Structural Polytonality in Contemporary Afro-American Music

Author(s): Lee Cronbach

Source: Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 2 (1981 - 1982), pp. 15-33
Published by: Center for Black Music Research - Columbia College Chicago and University of Illinois
Press

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/779409 .

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STRUCTURALPOLYTONALITYIN
CONTEMPORARYAFRO-AMERICANMUSIC'
LeeCronbach
Introduction

As the twentieth century draws to a close, the worldwide influence of

Afro-American music becomes more and more apparent. First presented
to outside communities in the form of spirituals in the 1870s, and now, in
such manifestations as jazz, rock, and disco, it promises to become "the
dominant earth music everywhere in the near future" (Reck, 1977, p. 36).
Indeed, the ethnomusicologist goes on to state a need for a concerted
scholarly effort to save "endangered music species" which are about to be
overwhelmed by the Afro-American flood (Reck, pp. 36-42).
Let us cite just a few examples of this worldwide expansion. The British
"rock revolution" began when the Beatles and Rolling Stones challenged
the commercial dominance of "trad jazz" (based on the older AfroAmerican style of swing) with their versions of compositions from the
younger Afro-American style of rhythm and blues (Dalton, 1979, pp. 1516, 20-21, 27-28). The Japanese enthusiasm for jazz was demonstrated by
their dramatic reception of John Coltrane in the 1960s (Cole, 1976, pp. 209212). Other countries in non-communist Asia have shown a preference
for various rock forms. Disco has swept the Pacific islands.2 When Dinah
Shore telecast a show from Singapore, she interviewed a group of local
children, asking the names of their favorite musicians. To her obvious as1Thispaperis an adaptationof a speech given at the February21, 1981meeting
of the PacificSouthwest Chapterof the AmericanMusicologicalSociety. The authorwishes to acknowledge the help of Mr. Arnie Cheatham(the Jazz Coalition,
Boston) who in several telephone consultations gave invaluable advice on the
treatmentof this subject,and of Drs. RobertFowellsand Olga Termini(California
State University, Los Angeles), who reviewed the manuscript.The author also
wishes to acknowledgethe theoreticalbackgroundgiven him by Mr. CurtisJones
and Mr.CharlesHolley (CooperativeArtistsInstitute,Boston),Dr. Hugo Norden
(BostonConservatory),and Mr. CharlesBanacos.As is the case with all their students, I am foreverin their debt. Correspondenceconcerningthis articleshould
be sent to Mr.Lee Cronbach,1847N. KingsleyDr., Los Angeles, California90027.
2Foran interestingexampleof disco treatmentof Tahitiansongs, see the album
Gabilou(NorthHollywood: BonJourRecords,BJ-7880).
15

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16

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tonishment the answers were the Isley Brothers, the Brothers Johnson,
and Peaches and Herb.3 In Israel the style known as Yemenite rock, based
on a mixture of Sephardic melodies and 1970s rock rhythms and instrumentation, was the predominant dance style until recently challenged by
disco versions of Jewish folksongs.4 Finally, Africa itself has been decisively influenced by Afro-American forms from both North and South
America (Roberts, 1974, pp. 245, 250, 252, 253, 258, 260).
Despite its obvious historical importance, this music remains terra incognita to the majority of the American academic community. One result
of this ignorance is that fundamental music theory courses (harmony,
counterpoint, orchestration, etc.) are taught exclusively on the basis of
the European musical aesthetic. In many curricula, jazz is the sole representative of the multitude of Afro-American musical styles and is isolated
as a specialized course of study in one of the following forms:
(a) Ethnomusicology,in which the study of Afro-American music is combined with the study of Balinese gamelan, Indian ragas, etc., often as a
one-semester course. Indeed, ethnomusicology, defined in The Nev
GroveDictionary as being the study primarily of the music of non-literate
and Oriental cultures,5 is hardly the right category for the study of the art
of such non-Oriental intellectuals as John Coltrane;6
(b) Commercialmusic, in which an exclusive emphasis is placed on a single phase of jazz, a big band swing style usually bound by stylistic param3D. Shore, Dinah!Show Nos. 5001-5003,broadcastNovember 1 and 2, 1979.
Informationon show numbersand dates obtainedfromMs. GloriaNeidorf, Perry
and Neidorf, BeverlyHills, California.
4An inclusive sampling of Yemenite rock can be found in the album Tsliley
Hakerem-GoldenHits in Yemenite(Tel Aviv: Galton L-5970).The album HashaEliezrov(TelAviv: CBSRecordsLtd., ELI-790)gives several
gririmGroupof Ya'akov
disco.
Israeli
of
examples
5Thecomplete definition of "ethnomusicology"in TheNew GroveDictionary
(1980)appearseven less appropriatefor the work of Coltrane:
Ethnomusicologyis concernedprimarilywith living music . . of oral traditions, outside the limits of urbanEuropeanart music. The chief subjects
of investigationare: the music of non-literatepeoples; the orally transmitted music of the high culturesof Asia . . . and folk music, which Nettl tentativelydefined as the music of oraltraditionfound in those areaswhich are
dominatedby high cultures(Krader,1980,p. 275).
6Evidenceof Coltrane'smastery of both Occidentaland Orientalintellectual
traditionscan be found in J. C. Thomas's biography Chasin'the Trane(Garden
City, New York:Doubleday & Co., 1975),pp. 102, 118, 187, 188, 199.

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Polytonalityin Afro-AmericanMusic

17

eters ranging from Count Basie to Doc Severinson. Such courses are frequently taught by a Eurocentric instructor, who is likely to consider any
attempt to write in the style of such composers as George Clinton or
Charles Mingus to be almost an act of treason. Of course, the term "commercial music" is hardly an apt phrase for the work of such artists as Sun
Ra;
(c) Blackstudies, in which Afro-American music is often taught solely as
an aspect of black culture. While this approach would seem to be more
logical than the preceding two, its delimitations necessarily exclude consideration of the worldwide influence of the music, and the rise of such
"mixed" styles as country and western or disco. (An analogy follows:
while the Old Testament is properly taught as the core of Jewish studies
programs, it would hardly be appropriate to limit the study of the Bible to
its role in the development of Jewish culture, since its ideas, through such
"mixed" forms as Christianity, Islam, and Marxism, have decisively affected world history.)
In short, there is a remarkable disparity between the position of AfroAmerican music in world culture, on the one hand, and in American academia, on the other. In the twentieth-century world, Afro-American musical forms are all-pervasive. This in turn has resulted in the generation of
an entirely new family of musical forms. Some of these forms-jazz and
funk (or gospel), for example-are almost completely African in form and
content. Others, such as bluegrass, Texas swing, or salsa, make use of
African formal techniques to express the cultural content of different ethnic groups. However, all of these new musical forms share two common
denominators: first, they are based on African theoretical concepts; and
second, they have been adopted en masse as the common musical language of the twentieth century.7
In American academia, however, both of these common denominators
are usually excluded from the teaching and study of Afro-American music. While the black studies approach does emphasize the African cultural
7Forevidence showing the surprisingextent of Blackinfluence on country &
western styles and performers,see the following articlesin PatrickCarr'sIllustratedHistoryof CountryMusic (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1979): Charles
K.Wolfe, "Acrossthe Ocean, Into the Hills," pp. 9, 23, 24, 27, 28;Wolfe, "Birthof
an Industry,"pp. 54-55, 66; Douglas B. Green, "Depressionand Boom," p. 99;
Douglas B. Green and Bob Pinson, "Music from the Lone Star State," pp. 115, 135;

RogerWilliams,"Hankthe Great,"p. 188. Fora discussion in depth of the extent

to which blackteaching molded the style of country music's "founding father,"
JimmyRodgers, see Mike Parisand Chris Comber,JimmytheKid(New York:Da
Capo Press, 1979),pp. 15-16,38-39, 165-169.For the mixed black/Latinorigin of
salsa, see John StormRoberts, Salsa!(New York:BMI,1976),pp. 4-6, 21.

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BMRJournal

18

background, the ideational-theoretical content of this background is frequently given insufficient attention.8 In addition, the hybrid forms
(which with typical hybrid vigor are among the most successful) are ignored by definition. The ethnomusicological and commercial-music approaches described above are completely inappropriate. The former approach ignores the intellectual training of most jazz and rock musicians,
while the latter ignores almost entirely the African content of jazz and
rock. Both approaches miss the central historical feature of AfroAmerican music in this century as posited in this study-the creation of a
new method for composing and performing music, and the worldwide
assimilation of this method.
The ideas expressed above are based upon the author's experience as a
student, performer, and teacher in the field of Afro-American music. The
necessity for papers such as this one became apparent to the author
when, after approximately ten years of study with working musicians in
the fields of jazz, r & b, Afro-Cuban, blues, and gospel, he entered an academic course of study.
The difference between the manner in which Afro-American music is
presently taught in the academic system and that in which it is presently
taught by musicians working in these genres is profound. The author believes that the root cause of this difference is the lack of academic awareness of the new body of concepts created in Afro-American music. This
paper will explore the concept of vertical stratification, since the technique appears in a large variety of Afro-American styles. Furthermore, an
outline of this concept has already been presented by the composer Oily
Wilson (1974). While Wilson may very well disagree with some or all of
the general statements made above, I feel that the following specific analyses strongly support his hypothesis of a "West African musical culture
sphere united by a commonality of shared conceptual approaches to music making" (Wilson, 1974, pp. 21-22). Finally, the theoretical model created by the author matches that deduced by Wilson, the only difference
being that he used metric considerations to demonstrate vertical stratification, while this study focuses on tonal means of vertical stratification.
Wilson's Hypothesis
Wilson begins his study by summarizing the work of such scholars as
Herskovitz and Waterman, who hypothesized a strong connection be8Thismay in part be a result of a concept espoused by Imaru Barakain the
1960s, in which African "instinctive"musicianship was contrasted with European "technical"art (Jones,1963,p. 82). Forevidence of the considerable-albeit
informal-training demanded of Africanmusiciansby their society, see Nketia,
1974,pp. 55, 60-63.

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Polytonality in Afro-American Music

19

tween West African music and Afro-American music. In particular, Waterman listed five characteristics common to most sub-Saharan African
music, and found that three-"dominance of percussion, off-beat phrasing of melodic accents, and overlapping call and response" (Wilson, 1974,
p.4)-were also characteristic of Afro-American music. Wilson states that
the purpose of multimeter is to produce cross-rhythms, and he distinguishes between syncopation, in which the foreground rhythm is only
slightly displaced, and true polymeter, in which the foreground rhythm
is consistently displaced over a long period of time. Wilson finds polymeter rather than syncopation to be characteristic of West African music, and
gives the following as a basic theoretical model: a "fixed rhythm" section,
playing unchanging patterns, combined with a "variable rhythm" section, whose patterns change during the course of the piece (Wilson, 1974,
pp. 7, 9, 11). These two basic units can then be subdivided into smaller
groups.
Wilson demonstrated this theoretical model with an analysis of two
pieces, a West African drum piece and an American rock composition,
James Brown's "Super-Bad." After presenting the analyses, Wilson then
concludes that "the polymeter is the result of the stratification of the musical lines by means of emphasizing the independence of timbre (color)
for each voice" (Wilson, 1974, p. 15). This emphasizes the vertical stratification created by the rhythmic sub-divisions. Wilson concluded by stating that the African-American relationship is one "not only of shared
characteristics but, more importantly, of shared conceptual approaches to
music making, and hence is basically not quantitative but qualitative"
(Wilson, 1974, p. 20).
In almost every instance Wilson's model matches the one independently created by this author, using melody instead of rhythm as the measure. The basic structural model illustrated in the four analyses below consists of a fixed melody section, containing one or more ostinatos, which
serves as the foundation for a free melody section containing one or more
non-repeating melodies that are rhythmically independent of the ostinato
section. The vertical stratification is intensified by the use of differing
tonal centers for the various levels-hence the use of the term "polytonality."
The result of this melodic stratification is to create a musical structure
divided into different melodic layers, so that a vertical dynamism is created, comparable to the horizontal dynamism created by a European harmonic progression. Furthermore, the different linear strata will have
shifting call-and-response relationships, in which a line will answer first
one, then another, of the subgroups of its own main group or of the other
main group (fixed melody or free melody). This type of compositional
technique is well adapted to the creation of a densely polyphonic texture.

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Should it be found that this hypothetical model matches the analyses

of the four pieces given below, support would be added to Wilson's second, more general, hypothesis that the African content of such styles as
jazz, folk, gospel, etc., is not merely superficial and manneristic, but is
fundamental and conceptual. In short, it would seem that these styles are
built on African as well as on European musical principles. This in turn
would strengthen the argument advanced by the author in the introduction to this paper that Afro-American styles should be studied and taught
from the viewpoint of African as well as of European music theory.
Analyses
"FestivalMusic" (Figure 1)
The polytonal nature of the Dahomean piece "Festival Music" is nondiatonic and thus fairly easy to perceive. The ensemble for this piece consists of two xylophones, bells, and a women's chorus. The bass (lower)
xylophone has a phrase with d as its tonal center, which ascends stepwise
to f#, while the tenor (higher) xylophone has a phrase which descends
from d to bs, working contrapuntally against the bass's ascending phrase
(Ex. 1, a). Both of these phrases are repeated in "African ostinato" fashion, i.e., with frequent, subtle variations. In the first part of the recording
the tenor xylophone performs a solo, while the bass functions as a
ground. On completing its solo, the tenor xylophone returns to its ostinato. After an interlude in which both ostinatos are repeated several
Figure 1. Structuraloutline of "FestivalMusic.
n. t. = non-tonal
t. c. = tone center

Bells-n.

t.

Voices - G t.c.

Xylophone

2-Bb t.c.

Xylophonel-D

t.c.

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Polytonality in Afro-American Music

21

times, the vocal chorus enters with a beautiful, long-lined unison melody
in which first e, then g, functions as the tonal center.
The vocal line is sharply differentiated from the xylophone ostinatos
(Ex. 1, b). While the ostinatos are rhythmically short phrases, both with
the small range of a major third, the contrasting vocal line has a range of a
major ninth, as well as a smooth horizontal contour, and is rhythmically
independent from the ostinato pulse. The bells appear to function as an
upper register drone (unpitched), which acts as a background for the two
main melodic constituents.
Example1. Musical excerptsfrom "FestivalMusic."
)(

tl,

fr-?^i

(a)

-?=_==_

>

>

>

Voices

!__rj

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11

"BadGirls" (Figure2)
The same general structure-rhythmic ostinato contrasting with a
rhythmically free vocal line-can be seen in Donna Summer's 1979 disco
piece, "Bad Girls." However, the nature of the polytonality differs from
that occurring in the Dahomean piece. "Festival Music" has three differ-

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22

BMRJournal

Figure2. Structuraloutline of "BadGirls."

n. t. = non-tonal
t. c. = tone center
m = measures
I
I
I
I

I
I
i
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I
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Whi cstlie - n. t. l
It

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Hotlrns2-Ftc.

t.c.
I

Chlorus - n.t.
Hiorns1-D
I

G uitar 2 - iD/F t. C. I
Gljuitarl

- IF t.c.

Bass

Pialno- D t. c.
Balss-

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ent tonal centers, with a clear anti-diatonic clash between the tenor xylophone's b6 and the b natural of the vocal line. "Bad Girls" uses only two
different tonal centers, and the polytonality is diatonic, consisting of a
play of the relative major (F) against the relative minor (D); only the use of
functional harmony and melodic emphasis distinguish the bitonality of
the different strata.
"Bad Girls" is introduced by the bass drum, which pounds out the
even, loud quarter notes for which disco is famous (or infamous); then the
two rhythm guitars enter (Ex. 2). For four measures the first guitar plays a
three-chord sequence (F, C, BR) which implies an F tonal center; the second guitar plays a three note phrase of ambiguous tonality which could be
seen as part of either an F-major or a D-minor pentatonic scale (Ex. 2, a
and b). The bass and piano enter at the fifth measure. They firmly establish the D tonality with the three-chord sequence Dm, Am and Gm (Ex.
2, c and d); note that these are all minor triads, while the first guitar, as
noted above, plays all major triads. At the ninth measure the horn section
enters, combining the two triad groups (major centering on F and minor
centering on D) into a group of three minor-seventh chords (Dm7, Am7,
Gm7) which again emphasize the D tonal center (Ex. 2, e). This is the first

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23

Polytonality in Afro-American Music

Example2. Musicalexcerptsfrom"BadGirls."
I

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Piano

Bass

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7

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Horns 2

(9) 1

Drum
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Pulse

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7
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AR

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If-

time in the piece that complete seventh chords appear in one section. At
the seventeenth measure the horns are given a unison melody line, one
which appears to have an F tonal center (over half of the notes in the line
are repetitions of the pitch f-Ex. 2, f).
Simultaneously with the horns' first figure (the seventh chords) the
whistles enter. They play a sparse background obbligato, unpitched and
rhythmically asynchronous to the preceding instrumental groupings.

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24

BMR Journal

The whistles foreshadow the vocal chorus, which enters on the thirteenth
measure with a spoken "toot toot beep beep," similar to the whistles in
being unpitched and detached from the common pulse.
The common pulse is shown in Example 2, h. It is a two-measure
rhythmic phrase, begun by a heavy accent on "one," and then marked by
stressing the afterbeats of the third and fourth beats in the first measure,
and the forebeats of the third and fourth beats in the second measure. It is
interesting to observe that each of the instrumental groupings (guitar 1
and 2, piano and bass, horns) has one element which strongly expresses
the common pulse (guitar 1, piano, horns 1) and one element which is
either detached from the pulse or else a free variation of it (guitar 2, bass,
horns 2). As noted above, the whistles and vocal chorus operate outside
of this rhythmic framework. When the lead vocal enters, it is given a
rhythmically choppy melody which appears now inside, now outside the
stress points of the common pulse. The instrumental sections have created a rhythmic foundation-the common pulse and its variant-and the
lead vocal, chorus, and whistles hover around it (like birds around a tree).
In this piece diatonic polytonality is used to create a layered effect, consisting at its peak of five different strata-bass and piano, guitars, horns,
vocal chorus and whistles, and lead vocal. The harmonic-melodic elements of these strata are, respectively, minor triads (D tonal center), major triads (F tonal center) and an ambiguously-centered melody (F or D),
minor-seventh chords (D tonal center) alternating with a unison melody
(F tonal center), non-pitched sounds, and the lead melody (D tonal center). The formal necessity for the polytonal separation of the different
parts of this construction can be seen if one were to add bass "roots" to the
major triads of the first guitar part, transforming them to minor seventh
chords. This would, first, destroy the effect created by the separate entrances of the different strata (Fig. 2), and, second, muddy the horizontal
definition; for example, the first guitar part and the first horn part would
become tonally almost identical. Should this occur, much instrumental
interest would be lost, for it is precisely the formally complex differentiation of harmonically simple parts which creates the beauty of this composition.
"MaidenVoyage"
As with the other pieces studied here, "Maiden Voyage" has a basic
two-part vertical structure. Here it consists of (1) rhythm section (bass,
drums, and piano), all constituents of which share an identical rhythmic
figure, and (2) melody section (trumpet and saxophone) that has a unison
melody with a contrasting rhythmic figure. The diatonic, polytonal na-

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Polytonalityin Afro-AmericanMusic

25

ture of the composition was in this case confirmed by the composer. Hancock, in a seminar at the Berklee School of Music (Boston), in the early
1970s, insisted that the piano should play an Am chord against the bass's
d, and should definitely avoid the two defining notes of a Dm chord (d and
f)9. Further evidence of the composer's intent can be found in the harmonic transcription of "Maiden Voyage" published in the Almo Press anthology of Hancock's works, as it was proofread by the composer before
1
publication.
The tonal centers in "Maiden Voyage" first appear stacked in a tonicdominant-tonic relationship. In the first four measures of the melody, the
bass is centered on D, the piano on A, while the melody itself is in D minor
pentatonic (Ex. 3, A). It is interesting to note that here the tonal stratification "crosses" the rhythmic stratification. While the bass and piano function as a rhythmic unity, their tonal centers are clearly differentiated; the
melody instruments, while having their own unique rhythm pattern,
share a tonal center with the bass (Ex. 3, A1). This dual stratification is
maintained throughout the piece. At the fifth measure both the bass and
the piano move up a minor third to form a second polychord-the bass
playingf against the piano's Cm7 chord. Simultaneously the melody instruments complete the melodic phrase begun, in the first four measures,
in D minor pentatonic with notes from the minor pentatonic scale. So
here, while the dual form is maintained, there is a slight transposition of
elements: now the melody instruments share a tonal center with the piano, while before they had shared a tonal center with the bass. Note,
however, that the tonic-dominant relationship between the different vertical strata is maintained (F - C - C).
After a literal repetition of the eight-bar phrase described above, Hancock takes us to the bridge. The basic sound of the bridge is identical to
that of section A1. The melody is again in the shape of a tied whole note,
introduced and followed by a pair of eighth notes, while the rhythm section continues with the same rhythmic figure that it was given in the A1
section. The fifth relationship of different tonal centers is also maintained,
but with a small variation-the number of different tonal centers is expanded from two to three. While both the bass and piano move down one
9C.Banacos,Personalcommunication,April 1973. CharlesBanacos, a former
student of JakiByard,was teachingat Berkleeat the time of the Hancocksympo-

sium. He has since incorporated Mr. Hancock's advice into his teaching method.
'1L. Shulgren, Personal communication, June 24, 1981. Ms. Shulgren, manager of Almo Publications, stated in a telephone conversation with the author that
to the best of her knowledge this was the case, but advised confirming it with Mr.
Hancock. Mr. Hancock was on tour at the time this article was written, and hence

unavailablefor comment.

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26

BMRJournal

Example3. Transcriptionof themestatementof Hancock's"MaidenVoyage."

Maiden Voyage
Music by
HERBIE HANCOCK

Medium
Am70" D
-

rpff-c0), e
_J

-.

At

(y
p)

J,J
:f

j-

j i

t:z

#2F

'a. -

I1i. Vh'

1p

'" 1' I IM
1
I I v_h-i(e l.hl
w_
w' w..__ .

jJ:

(w)

Cm7 onF

'L

A
onD
(.Am7

,- (D.S. time w )

?$ o"

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N
h'

i'W'

hi
WJ

i.

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hII

Cw

(W

From "MaidenVoyage"by H. Hancock,Thegreatestjazz hits of Herbie

Hancock,Los Angeles, Almo Publications, 1979, 16-18. Copyright 1973
by Hancock Music Company. Reprinted by permission.

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27

Polytonality in Afro-American Music

F

Cm7?

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step from their positions in the preceding section (the bass from F to Eb,the
piano from Cm7 to B&m7),the melody instruments move up a fourth to a
phrase with an F tonal center (see Example 3, B). Thus the three tonal centers have fifth relationships to each other (EB- B - F). All three stratabass, piano, melody-coalesce on the same tonal center (DI) (see Example

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28

BMR Journal
f (_ A

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3, C). This marks the climax of the theme which is emphasized by (a) the
saxophone abandoning the melody and joining the isometric pattern of
the rhythm section, (b) a dramatic increase of intensity on the part of the
trumpet, and (c) a drum break (the only one occurring during the statement of the theme). After a sudden decrescendo, Hancock returns to his

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Polytonality in Afro-American Music

29

opening statement, the D-A-D, vertical stack, and the soloing section begins.
The theme of "Maiden Voyage" is constructed from a minimum of
rhythmic and melodic material. The basic form consists of a repetitive isometric figure in the rhythm section, with a contrasting, extremely simple
rhythmic and melodic line in the melody instruments. There are no rhythmic or melodic changes throughout the theme statement. The initial statement is retained, constantly transposed from one key to another. Hancock created formal interest by making a series of subtle variations in the
relationships of the different vertical strata to each other. First, there is a
crossing of the rhythmic and tonal strata. Second, the tonal stack, while
never leaving the tonic-dominant relationship, constantly shifts the order
of tonal centers among its constituent parts. Finally, there is an expansion
from two to three different tonal centers by all the vertical elements. As in
"Bad Girls," formal interest is created by a series of subtle variations made
on a basically simple framework.
"TryLove"(Figure3)
The last composition under consideration may not be polytonal, although it is certainly polyphonic. I say "may not" because of the poor fidelity of the live recording and the pitch-bending of the participating
singers make it difficult to clearly identify all of the pitches employed.
Nevertheless, Charles May's arrangement11 of his composition "Try
Love" (as recorded by Reverend James Cleveland and the Southern California Community Choir) demands the attention of this study, as it has
such an elaborate vertical form. It should be noted here that the purpose
of vertical stratification is the simultaneous separation and unification of
different elements of a composition, and the creation of dynamic tension
between the different vertical strata. The employment of polytonality is
only a means to this end. Any clear differentiation of the whole into separate vertical sections, some being fixed and some free, serves the same
1lCharlesMay, Interview,Los Angeles, February5, 1982. While being interviewed in relationto anotherstudy, Mr.Maywas able to examineFigures6 and 7.
He confirmedthe accuracyof both the transcription(Figure7) and of the formal
schematic(Figure6). Mr. May then showed several of his "lead-sheets"to the
author,demonstratinghow he was carefulto write the harmonicnotation "Eb/C"
insteadof "Cm7"when he wished the c tone to be omittedby the rhythmguitaror
the keyboard'sright hand. Mr. May also stated that, despite this notation, he almost always had to supervise rehearsalsto make certainthat the guitaristhired
for the occasion did not play a "Cm7"instead of the desired polytonal formation
"E/C".

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30

BMR Journal

Figure3. Structuraloutline of "Try Love."

t. c. = tone center
? = tone centerambiguous
m = measure
ms = measures
I

f Soprano

- 'EO Pedal
I

Choir

3-i?

T1

Altohoir

C' t..
I .

t.C.
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C
mI

'

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I
7

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7 ms

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I

ms

1 8 ms

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, 24 ms

function and thus shows the existence of the same formal concept. In any
case, there does exist a polytonal thread to tie this work into our study. In
the instrumental introduction, the bass plays a descending run in
EB-major,while the guitar plays a G0major chord against it (Ex. 4, a).
"Try Love" begins with a fairly simple structure. Two strophic verses
are sung in call-and-response fashion by the soloist and choir, the verses
being separated by a homophonous bridge passage. At the end of the second verse the bridge passage is repeated, but instead of returning to the
verse (which is in Eb-major), it leads to a second homophonous bridge
passage in the relative minor (C). A third bridge passage leads to the polyphonic conclusion.
As the rhythm section and soloists pause for one measure of silence,
the first choir enters, singing a descending phrase built on the notes of an
Eb-major pentatonic scale (see Figure 3). The Eb tonal center is emphasized by the use of es as the final pitch of the phrase, and by its repetition
(Ex. 4, b). In the next measure, the bass and piano return, playing a sinuous ostinato which climbs to c and appears to emphasize both F and C as
tonal centers (Ex. 4, b). Immediately thereafter, the bass soloist enters,

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31

Polytonality in Afro-American Music

Example4. Musical excerptsfrom "TryLove."

Gtr

,
PV1r'ip Ib
-r

1.m2

tro

(a)

Choir 1
Bar

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(b)
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responding to the call of the first choir (see Figure 3). As the vocal call and
response pattern continues over the instrumental obbligato, a new element unobtrusively appears-the second choir, singing an ascending
stepwise phrase which crosses the descending phrase of the first choir.
Some measures later the third choir appears, singing isolated high notes.
At this entrance the bass soloist is replaced by the alto soloist, who for
eight measures participates in a call and response pattern with the choir.
Then the bass soloist returns for the polyphonic climax. The bass and alto
sing a duet and respond as well to the three choral divisions, so that a
complex of interlocking vertical relationships is created. The formal climax is marked by an isolated soprano singing one sustained notealmost a controlled scream or shout-as a high pedal.
In this most elaborate version of the form we still find the basic fixed
melody/free melody division-the various choral ostinati opposed to the
two soloists. However, the choir is divided into three parts (four counting
the soprano pedal), while the free melody stratum features first one soloist, then a second, then both at once, responding to each other as well as
to the choir. Throughout this section an instrumental ostinato, with a
completely independent pulse and a unique tonal center (F), underpins
the entire vocal complex, so that yet another two-part vertical form is
created-instrumental ground against multi-part vocal structure.
It is interesting to observe the state of the vertical strata at the conclusion of this recording. It is composed of a rhythm section playing an ascending ostinato, one choir singing a descending major pentatonic line, a

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32

BMR Journal

second choir singing an ascending stepwise line, two soloists improvising

in a minor pentatonic scale, a third choir singing short high bursts of melodic punctuation, and an obbligato of one high pedal note.

Conclusions
All four pieces examined in this paper share a common general formostinato (fixed melody) against improvised (free) melody. Each composition employs a different working-out of this basic framework, the most
elaborate being that of James Cleveland, the most simple being that of
Herbie Hancock. It is interesting to note that from a horizontal harmonic
perspective the roles of these two pieces are reversed. The portion of the
Cleveland piece examined in detail here sustains a single chord (Cm7/f),
while the Hancock piece modulates through four keys.
While the polytonality was nondiatonic in the African example studied, it was diatonic in all of the Afro-American pieces considered (with the
exception of the instrumental introduction to "Try Love"). However, in
all four cases the differing tonal centers served a common function-the
creation of what could be called vertical harmonic movement, vertical dynamism.
Finally, it should be noted that in two of the pieces, "Bad Girls" and
"Try Love," the separation of the vertical strata is emphasized by the orchestration and by contrapuntal means, each different vertical section being given its own distinctive entrance.
All four pieces considered conform to the overall shape of our theoretical model-a two-part vertical division, with each main part frequently
subdivided, and with deliberately intensified clarification of the stratification. This tonally derived model is identical in shape to the rhythmically
derived model posited by Oily Wilson. It would appear that the results of
this study validate Wilson's hypothesis.
As noted above, Wilson concluded that the results of his study, which
demonstrated a strong formal similarity between a West African and an
Afro-American composition, indicated that the African content of AfroAmerican music was not superficial but fundamental, not manneristic but
conceptual. In this study a similar likeness has been demonstrated between a Dahomean composition and three contemporary Afro-American
compositions, coming from such diverse genres as disco, jazz, and gospel. Analyzed solely from the perspective of traditional European harmony, these compositions could all be dismissed as simple pieces with
little or no harmonic movement. Seen from the perspective taken in this
study, however, all of these compositions display a high degree of har-

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Polytonalityin Afro-AmericanMusic

33

monic complexity which appears in vertical rather than in horizontal relationships.

The conclusion offered here is that there exists an academic misunderstanding of Afro-American music. This misunderstanding derives ultimately from the academic unawareness of an African conceptual system
of composition. It is hoped that as this non-awareness ebbs, as now appears to be happening, the true importance of African and Afro-American
culture in the development, form, and content of twentieth century world
musics will become more and more apparent.

REFERENCES
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Hancock, H. The greatest jazz hits of Herbie Hancock. Los Angeles: Almo Publica-

tions, 1979.
Jones, L. (Baraka,I.) Bluespeople.New York:WilliamMorrow& Co., 1963.

Krader, B. Ethnomusicology. In S. Sadie (Ed.), The new Grove dictionary of music

andmusicians(Vol. 6), London:MacmillanPublishers,1980.

Nketia,J. H. K. ThemusicofAfrica.New York:W. W. Norton & Co., 1974.
Reck,D. Musicof thewholeearth.New York:CharlesScribner'sSons., 1977.
RobertsJ. S. Blackmusicof twoworlds.New York:WilliamMorrow& Co., 1974.
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DISCOGRAPHY
Cleveland,J. and the Southern CaliforniaChoir. AmazingGrace.Newark:Savoy
Records,14260,N.D.
N.D.
Hancock,H. Maidenvoyage.New York:BlueNote Records,BLP-4195/84195,
Africa.New York:Esoteric/CounterpointRecRouget, G. (Ed.).Musicofoccidental
ords, CPT-529,N.D.
Summer, D. Badgirls. Los Angeles: CasablancaRecords& Filmworks,NBLP-27150, 1979.

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