CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature and Studies

In this review of previous studies and related literature, information is presented in
support of and in anticipation of the methodology and analysis presented in this study. In order to
constrain the literature review to a manageable yet representative account of the development of
the concepts and constructs employed in this study, the researcher focused on studies dealing
with the effectiveness of K-12 Curriculum in order to gain a wider outlook of the study. Books
and the use of internet are included in this review. These materials are in relation to the present
study.
I.

Related Literature
As stated by Bilbao (2002), one of the most often repeated definition of a curriculum is

that curriculum is the total learning experience. This description implies that the crux of a
curriculum is the different planned and unplanned activities which have been lived, acted upon or
done by the learners with the guidance of the teacher. Hence in curriculum development, the
teaching and learning are actions necessary to accomplish a goal in education.
In a discussion paper on the Enhanced K to 12 Basic Education Program prepared by
the DepEd in the last quarter of 2010, it was pointed out that K to 12 is an effective cure to the
deteriorating quality of the Philippine education system. The low achievement score of Filipino
students in the National Achievement Test (NAT) is one of the indicators of a defective education
system. NAT scores of high school students are at a failing 46 percent.
Teacher preparation and professional development factors. Research has also
demonstrated that pedagogical content knowledge can strongly influence student learning.

Pedagogical content knowledge influences not only the way teachers modify textbook resources
and utilize explanations but also in the way they sequence content and interact with students
(Gallagher and Tobin, 1985). Research in teacher education has shown that teachers pedagogical
content knowledge influences the content and process of instruction they undertake in the
classroom (Grossman, 1988). Hanushek, Kain and Rivkin (1998), like many other researchers
(see for example Darling-Hammond, 1999), have concluded that the school effect on
achievement derives mainly from variations in teacher quality. A combination of flexibility,
independence, and experience with online tools has been associated with improved critical
thinking, research, and computer skills (Barker and Wendel, 2001).
In a study involving 7000 students Wenglinsky (2000) found that the quality of the
teaching force has a comparable impact on students' test scores as socioeconomic status.
One common indicator of teacher competence is teaching experience. However,
according to Wayne and Youngs (2003), the findings regarding experience are difficult to
interpret for several reasons. First, experience captures the effect of whether teachers were hired
during a shortage or a surplus. Cohorts will have experienced similar competition, and selection
effects are likely to confound effect of experience. Secondly, experience measures capture
differences in teacher motivation resulting from time constraints on parents during years when
their own children require more attention. Finally, if there are differences in effectiveness
between those who leave the profession and those who stay, experience measures would capture
those as well.
Several studies have found a positive relationship between teacher experience and student
achievement (Myrberg, 2010).

The time allotment for each subject is the minimum period for class interaction. The
learning time can be extended to include off-school learning experiences at home or in the
community for transfer of learning to real-life situations as provided for in the curriculum. The
outputs of such off-school learning experiences are usually in the form of products and
performances which shall be monitored and credited accordingly (DepEd Order, No. 31, s. 2012).

Educational Facilities. Critics pointed out that the educational outcomes are largely
dependent on resources made available to support teaching and learning.
Modules shall be provided as the basic learning resource. These are self-instructional
materials that lend themselves to independent and cooperative learning. For schools with
connectivity, web-based resources and video materials are encouraged to be used to enrich and
deepen students understanding. Existing textbooks may still be used where appropriate (DepEd
Order, No. 31, s. 2012).
Resources for teachers include teaching guides, prototype lesson plans, and lesson
exemplars, matrix of existing books, workbooks, and modules. Ultimately, the governments
ability to secure resources to implement the K to 12 program and at the same time address the
unresolved shortages in educational inputs will determine the countrys quality of education in
the future. As wisely stated in the Philippine EFA plan, Good education is expensive but lack of
education costs many times more.

Spiral Progression Curriculum. The overall design of Grades 1 to 10 curriculum follows

the spiral approach across subjects by building on the same concepts developed in increasing
complexity and sophistication starting from grade school. The scope and sequence of the content
are developed such that concepts and skills are revisited at each grade level with increasing

depth. As more facts and principles on each topic are encountered, the understanding grows in
breadth and depth, creating a metaphorical spiral. Teachers are expected to use the
spiral/progression approach in teaching competencies (Corpuz, 2012).

Challenges: Issues and Concerns. Critics also questioned the relationship of the
education cycle length and education quality. They cited studies by the Trends in International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) which revealed that longer education cycles do not
necessarily result in better performance of students. But, one of the major concerns of the critics
is the additional expense to be incurred by the parents. The longer education cycle would be an
added burden to households and would later on translate to higher dropout rates. While the
government can provide free public education, the allowances, transportation, school supplies,
and other schooling expenses are still to be shouldered by the parents.
The 2005 Education for All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report (GMR) pointed out that
lengthening the learning time did not necessarily lead to better performance. The report instead
emphasized that what is more important is how effectively learning time is spent. In addition, a
World Bank (2007) study said that among the developing countries, returns to increased years of
schooling go hand in hand with increases in the quality of education. If the school system is of
low quality then it does not pay to keep children in school longer. Moreover, according to a study
conducted by a group of researchers from the Philippine Institute for Development Studies
(PIDS 2012), the rush implementation of the program may have unintended effects on social
equity if publicly funded. This is because many poor families do not reach beyond the secondary
level of educational attainment. In addition, the revised curriculum is not yet fully tested. Finally,
the study also raised concerns about the many reforms the DepEd is trying to implement all at

the same time, including the implementation of the K to 12 program, which might result in
similar reform failures in the past. It also expressed concern on the fact that DepEd might lose
administrative concentration by spreading itself too thinly.
According to Velasco (2012), the present curriculum is described as congested. This
means that students do not get enough time to perform tasks because the curriculum is designed
to be taught in a span of 12 years and not 10 years. The more obvious result of this is the fact that
most high school students graduate without the readiness to take upon higher education or
employment. These students are not equipped with the basic skills or competencies needed at
work. Furthermore, the short duration of our basic education program puts Filipinos who are
interested to either work or study abroad at a disadvantage. This is because other countries see
our 10-year program as incomplete, which then, causes Filipino graduates to not be considered as
professionals abroad.

II.

Related Studies
The Impact of Teachers Competence in Public
And Private Schools (Myrberg, 2010)
The main conclusion to be made from the above analyses is that teacher education is of

great importance for students' reading achievement. The results show that students in both school
public and private perform better when they have certified teachers. Furthermore, the influence
of teacher education seems to be of the same magnitude in public and private schools. The effect
of teacher education is a disputed question, as some have claimed that teacher competence is an
individual characteristic not much affected by education. It has also been argued that the
circumstances for education and learning in independent schools differ substantially from those
in public schools. The independent schools are supposed to attract highly motivated and devoted

teachers with various backgrounds and with the ability to shape a positive educational
environment for students.
The results in this study instead stress the significance of high quality teacher education
program that prepare for teaching in specific grades. Advocates for less standardized teacher
requirements have argued that a variety of teacher educational routes and experiences may
develop and vitalize students' education. Our findings do not support this belief. Instead,
effectiveness has been shown to be closely connected to appropriate teacher education.
One possible explanation for the strong relationship between teacher education and
students achievement for Swedish third graders is that most of these children have had the same
teacher for almost three years of schooling. Another explanation might be that teacher
certification in Sweden is still subject to nationwide regulations.
School type has no influence over student achievement in itself. It is however, a
mediating factor for parental education as well as teacher education. While students in public
schools have better educated teachers, students in independent schools have better educated
parents. These two influences work in opposite directions and are of the same magnitude. When
controlling for parental background, the mean reading test score advantage for students in
independent schools is wiped out. Furthermore, the results indicate that students in independent
schools are underachieving due to the relative shortage of certified teachers.
Other teacher characteristics such as sex, teacher experience, the amount of time spent in
in-service training and teacher co-operation, have in this study, not been shown to be related to
reading achievement.
The Opportunities and Challenges of Enhanced
K to 12 Basic Education Program (Oteyza, 2012)

In a discussion paper on the Enhanced K to 12 Basic Education Program prepared by

the DepEd in the last quarter of 2010, it was pointed out that K to 12 is an effective cure to the
deteriorating quality of the Philippine education system. The low achievement score of Filipino
students in the National Achievement Test (NAT) is one of the indicators of a defective education
system.
The DepEd also noted that the present ten-year curriculum is congested wherein students
are forced to absorb all the knowledge and skills necessary in a short and limited span of time.
As a result, high school graduates are often unprepared for employment, entrepreneurship, or
even higher education. They do not yet possess the basic competencies or even emotional
maturity essential for the world outside the school. High school graduates who do not pursue
higher education are thus unproductive or vulnerable to exploitative labor practices. In the same
context, those who may be interested to put up their own business cannot enter into legal
contracts yet. This partly explains why the number of unemployed Filipinos is increasing at an
alarming rate.
The short duration of the basic education system is also a disadvantage for the overseas
Filipino workers (OFWs), especially the professionals, and those who intend to study abroad.
DepEd further claims that the Filipino graduates are not automatically recognized as
professionals abroad because the ten-year curriculum is usually perceived as insufficient.
The DepEd therefore strongly believes that the K to12 program will give every learner the
opportunity to receive quality education based on an enhanced and decongested curriculum that
is internationally recognized and competitive.

From among various proposals and studies conducted to come up with an enhanced
model that is suitable to the Philippine context, DepEd proposed the K-6-4-2 model or the K to
12 model. This model involves kindergarten, six years of elementary education, four years of
junior high school (Grades 7-10), and two years of senior high school (Grades 11-12). The two
years of senior high school intend to provide time for students to consolidate acquired academic
skills and competencies. The curriculum will allow specializations in science and technology,
music and arts, agriculture and fisheries, sports, business and entrepreneurship.
DepEd Secretary Armin Luistro presented the Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda
(BESRA) last March in the annual membership meeting of the Philippine Business for Education
(PBEd). BESRA, as a package of reform initiatives, considers K to 12 as the flagship reform
strategy. The objective of the program is to be able to produce more productive and responsible
citizens equipped with the essential competencies and skills for both life-long learning and
employment.
The change is two-fold. It will give focus not only to the curriculum enhancement but
also to the transition management as well. The intention of K to 12 is not merely to add two
years of schooling but more importantly, to enhance the basic education curriculum.

A Comparative Study of the Attitudes between the Students and Teachers of Two Public Schools
in Northern Mindanao toward the K to 12 Curriculum Shift (Crisol et al, 2014)
The teachers responses on the question Do you believe that the curriculum will become
successful in achieving its goals?.

There were 8 (73%) out of 11 teachers from Karaos

Elementary School believes that the program will become successful while the remaining 3

(27%) of them said no. On the other hand, there were also 8 (88%) out of 9 teachers from
Rufino Santos Sr. Elementary school who believe that the program will be successful while 1
(12%) does not believe the program will be successful.
Out of the 20 respondents from the two schools combined, there were 16 (80%) teachers
who agreed that the curriculum will become successful while only 4 (20%) of them disagreed.
This defines the teachers attitude as to their perception on the success of the K - 12
program. The teacher respondents are positive that the program will be effective in achieving its
goals. This finding provides an overview on the success of the program. Since these teachers are
the ones who will receive trainings on the additional two years of the curriculum, the
administration then would find it easy to train these teachers since they already have a positive
impression on the program.
The teachers self-assessment with regards to their preparedness on the program. As
reflected, all (100%) the respondents from Karaos Elementary School believe that they are not
yet equipped for the program. Similar results were also taken from Rufino Santos Sr. Elementary
School where 7 (78%) out of 9 teacher respondents believe that they are not prepared for the
program. The remaining 2 (10%) of the teachers believe that they are prepared for the new
curriculum. These teachers believe that they are not prepared for the implementation of the K
12 program because they think they are not equipped with trainings and facilities that will make
effective for the program.
The students response on the question Do you think the K - 12 will help you better in
getting a job in the future? As revealed, out of 102 respondents from Karaos Elementary
School, 92 (90.2%) agreed that the education that they have obtained under the program will

help them get a good job while only 10 (9.8%) disagreed. In parallel to their responses, 55
(88%) out of 62 students agreed while 7 (11.3%) disagreed from Rufino Santos Sr. Elementary
School.
A great percentage 89.6% of the respondents of the two schools combined welcomes the
idea that the additional years in education would help them land into a better job. This result
agrees with Primer (2011) that the K-12 vision aims to have relevance in the socio-economic
realm, as well. This means that the students would understand their role as productive members
of the country.
Likewise, the students will become more mature in dealing with the problems that they
encounter daily, thus enabling them to become effective members of the workforce. This
strengthens the statement of DepEd (2011) that every student would have an understanding of
the world around him and a passion for life-long learning while addressing every students basic
learning needs: learning to learn, the acquisition of numeracy, literacy, and scientific and
technological knowledge as applied to daily life. So instead of having a high school graduate at
16 (years old), the schools will have high school students graduating at 18 (Calingasan, 2011).
The following are the findings of this study:
The students were positive to the implementation of the K - 12 program, they also are
optimistic that it will be successful in achieving its goals. Moreover, the students are willing to
invest their time and resources to undergo the program.
The teachers also approve the implementation of the program. They believe that the
program will effectively equip the students in the fields and careers that they have chosen.

Although they are willing to embrace the program, still they find themselves not equipped to
teach the students since they believe that they need more trainings.

Parents Perceived Problems Regarding the Implementation

of K-12 Program (Parica, 2012)
Majority of the parents/respondents had their sources of information from PTA meeting
and orientation conferences. According to them, the current education system does not possess
the basic competencies. K-12 program was only concerned with the students who are not yet
ready to enter the world of work. But on the other hand, this program will pave way to a
generation of graduates who are equipped not only with their daily life experiences for future
sustainable development.
Parents personal perception. This K-12 program will be a burden on the part of parents
and students, not just for emotional, physical reason but also in financial aspect because this
program will prolong the years of stay in school of the students. These could result to shortage of
classrooms, teachers and non-teaching personnel.

References

Corpuz, B. (2012). The Spiral Progression Approach in the K to 12 Curriculum.

http://www.slideshare.net
Crisol, L. G. and Alamillo, J.B. (2014, March 6-8) A Comparative Study of the Attitudes
between the Students and Teachers of Two Public Schools in Northern Mindanao toward

the K to 12 Curriculum Shift, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines.

DepEd Order, No. 31, s. 2012, Department of Education, DepEd Complex, Meralco

Avenue, Pasig City 1600. www.deped.gov.ph

Department of Education. (2010, November 2). Salient Points on the Enhanced K+12

Basic Education Program.

Department of Education. (2010, October 5). Discussion Paper on the Enhanced K+12

Basic Education Program.

Department of Education. (2006, September). Functionally Literate Filipinos: An
Educated Nation. Philippine Education For All (EFA) 2015 National Action Plan.

National Education For All Committee.

Department of Education. (No Date). Financial Forecast for the K+12 Model.
Luistro, A. (2012). The state of basic education: gaining ground [PowerPoint slides].

http://www.slideshare.net/arangkadaph/state-of-education-in-the-philippines-2012.
Myrberg, E. (2010). The Impact of Teacher Competence in Public And Private Schools,

Gothenburg University, Sweden.

Oteyza, K.C. Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS). The Opportunities and
Challenges of Enhanced K to 12 Basic Education Program Vol. XII No. 2 (2012,

December). Makati City, Philippines. URL: http://www.pids.gov.ph

Parica, R. (2012), Parents Perceived Problems Regarding the Implementation of K-12

Program, Iriga City, Camarines Sur.

Velasco, P.T. (2012). A Primer on the new K-12 Philippine Education Curriculum.

Retrieved: http://www.philippinedailyinquirer.com.
Yap, R.H., Senate Economic Planning Office (2011, June). K to 12: The Key to Quality
Education? www.senate.gov.ph.