The Earth's Layers Lesson #1

TheFourLayers
TheEarthiscomposedoffourdifferentlayers.Manygeologists
believethatastheEarthcooledtheheavier,densermaterialssankto
thecenterandthelightermaterialsrosetothetop.Becauseofthis,the
crustismadeofthelightestmaterials(rockbasaltsandgranites)and
thecoreconsistsofheavymetals(nickelandiron).

Thecrustisthelayerthatyouliveon,anditisthemostwidely
studiedandunderstood.Themantleismuchhotterandhastheability
toflow.TheOuterandInnerCoresarehotterstillwithpressuresso
greatthatyouwouldbesqueezedintoaballsmallerthanamarbleif
youwereabletogotothecenteroftheEarth!!!!!!

TheCrust
TheEarth'sCrustisliketheskinofanapple.Itisverythinin
comparisontotheotherthreelayers.Thecrustisonlyabout35miles
(8kilometers)thickundertheoceans(oceaniccrust)andabout25
miles(32kilometers)thickunderthecontinents(continentalcrust).
Thetemperaturesofthecrustvaryfromairtemperatureontopto
about1600degreesFahrenheit(870degreesCelcius)inthedeepest
partsofthecrust.Youcanbakealoafofbreadinyourovenat350
degreesFahrenheit,at1600degreesF.rocksbegintomelt.

ThecrustoftheEarthisbrokenintomanypiecescalledplates.The
plates"float"onthesoft,plasticmantlewhichislocatedbelowthe
crust.Theseplatesusuallymovealongsmoothlybutsometimesthey
stickandbuilduppressure.Thepressurebuildsandtherockbends
untilitsnaps.WhenthisoccursanEarthquakeistheresult!

NoticehowthinthecrustoftheEarthisincomparisontotheother
layers.Thesevencontinentsandoceanplatesbasicallyfloatacross
themantlewhichiscomposedofmuchhotteranddensermaterial.

Thecrustiscomposedoftwobasicrocktypesgraniteandbasalt.The
continentalcrustiscomposedmostlyofgranite.Theoceaniccrust
consistsofavolcaniclavarockcalledbasalt.

Basalticrocksoftheoceanplatesaremuchdenserandheavierthan
thegraniticrockofthecontinentalplates.Becauseofthisthe
continentsrideonthedenseroceanicplates.Thecrustandtheupper
layerofthemantletogethermakeupazoneofrigid,brittlerock
calledtheLithosphere.Thelayerbelowtherigidlithosphereisazone
ofasphaltlikeconsistancycalledtheAsthenosphere.The
asthenosphereisthepartofthemantlethatflowsandmovesthe
platesoftheEarth.

TheMantle

Themantleisthelayerlocateddirectlyunderthesima.Itisthelargest
layeroftheEarth,1800milesthick.Themantleiscomposedofvery
hot,denserock.Thislayerofrockevenflowslikeasphaltundera
heavyweight.Thisflowisduetogreattemperaturedifferencesfrom
thebottomtothetopofthemantle.Themovementofthemantleis
thereasonthattheplatesoftheEarthmove!Thetemperatureofthe
mantlevariesfrom1600degreesFahrenheitatthetoptoabout4000
degreesFahrenheitnearthebottom!

ConvectionCurrents
Themantleismadeofmuchdenser,thickermaterial,becauseofthis
theplates"float"onitlikeoilfloatsonwater.
Manygeologistsbelievethatthemantle"flows"becauseof
convectioncurrents.Convectioncurrentsarecausedbytheveryhot
materialatthedeepestpartofthemantlerising,thencooling,sinking
againandthenheating,risingandrepeatingthecycleoverandover.
Thenexttimeyouheatanythinglikesouporpuddinginapanyou
canwatchtheconvectioncurrentsmoveintheliquid.Whenthe
convectioncurrentsflowinthemantletheyalsomovethecrust.The
crustgetsafreeridewiththesecurrents.Aconveyorbeltinafactory
movesboxesliketheconvectioncurrentsinthemantlemovesthe
platesoftheEarth.

OuterCore

ThecoreoftheEarthislikeaballofveryhotmetals.(4000degrees
F.to9000degreesF.)Theoutercoreissohotthatthemetalsinitare
allintheliquidstate.Theoutercoreislocatedabout1800
milesbeneaththecrustandisabout1400milesthick.Theoutercoreis
composedofthemeltedmetalsnickelandiron.

InnerCore

TheinnercoreoftheEarthhastemperaturesandpressuressogreat
thatthemetalsaresqueezedtogetherandarenotabletomoveabout
likealiquid,butareforcedtovibrateinplaceasasolid.Theinner
corebeginsabout4000milesbeneaththecrustandisabout800miles
thick.Thetemperaturesmayreach9000dgreesF.andthepressures
are45,000,000poundspersquareinch.Thisis3,000,000timestheair
pressureonyouatsealevel!!!

Answerthefollowingquestionsonasheetofpaperwithyourpartner.
Ifyouneedtolookbacktofindtheanswersusethepagetitleslocated
directlyunderthequestionstohelpyou.Whenyoufinishthe
questionsclickontheEarthicontoreturntheprogramtothe
beginning.

1.NamethefourlayersoftheEarthinorderfromtheoutsidetothe
centeroftheEarth.
2.Whatcausesthemantleto"flow"?
3.Whatarethetwomainmetalsthatmakeuptheouterandinner
core?
4.DescribeinyourownwordshowtheEarth'slayerswere
formed."TheFourLayers"willhelpyou.

Pangaea to the Present Lesson #2

TheEarthisadynamicorconstantlychangingplanet.Thethin,
fragileplatesslideveryslowlyonthemantle'supperlayer.This
slidingoftheplatesiscausedbythemantle'sconvectioncurrents
slowlyturningoverandover.Thisoverturnislikeaconveyorbelt
thatmovestheplatesofthecrust.

Theseplatesareinconstantmotioncausingearthquakes,mountain
building,volcanism,theproductionof"new"crustandthedestruction
of"old"crust.Thefollowingcardswillteachyoumoreaboutthe
Earth'splates.

TheEarth'scrustisbrokenintomanypieces.Thesepiecesarecalled
plates.TherearetwelvemainplatesontheEarth'ssurface.Thered
linesonthismapoftheworldrepresentthelargestplateboundaries.
Aplateboundaryoccurswheretwoplatescometogether.Thereare
threekindsofplateboundaries:

1.Convergentboundarywheretwoplatescollidetoformmountains
orasubductionzone.
2.Divergentboundarywheretwoplatesaremovinginopposite
directionsasinamidoceanridge.
3.Transformboundarywheretwoplatesareslidingpasteachother
asintheSanAndreasfaultofCalifornia.

TheEarth'splatesareinconstant,butvery,veryslowmotion.They
moveatonly1/2to4inches(1.3to10centimeters)peryear!!This
doesnotseemlikemuch,butovermillionsofyearsitaddsuptogreat
distancesofmovement.

TheContinentalDriftTheorystatesthatthecontinentshavemoved
andarestillmovingtoday.In1912AlfredWegenerintroducedthis
theory,buthedidnotfullyunderstandwhatcausedtheplatesto
move.Atheoryisanexplanationofascientificprocessthathasbeen
successfullytestedbymanydifferentmethods.

ThemotionoftheEarth'splateshelpscientiststounderstandwhy
earthquakes,volcanoes,andmountainbuildingoccur.
Youwilllearnmoreaboutwhytheplatesaremovinginthenext
lesson,"HowPlatesMove".

Scientistsbelievetheseplateshavebeenmovingformillionsofyears.
Infact,250millionsyearsagotheEarth'ssevencontinentswereall
groupedtogetherintoasupercontinentcalledPangea.

JustbeforethedaysofthedinosaurstheEarth'scontinentswereall
connectedintoonehugelandmasscalledPangaea.Thishuge
supercontinentwassurroundedbyonegiganticoceancalled
Panthalassa.

NoticethepostionofthecontinentsofAntarctica(Farnorthofits
currentposition),Australia(flippedsidewaysandfarwestofits
currentposition)andthesubcontinentofIndia(Hundredsofmiles
fromAsia).

ScientistsbelievethattheNorthAmericancontinentwaslocated
muchfarthersouthandeastofit'spositiontoday.Infact,muchof
NorthAmericawasinornearthetropics!!Howdoscientistsknow
this??Theyhavefoundfossilsfromthisperiodoftime.Thesefossils
areoftropicalplantsandanimals.Thefossilshavebeenfoundincold
regionslikeNorthDakotaandGreenland!!!

180MillionYearsAgo

About180millionyearsagothesupercontinentPangeabeganto
breakup.ScientistsbelievethatPangeabrokeapartforthesame
reasonthattheplatesaremovingtoday.Themovementiscausedby
theconvectioncurrentsthatrolloverintheupperzoneofthemantle.
Thismovementinthemantlecausestheplatestomoveslowlyacross
thesurfaceoftheEarth.About200millionyearsagoPangaeabroke
intotwonewcontinentsLaurasiaandGondwanaland.Laurasiawas
madeofthepresentdaycontinentsofNorthAmerica(Greenland),
Europe,andAsia.Gondwanalandwasmadeofthepresentday
continentsofAntarctica,Australia,SouthAmerica.Thesubcontinent
ofIndiawasalsopartofGondwanaland.NoticethatatthistimeIndia
wasnotconnectedtoAsia.ThehugeoceanofPanthalassaremained
buttheAtlanticOceanwasgoingtobebornsoonwiththesplittingof
NorthAmericafromtheEurasianPlate.
HowdoweknowthatSouthAmericawasattachedtoAfricaandnot
toNorthAmerica180millionyearsago?

Scientiststodaycanreadthehistoryoftherockrecordbystudying
theageandmineralcontentoftherocksinacertainarea.

TheTripleJunctionwasformedbecauseofathreewaysplitinthe
crustallowingmassivelavaflows.Thesplitwascausedbyan
upwellingofmagmathatbrokethecrustinthreedirectionsand
pouredoutlavaoverhundredsofsquaremilesofAfricaandSouth
America.

Therocksofthetriplejunction,whichtodayisthewestcentral
portionofAfricaandtheeastcentralportionofSouthAmerica,are
identicalmatchesforageandmineralmakeup.Inotherwordsthe
rocksintheseareasofthetwocontinentswereproducedatthesame
timeandinthesameplace.ThistellsusthatSouthAmericaand
Africawereconnectedatonetime!
TodaythesetwocontinentsareseparatedbytheAtlanticOceanwhich
isover2000mileswide!

135MillionYearsAgo

About135millionyearsagoLaurasiawasstillmoving,andasit
moveditbrokeupintothecontinentsofNorthAmerica,Europeand
Asia(Eurasianplate).Gondwanalandalsocontinuedtospreadapart
anditbrokeupintothecontinentsofAfrica,Antarctica,Australia,
SouthAmerica,andthesubcontinentofIndia.Arabiastartedto
separatefromAfricaastheRedSeaopenedup.

Theredarrowsindicatethedirectionofthecontinentalmovements.
NoticehowfartheIndiansubcontinenthastomovetogettoits
presentpostionconnectedtoAsia.
TheAtlantic,Indian,Arctic,andPacificOceansareallbeginningto
takeshapeasthecontinentsmovetowardtheirpresentpositions.

TheplatesarestillmovingtodaymakingtheAtlanticOceanlarger
andthePacificOceansmaller.Theyellowarrowsontheworldmap
indicatethedirectionofplatesmovementstoday.
NoticethepositionoftheIndianSubcontinenttoday.Itmoved
hundredsofmilesin135millionyearsatagreatspeed(4inchesper
year!!!)TheIndianplatecrashedintotheEurasianplatewithsuch
speedandforcethatitcreatedthetallestmountainrangeonEarth,the
Himalayas!Whatdoyoupredicttheworldwilllooklikein100
millionor200millionyears?Whatnewmountainrangeswillform?
Wherewillnewvolcanoeserupt?

TheAtlanticOceanwillbemuchlarger50millionyearsfromnow
andthePacificOceanwillbemuchsmaller.NorthandSouth
Americawillhavemovedfartherwest(Californiamovingnorth)
whileGreenlandwillbelocatedfartherwestbutalsofarthernorth.
ThewesternpartofAfricawillrotateclockwiseandcrashintoEurope
causinggreatmountainbuilding,whilethefareasternregionof
AfricawillrotateeastwardtowardtheArabianpeninsula.Australia
willmovefarthernorthintothetropics,whileNewZealandwillmove
tothesouthofAustralia.

Allofthesepredictionsarejustthat,predictions.Thesemovementsof
thecontinentsmayhappeniftheplatescontinuetomoveinthesame
directionandwiththesamespeedastheyaremovingtoday.
Scientistsarenotcertainofthemovementtoday,letalone50million
yearsintothefuture.
Whatdoyouthinktheworldwilllooklikein50millionyears???

Writetheanswersforthequestionsonasheetofpaper.Whenyou
finishthelessonclickonthe"Earth"iconsothatthenextpairof
studentswillbeatthestartofthelesson.

1.WhatcausedPangeatobreakup?
2.WhatistheContinentalDriftTheory?
3.WhathappenedattheTripleJunction?Whereisitlocatedtoday?

How Earth's Plates Move Lesson #3

Geologistscametotheconclusioninthe1960'sthattheEarth'srigid
outerlayer(crustandouter,rigidlayerofthemantle)wasnotasingle
piece,butwasbrokenupintoabout12largepiecescalledplates.The
redlinesonthemapoftheworldaboveindicate

1.Convergentboundariestwoplatescollidetoformmountainsora
subductionzone.
2.Divergentboundarytwoplatesaremovinginoppositedirections
asinamidoceanridge.
3.Transformboundarytwoplatesareslidingpasteachotherasin
theSanAndreasfaultofCalifornia.Atransformboundaryislikea
tearintheEarth'scrust.Theseplatesmoveveryslowlyacrossthe
surfaceoftheEarthasthoughtheywereonaconveyorbelt.The
convectioncurrentsinthemuchhottermantlecontinuallymovethe
platesabout1/2to4inchesperyear.

Whentheplatesmovetheycollideorspreadapartallowingthevery
hotmoltenmaterialcalledlavatoescapefromthemantle.When
collisionsoccurtheyproducemountains,deepunderwatervalleys
calledtrenches,andvolcanoes.Asmountainsandvalleysarebeing

formednaturaldisasterssuchasearthquakesandvolcanicactivitycan
occurwhichhasaffectedhumansforthousandsofyears.

TheEarthisproducing"new"crustwheretwoplatesaredivergingor
spreadingapart.Thisoccursinthemiddleofourgreatoceans.The
midoceanridgesarethelongestcontinuallyrunningmountainrange
intheworld.Theseridgesareconnectedandareabout40,000miles
long!!

Oneofthesemidoceanridges,theMidAtlanticridge,isspreading
apartmakingtheAtlanticOceanwider.Asthetwoplatesmovethe
mantlemelts,makingmagmaandlavafillthevoidwithnewly
formedrock.ThebottomoftheAtlanticOceanisfilledwithsomeof
the"youngest"crustonEarth.TheislandofIceland,locatedinthe
NorthAtlantic,isstillbeingformedatthisMidAtlanticridge.

TheAtlanticOceanisgettinglargerastheWesternHemisphere
movesawayfromEuropeandAsia.ThePacificOcean,ontheother
hand,isbecomingsmallerandsmaller.Thisisoccurringbecausethe
NorthAmericanandSouthAmericanplatesaremovingwestward
towardAsiaandAustralia.

TheNorthandSouthAmericanplatesarecrashingintothethinner
anddenseroceanicplatesofthePacific.Thisdrivestheoceanicplates
deepintothemantledestroyingtheoceanicplates.Thisboundaryin
whichanoceanicplateisdrivendownanddestroyedbyacontinental
plateiscalledasubductionzone.
ThisPacificOceanregionhasmoreearthquakesandvolcanicactivity
thananyotherareaoftheworld.Becauseofallthevolcanoesthis
regionhasbeengiventhenicknameof"TheRingofFire".

Whenthelessdense,lightercontinentalplateoverridestheoceanic
plateasubductionzoneforms.Becausetheoceanicplateisbentand
drivendown,adeeptrenchformsatthiscollisonpoint.These
trenchesarethelowestpointsontheEarth'scrust.Onetrenchisa
miledeeperthanMountEverestistall!

Astheoceanicplatedescendsintothemantlesomeofitmelts.This
materialmovesintothemantleabovetheplateandcausesthemantle
tomelt.Thisliquidrock,calledmagma,risestothesurfacebecauseit
islessdensethenthesurroundingrock.Ifthemagmareachesthe
surfaceoftheEarth,avolcanoforms.


Asthemantlerocksmelttheyformmagma.Themagmacollectsina
magmapool.Becausethemagmaislessdensethanthesurrounding
mantlematerialitwillrise.Pressureinthemagmacracksthe
overlyingrocks.Thenthemagmainjectsintothecrack.Thisprocess
repeatsthousandsoftimes,bringthemagmatowardsthesurface.

Avolcanowillformifthemagmareachesthesurface.Whenmagma
doesreachthesurfaceitisthencalledlava.

Youwilllearnmoreaboutvolcanoesinthefollowinglessons.

Asthevolcanoeruptsitmaybuildamountain.Thelavaalongwith
ashandotherpyroclasticmaterialwillcontinuetobuildthemountain
higherwitheacheruption.
TheCascademountainrangeintheWesternUnitedStatesandthe
AndesMountainsinSouthAmericawereformedinthisway!!

ThisisacrosssectionoftheEarthintheSouthernHemisphere.The
mapshowsasubductionzonethathascreatedthePeruChileTrench
atthewesternedgeofSouthAmerica.Thissubductionzonehas
producedtheAndesMountainswhichrunalongtheentirewestcoast
ofSouthAmerica.ItalsoshowsyoutheMidAtlanticRidgewhichis
spreadingtheAtlanticOceanmakingitwiderandwider.Thecross
sectionshowstwoprocessesatwork;

1."OldCrust"beingdestroyedatasubductionzoneand
2."NewCrust"beingproducedattheMidAtlanticRidge.

ThepinklinesonthismapofthePacificOceanrepresentdeepocean
trenches.Thesetrenchesaresomeofthelowestpointsonthecrustof
theEarth.MarianasTrenchnorthofNewGuineaisthedeepestpoint
ontheEarth'ssurfaceat36,201feetbelowsealevel.MarianasTrench
is7,173feetdeeperthanMountEverestishigh!!!!

TrenchessurroundalmostallofthePacificOcean.Someoftheother
trenchesofthePacificaretheAleutian,PeruChile,Kuril,andthe
Japantrench.
Therearetrencheswherevercontinentalplatesandoceanicplates
collide.TheJavaTrenchintheIndianOceanisthedeepestpointof
thatoceanat24,442feetbelowsealevel.

Writetheanswerstothefollowingquestionsincompletesentenceson
apieceofpaper.Usethepagetitleslocateddirectlyunderthe
questionstomoveyourwaythroughthelessontolocatetheanswers.
WhenyoufinishthequestionsclickontheEarthicontoreturnthe
programtothebeginning.

1.Inyourownwordsexplainwhathappensatasubductionzone.
2.Inyourownwordsexplainwhathappensatamidoceanridge.
3.Atasubductionzonewhatcausesmagmatorise?