which allows separate

transmission and reception on two different frequencies.
Time Division Duplex (TDD) Wideband Code

Division Multiple Access (TDD/WCDMA).
Allows for duplex transmission on the same frequency by

assigning different time slots in a single frame for
transmission and reception.
TECHNOLOGY
UMTS combines the W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, or
TD-SCDMA air interfaces, GSM Mobile
Application Part (MAP) core, and the GSM
family of speech codes.
In the most popular cellular mobile telephone
variant of UMTS, W-CDMA is currently used
UMTS over W-CDMA uses a pair of 5 MHz
channels. In contrast, the competing
CDMA2000 system uses one or more
arbitrary 1.25 MHz channels for each direction
of communication.
Uses spread spectrum technology. It assigns
different codes to users as in CDMA.
46
3G Architecture (UMTS)
Network Elements
msc
Mobile switching center switch

Serves ME at its current location for circuit switch service
gmsc
Gateway msc
Serves umts where it is connected to ext CS nw
mgw
Media gateway
Performs actual switching for user data
sgsn
Serving gprs support node

Serves ME for packet data
ggsn
Gateway serving gprs support node

Connects packet switch nw to internet
Node b 3g base station

Handles radio channel, multiplexing n demultilexing of
data n voice
rnc
Radio nw controller
Controls n manages multiple base stations
47
User Equipment UE
The UMTS UE is based on the same
principles as the GSM MS - the separation
between mobile equipment (ME) and the
UMTS subscriber identity module (SIM) card
(USIM).
UE consists of :
Display and User Interface
Holds the Authentication Algorithms and keys
User End Termination of the Air Interface
Application Platform
UMTS SPECTRUM
Bandwidth is 5MHZ.
Spectrum specified by WARC-92 is
1900MHZ for uplink and 2100MHZ for
downlink
Over 120 licenses have already been
awarded to operators worldwide (as of
December 2004), specifying W-CDMA radio
access technology that builds on GSM
48
Advantages Over GSM and CDMA
Speed
High Spectral Efficiency
Global Roaming
Good Network Coverage
Better Quality of Service
UMTS - Drawbacks
UMTS is criticized for its wide spectrum.
Cost of license for its spectrum is very
high
Deployment of UMTS requires up
gradation of existing GSM networks
which is very costly
UMTS network requires base station at
every 100 meters which is not possible
in urban areas
49
Migration To 3G
3GPP Standard
Long Term Evolution (LTE)
Based on OFDMA
Rates over 320 Mbps with MIMO
3GPP Standard
Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB)
Based on OFDMA
Rates over 280 Mbps with MIMO
50
Different Technology Comparisons

Technology
Start
Date
Complete
Date
1G
1970
1984
Analog voice,
TACS,
synchronous data to
AMPS,NMT
9.6 kbps
1.9 kbps
FDMA
PSTN
2G
1980
1991
CDMA,
TDMA,
GSM, PDC
Digital voice, short

messages
14.4 kbps
TDMA,
CDMA
PSTN
2.5G
1985
1999
GPRS,
EDGE,
1xRTT
Higher capability
packetized data
384 kbps
TDMA
CDMA
PSTN,
Packet
network
3G
1990
2002
2 Mbps
CDMA
Packet
Network
200 Mbps
CDMA
Internet
4G
2000
Standard
Services
Higher capability,
WCDMA,
broadband data up to
CDMA2000
2Mbps
2010-12?
only one
Standard
Higher capability,
totally IP based,
Hundreds of Mb
data for multimedia
services
Bandwidth
Access
Core
Method Network
Past Year Question

JAN 2013 (Part A)
Distinguish between 3G and 4G cellular networks
based on data rate and access technologies.
Parameters
3G
4G
Data Rate
384 kbps to 2 Mbps
Access
Technologies
WCDMA, cdma2000
20 to 100 Mbps in
mobile
mode
OFDM and
multicarrier
(MC)-CDMA
51
Past Year Question

JUL 2013 (Part A)
State 5 techniques for improving capacity in a cellular
system.
(5 Marks)
Increasing Channel Capacity
Frequency borrowing
Cell splitting: In practice
Cell sectoring
Microcells
Past Year Question

JUL 2013 (Part A)
Describe the function of a base station. You must
relate your answer with mobile users and switching
center.
(4 Marks)
The base station serves as a bridge between all mobile users in the
cell and connects the simultaneous mobile calls via telephone lines or
microwave links to the mobile switching center (MSC).
52
Past Year Question

JUL 2013 (Part A)
With the aid of a diagram explain how a cellular telephone call
is made between Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
and mobile user.(13 Marks)
Past Year Question

1:calling a GSM subscriber
2: forwarding call to GMSC
3: signal call setup to HLR
4, 5: request (Mobile Station Roaming) Number
MSRN from VLR
6: forward responsible MSC to GMSC
7: forward call to current MSC
8, 9: get current status of MS
10, 11: paging of MS
12, 13: MS answers
14, 15: security checks
16, 17: set up connection
53
Thank You!
54

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ITT575 - Wireless and Mobile

Mohd Faisal Ibrahim

Global System for Mobile Communications

Propagation Effects and Handoff

Specific Instructional Objectives

What is a Cellular Network?

The Core Idea: Cellular Concept

Covered area are tesselated

One antenna per cell

A mobile communicates with

Distance between centres of cells radius R is 3 R

Circular Coverage Areas

Circles Dont Tessellate

The most circular of the regular polygons that

Thus the Name Cellular

Since the network resembles cells from a

Frequency Reuse Factor

where: FRF = frequency reuse factor (unit less)

Channel (frequency) assignment strategies

Frequency Reuse Patterns

Black cell indicates a

where N = number of cells per cluster

Process of finding tier with nearest co-channel cells (1st-tier)

Cluster Formation (Continued)

With decreasing of cluster size the capacity of the network increases

Cluster size of 7 (Continued)

Cluster size of 7, Reuse Pattern

What if we had a smaller cluster?

Problem with Smaller Cluster size

Interfering cells are closer by when clustersize is smaller.

Problem with Smaller Cluster size

Directional Antenna at Base Station

Directional Antenna (Continued)

Directional Antenna (Continued)

3 Sector (120o) Antenna Towers

Why so many Antennas?

Antennas for Mobile Base Stations

Frequency Reuse Example

If there are 32 total cells, determine the

Width = 11 x 1.6 = 17.6 km

Area of the hexagon =

Distance between adjacent cells =

Frequency Reuse Example

If there are 64 total cells, determine the

Width = 21 x 0.8 = 16.8 km

Principles of Cellular Networks - Overview

Accessed by the mobile units in each

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)/

Heart of cellular networks.

Home Location Register (HLR)

Used by MTSC to locate the mobile users.

How Cellular Phones Work A Quick Look

For the sake of simplicity, let us assume that each

How Cellular Phones Work User Initiation

How Cellular Phones Work Cellular to Cellular Call

How Cellular Phones Work Cellular to Cellular Call

The cellular user places a call.

How Cellular Phones Work Cellular to Cellular Call

The BTS routes the call to the MSC for call-setup.

How Cellular Phones Work Cellular to Cellular Call

The MSC finds and pages the called

The cellular systems use Cell ID to keep track of the

How Cellular Phones Work Cellular to Cellular Call