September 8, 2014

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Definition: Science of study of the mind (psyche) or mental process
Psyche is the totality of the human mind, consciousness, and unconsciousness
Problems:
- What are mental processes?
- Difficult to define
- Mental process cannot be observed
- They can be inferred
- Behavior can be observed
- How do we measure behavior?
How do we quantify behavior?
In ANY science:
- We must define our variables in ANY science (psychology is a science)
- Measure (quantify) our variables)
Behavior
Problems:
- Behavior can be observed
- How do we measure behavior?
- How do we quantify behavior?
Major divisions of psychology:
-

Experimental
- Clinical
-Applied

Experimental Psychology:
- Debate over whether the mind is physical or non-physical
- Functionalism (pragmatism)
- Developed by Williams James in the U.S. (father of American psychology)
- What is the function of our thoughts, consciousness and emotions?
Clinical Psychology:
- Counseling; psychotherapy
- Now the major field in Psychology
Applied Psychology:
- Social developmental, educational, industrial psychology

Schools of psychology:
- Cognitive
- Biological
- Behavioral
- Social
- Psychoanalytical
Cognitive:
- Study of higher mental functions
- Attempts to infer hypothetical mental states of information processing based on current
response behavior, pattern.
- Provides and exceedingly elegant means to scientifically test various cognitive functions
(mental events)
- Must be inferred on the basis of performance
Sub-division of cognitive psychology:
- Cognitive neuroscience
- Neural/cognitive modeling
Biological:
- Biological psychologists attempt tom measure actual mental events by monitoring brain
activity.
- Manipulate brain (stimulate, lesion, drugs and determine effect on psychology)
Behavioral:
- Psychology as an objective science
- All psychological events must be directly observable
- We learn to repeat behavior that has been reinforced
- A strict environmental (not inner mind) explanation of behavior.
- All behavior is learned
- No need to infer inner mental causes no need to postulate about hidden, repressed
motives.
September 11, 2014
Deterministic behavior is determined by unconscious drives
How can we ever prove that there is an unconscious? How can we prove that certain memories are
repressed?
Differences among psychoanalysis, psychiatry, clinical psychology, experimental psychology
May or may not be a psychiatrist. (Emphasis on Freud and post-Freudian theory

Psychiatrist
-

Residency in psychiatry. Must have and M.D.

They employ a medical model
Treatment methods can include psychotherapy and drug therapy (psychiatric disorders are a
mental illness

Clinical psychology
-

In Canada, must have a research degree, a Ph.D.

Trained in both research and clinical psychology
Emphasis on abnormal behavior and not necessarily illness
Emphasis on change through counseling/psychotherapy

Experimental psychologist
-

Trained ONLY as a researcher

Not trained in clinical psychology
Legally, cannot provide psychotherapy or counseling

Phenomenological/Humanistic Psychology
-

Humanistic theories - Emphasis on unique human quality of behavior.

Concerned with individuals unique personal experience, their phenomenology
Concern with developing theories of inner life rather than explaining behavior
Criticized as being unscientific
Scientific Methods
(Methods of obtaining knowledge)

BIG research issues (at least according to Myers)

-

Stability vs. change

Rationality vs. irrationality
Nature vs. nurture

Epistemology (method of obtaining knowledge)

-

Divine (non physical insight)

Pure logic and thought (Aristotle)
Scientific manipulation

Idealism vs. Materialism

Is all that exists material in form?
-

Laws of physical universe

Psychology concepts
-

Love, hate, liberty, etc.

1. Observation of universe. What is the problem that needs to be solved?

1. -Variables: What is it that varies (changes)? Why?
2. Development of a theory. A possible answer to the question
3. Theory: literature search and a summary/synthesis of what is already known
- Note that this is not opinion or speculation
- Different theories. Controversy.
Scientific Process
4. Definition of variables of interest. Operational definition. Before a theory can be testes,
we need to define our variables.
5. Problems defining psychological concepts.
6. Measure/quantification of variables.
7. Design study requires a study
8. Run the Study
9. Analyze the results
10. Interpret the results
Experiment manipulation. The experimenter manipulates the independent variable
This might cause the dependant variable (that whish she/he is measuring) to vary

Theory
-

Define the problem

Obtain the known facts. What appears to cause the variation?
What is the possible answer? (What is the controversy?)
Development of theory a summary (synthesis of what we already known) and a
possible explanation of the phenomenon

September 15, 2014

OBSERVATION - Correlation Studies
-

Change in one variable is also associated with a change in another

This does not mean that change in one variable CAUSE the other variable to change
The correlation allows one to predict scores on one variable if the scores on another

variable are known.

Correlations vary from -1.0 to +1.0
A positive (increase) and negative correlations (decrease)
Correlation does not prove causality

True Experiments
-

Manipulation of one variable CAUSES another variable to change

Sources of Variance
-

Explained variance
Unexplained variance

Problems with the Mean

-

At times, our measures are not normally distributed (some are too high and/or others are
too low)

CASUALITY& logical positivism

-

Every scientific theory must be potentially falsifiable

We cannot prove something does not exist
We can prove something exists

Logical positivism
-

Based on theory, scientists form a hypothesis (or prediction).

According to many philosophers of science, we assume all hypotheses are false under

proven otherwise
Thus, we assume the negative. We assume the hypothesis is false.
The null hypothesis

Ethics of research
-

Informed consent
Can children volunteer to participate? The parents must give the consent
Cal we allow children to be very violent in a school setting?
Psychological studies on aggression and video games end to rely on measures of
aggression that are a far cry from murder.

Define & measure the Dependent Variable

How to define and measure aggression?

Random assignment of subjects

-

10 subjects in each of the 2 groups (control, experimental)

What is the null hypothesis?

We cannot explain
-

Variance within each of the groups

Errors
Unexplained variance

Statistical Significance
-

Divide explained variance by unexplained variance

Researcher MUST indicate what is the probability of finding a difference this large by

chance alone
Note: Statistical significance and practical significance are not the same thing

Ensure that a dif. is statistically significant

-

Ensure that explained variance is high

September 18, 2014

How could a researcher ensure that a difference is statistically significant?

-

F=explained var./unexplained var.

Ensure explained variance is large enough
(The size of the experimental effect)
Larger differences are more likely to be significant (ml of vodka vs. L of vodka example)
The size of individual differences
In a pre-test if all individuals score the same and then in a post-test, they score only slightly

higher, this is not due to chance.

The size of the sample
We are much more confident with results from large than small samples
If a very large sample is used, very small differences might be statistically significant (an
undergraduate drinks a case of beer a day example then same for 50 other people = same
results = confident is result)

Case Studies
-

One exceptional individual (or a few) is/are studied in detail.

Patient HM: he had severe epilepsy

Problems
-

Generalization
Exceptions to the rule

Group studies sampling

-

Sample a small number of individuals from a population

Randomization? (From that population, we randomly select)
Representative?
Its better to have a small but representative sample than one than is large and
unrepresentative

True experiments
-

Experimental manipulation applied

(The dependent variable is caused to change by manipulation of the independent variable

Problems with True Experiments

-

Sample size, often small, generalization (a lack of funds or accessibility, etc.)

But power of replication
Experiment must often be carried out in a controlled setting (often in a laboratory)

Quasi-Experiments
-

In the social (human) environment, the scientist cannot always manipulate the independent

variable.
Comparing one group to another
Assumed that the differences are caused bye independent variable

Experimental Designs (experimental control)

-

One design uses control and experimental groups

Why is the control groups called control group
Random assignmentparticipants will be randomly assigned to either the control or
experimental conditions.

Experimental Designs (Pre-Post)

-

Problem with use of control experimental group

One group might be different from another by chance probability alone
Solution: use the same groups of participants in repeated conditions

Experimental Designs (Placebo)

-

A special design is used to examine the effects of treatment

A treatment is given to a patient. The patient improves over time.
Was the treatment effective? Perhaps not
The placebo effect
To control for this, one group of patients is given the actual drug (or any other treatment)

and the other half is given what they think is a valid treatment
This control condition is called the placebo condition

Placebo (contd)
-

Double blind design

Placebo effects can be extremely powerful
No medical treatment that is approved by the Ministry of Health can be used with the

general public before a placebo study is carried out

Are the benefits of psychotherapy actually a placebo effect?

Survey
-

One is asked to report their behavior, to attitude or beliefs typically using a survey
A major problem with surveys is determining if the sample is truly representative of the

population
Are those that volunteer to participate truly representative?

Example of survey questions

Do you agree or disagree that:
-

Wording can influence the results

The Canadian government should approve any research published by its scientist.
The Canadian government should censor any research published by its scientists

Marijuana Consumption Survey example

Conservatives:
A certain number of marijuana users will eventually also use drugs such as cocaine and heroin.
Should marijuana use be legalized in Canada?
Liberal:

Scientist have shown that smoking cigarettes is much more addictive than smoking marijuana.
Should marijuana use be legalized in Canada?
September 22, 2014
Neurosciences: neuronal and synaptic transmission
-

Terminal Endings: secrete neurotransmitter substance

Axon

Myelin Sheath:
-

Lipid materials
Protect axon
Insulating material
Speeds up transmission

Terminal Ending
Types of neurons
-

Cerebellum
Visual cortex
Auditory Cortex
Primary Cortex
Dentate gyros

3 Categories of Neurons:
-

Sensory Neurons transmit impulses received by sensory receptors to Central Nervous

System (CNS). Afferents.

Motor Neurons: carry outgoing signals from CNS to muscles & glands. Efferent.
Interneuron

Interneuron:
-

Interneuron communication
Often, far removed from either sensory or motor neurons
Communication can be excitatory or inhibitory
This allows for flexibility of behavior
This is the route to memory

Resting Potential
-

All cells carry an electrical charge

Charge of the neuron can change

This allows one neuron to communicate to another (or to perhaps a muscle)
An inactive neuron has an excess of negatively charged ions inside the nerve cell
Charge is about -70 mVolt (mv) for humans

Depolarization
-

When the dendrite is electrically stimulated

Cell membrane opens channels: positively charged ions to flow in
If the level of excitation is not enough (the critical threshold is not reached)
When critical threshold (threshold of excitation) is reached, the neuron fires
The action potential will travel down the length of the axon
May subsequently influence the firing of another neuron

All-or-None Law
-

Action potential will travel down the length of the axon

The amplitude of the axon potential will not vary.
We either get the action potential or we do not
Increasing the intensity of stimulation will not cause the action potential to get larger.

Coding the Message

-

This has important consequences for coding in the nervous system

The intensity of the stimulus cannot be coded by the size (or amplitude) of the action

potential
Amplitude of the action potential cannot vary
Intensity could be coded by how often the neuron fires

Propagation of Action Potential

-

Long axon are myelinated (have a myelin sheath)

The myelin sheath is not continuous. At places the axon (called the nodes) is exposed
This allows the action potential to jump from node to node

Synaptic Transmission
-

Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap (under influence of action potential)
The neurotransmitters are no longer protected by the cell membrane (when synaptic gap

is the intercellular space)

Neurotransmitters travel to post-synaptic neurons or muscle cells
The neurotransmitter binds to the post-synaptic receptors. Excitatory or inhibitory effects
The neurotransmitter will have a long-term effect until its actions are terminated
Enzymes (to break down the molecule)
Reuptake

Actions of Neurotransmitters
-

Neurotransmitters are either excitatory or inhibitory

An excitatory neurotransmitter will increase the likelihood that the post-synaptic cell will
fire. How?

Causes depolarization
Possibility of action potential
An inhibitory neurotransmitter will decrease the likelihood that the post-synaptic cell will

fire. How?
Resting potential becomes more negatively charged than normal
Hyper polarization
Increase in the critical threshold for the firing the action potential of the post-synaptic
neuron.

Six ways drugs may affect synaptic transmission (1-3 not very common)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Block release of neurotransmitter

Block storage of neurotransmitter in pre-synaptic membrane
Cause release of excessive neurotransmitter
Simulates or block receptor on post-synaptic membrane
May attack enzymes that break down neurotransmitter
Block re-uptake of the neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitters
-

Acetylcholine
Norepinephrine
GABA
Dopamine

Acetylcholine (ACh)
-

Generally excitatory on membrane of skeletal-muscle fiber (muscles contract)

Muscle paralysis
o Curare block Ach receptors
o Botulin blocks Ach release
Muscle convulsions
o Black widow spider venoms (stimulates release of Ach)
In CNS, role in memory Ach depleted in Alzheimers disease)

Norepinephrine (NE)/Noradrenalin (NA)

-

Important role in alertness and mood

Increase alertness in the brain

Gamma-Amino -butyric Acid (GABBA)

Dopamine (DA)
-

Predominately inhibitory
Insufficient quantity of DA: Parkinsons disease
Implicated in movement, attention, and learning
Tremors & paralysis
Too much DA: psychosis

Serotonin (5HT)
-

Plays a role in sleep (dreaming?)

Perhaps control of eating, mood, pain regulation
We do not know much about 5HT
Drugs that are similar in their chemical structure may result in bizarre hallucination (i.e.
mushrooms, LSD, etc.)

Endorphins
-

Natural opiates of the brain

Chemical structure similar to opiates (heroin, morphine)
Inhibit sensation of pain
Increase mood and pleasure
Thursday September 25, 2014
The Brain and Nervous System

Orientation
-

Medial-Lateral
Ventral-Dorsal (belly-back)
Anterior-Posterior aspects of the brain (front-back)
Superior Inferior aspects of the brain (upper-lower)

Slices
-

Coronal
Sagittal
Horizontal

Imaging Techniques
-

Anatomical techniques
o Slicing the human brain
o Viewing macrostructures with the human eye or microstructures with a microscope
Appropriate for cadavers
MRI
o Advantages: provide high resolution images of the human brain
o Problems:
Static: provides an image of the structures but does not show exactly what

Problems with MRI

the image is doing

Very expensive
Cerebral organids model human brain development and microcephaly

Functional Techniques (observing the active brain)

-

What areas of the brain are responsible for different animal and human functions?
In the clinical setting: Observe function lost because of brain injury (trauma, stroke,
tumors, etc).
Problem: human brain injuries are often widespread and not highly specific.
In the experimental setting: Lesion a specific part of animal brains to determine its function
Stimulate a specific area of the brain to observe the function it controls
Optogenetics (show movie)
o Controlling the Brain with Light (MIT video)
o The light activates nerve cells that make the mouse go around in circles (right
cortex is activated)
o Using light to control function of the cells.
o Proteins: channelrhodopsin2
o Gene+ promoter put them in a virus then inject virus into mouse to

activate the protein, all we need is light genetic engineering

o Halorhodopsin (the light activates it)
Problems: In many case, it is difficult to know just what an animal is experiencing
Higher mental states may well differ across species. How applicable are these studies to
humans?

Human Stimulation
-

Trans-Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)

Functional Techniques
-

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

Advantages: provides an image of the function of various structures of the brain. Indicates
which areas are active (and require glucose) for a task to be completed.
Disadvantages:
o Invasive. Requires deoxyglucose to be injected into blood
o Very slow. Blood circulates slowly. The brain makes rapid decision. The PET
provides and image of all the brain areas that were active within the last 1-2 minutes
o Expensive

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Uses MRI scan

Indicates which areas are active (and require oxygen) for a task to be completed
High resolution image of the brain structures (unlike PET)

Visual Processing
Basic visual processing = regions in primary visual cortex along the acalcarine sulcus (left). Visual
search for change = extrastriate visual areas in the fusiform hyrus and intraparietal sulcus (right)
Huettel et al., 2001).
Disadvantages of MRI
-

Slow
Expensive

Imaging techniques
-

EEG/Evoked Potentials
Electrodes attached to the scalp
Provides an indication of the electrical activity of the brain

Evoke Potentials and EEG

-

When a stimulus is presented, the changes in the electrical activity (the evoked potential)
Advantages:
o Rapid. Processing in the brain can be determined every 1 ms
o Very inexpensive
Disadvantages
o Poor spatial resolution
o Provides poor indication of the actual underlying structure of the brain

The Nervous System

-

Peripheral nervous system

Central nervous system
o The spinal cord
o The brain
o Cerebral cortex and associated areas 12 -15 billion neurons

Peripheral Nervous System

-

Sensory Receptors

o In the body and also, specialized receptors in the head

Sensory nerves
o Afferent input from the sensory receptors to C.N.S. (central nervous system)
o In the body (soma)
o In the head (specialized senses)
Motor nerves
o Efferent output from C.N.S. to the muscles; motor action muscles NOT nerves
Muscles
o In the body and head (movement of head, face eyes, ears, tongue/lips)
o Heart, lungs, stomach, gut
Autonomic Nervous System
o Sympathetic (arousing; need for action and energy)
o Parasympathetic (calming; return to normal functioning)
Monday September 29, 2014

The Spinal Cord

-

Ganglia

Divisions of the Brain

-

Hindbrain
o Medulla; pons
Midbrain
Forebrain
o Diencephalon; cerebrum

The Brainstem
-

Medulla, pons, midbrain

Specialized senses of the head
Head muscles eye, ear movement, and facial muscles, tongue, lips, etc.
Life support system -- temperature; heart, respiration
Sleep-wake cycle
Reticular activating system

Cerebellum
The Thalamus
-

Receives input from all sensory systems (exception olfaction)

Massive grey area
Has specific sensory nuclei
Also, many association areas
Thus, acts as a type of receptionist/filter for the neocortex

The Hypothalamus
-

Monitors blood: levels of nutrients, water, etc

Autonomic nervous system
Control of the Endocrine system via the Pituitary gland

The Endocrine System

-

Control of the endocrine glands: via pituitary gland

The pituitary controlled by the brain
Hypothalamus monitors the level of hormones circulating in the blood
Hormones are released into the blood
Their action is thus general. This results in general, nonspecific drives and urges
Their action is slow and long-lasting
The neuron comes directly in contact with its target (axonal communication). It

communicates directly with the target through neurotransmitters

The action of a neuron is rapid and can specific or nonspecific

Architecture of the Cortex

-

Neo-cortex 6 layered grey matter

Complex interconnections
Sulci and gyri
Longitudinal, central, lateral fissures
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital lobes
Pre-central post central gyris
Thursday, October 2, 2014

The diencephalon:
Thalamus: located superior to the brain stem
o This is the first place where all sensory systems merge. (Massive grey area)
specific sensory nuclei
o

The thalamus can thus act as a type of receptionist for the neocortex, filtering
through which sensory afferents are relevant (and in which case, the message will
be relayed to the very busy cortex) and those that are not (in which case, further
processing will be inhibited).

o Functions include integration of incoming sensory information, attention, and

consciousness. (Has many association areas)
o Does not receive the olfaction sensory systems

Hypothalamus: located inferior to the thalamus (at base of brain)

o The hypothalamus has many subdivisions each of which controls the basic needs
and drives of the organism: eating, drinking, mating, temperature regulation.
o The hypothalamus monitors the blood that is circulating at the base of the brain
(nutrients, water, oxygen. Temp, hormones).
o As an example, if there is not enough glucose, a signal goes out and we feel
hungry. If blood pressure is low, we feel thirsty.
o The hypothalamus forms part of the autonomic nervous system and controls it
o Controls the endocrine system via pituitary gland
Pituitary gland:
o Not part of CNS because not composed of neurons
o Control of the endocrine glands via pituitary glands
o Controlled by the brain

Hypothalamus monitors the level of hormones circulating in the blood

The endocrine system:

-

Hormones are released into the blood

Their action is thus general. This results in general nonspecific drives and urges.

Actions of hormones is slow and long-lasting

The neuron comes directly in contact with its target (axonal communications). It
communicates directly with the target through neurotransmitters

Action of neuron is rapid and can be specific or non-specific

Architecture of the Cortex:

- Neo-cortex 6 layered grey matter
- Longitudinal fissure (very deep, separates the hemispheres)
- Central fissure (fissure of Rolando) separates frontal lobe and parietal lobe
- Lateral fissure (fissure of syllvius) separates the temporal lobe from frontal and parietal
- Another fissure separating occipital from the rest (but only not in humans, chimps and what
not)

From the website, he posted:

Some changes have been made to the notes for the section on The Biology of the Brain:
Neuroscience II, The Brain & Mind. Most of these changes are relatively minor and have been
made principally for clarification. In some cases, the changes correct errors in the text. You should
download the section again. The changes that have been made are as follows:
The Brainstem. Some authors consider the cerebellum to be part of the brainstem. I thus added the
following information:

Cerebellum. Properly speaking not part of the brainstem but it is connected to it via the pons, the
bridge over the brainstem that will also provide connections to the motor cortex of the cerebrum.
Inter-neuronal communication within the cerebellum is enormously complex. We do know that a
good deal of our motor skills must be learned. The formation of these motor memories, motor
programmes and circuits are stored in the cerebellum. But, we are typically not conscious of the
motor programmes. Thus, if I were to ask you how to ride a bicycle, you would have a very
difficult time demonstrating to me how to ride the bicycle (because you are not conscious of the
various steps in the motor programme). You could nevertheless demonstrate to me how to ride the
bicycle. The motor programme must thus be stored. This is also a very important example of softwiring and plasticity. The circuits for the specific motor skill were not established at birth (i.e.,
established genetically). Rather the circuit is established though experience and learning after
considerable practice. By contrast, most of the connections in the brainstem are hard-wired and are
established through genetics, not through learning and experience.
Peripheral Nervous System. Add point 5:
-

Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic (provides energy and arousal in times of

emergency) & Parasympathetic (calming; returns system to normal functioning) branches.
For more detail, see section on Autonomic Nervous System later in these notes.

The Frontal Lobe

Under motor functions, note the change in the description of Brocas area:
-

Broca's area (inferior frontal lobe) and speech

The Limbic System

The amygdala is located immediately anterior and somewhat superior to the hypothalamus (in
grey). Hypothalamus has been changed to hippocampus.
The Cerebrum (Neocortex):
-

Architecture (6-layerd)
Complex interconnections
Sulci and gyri

Longitudinal, central ,lateral fissures

Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital lobes
Pre central; post-central gyrus
Corpus callosum

Architecture of the Cortex:

- Neo-cortex: 6 layered grey matter (arch-cortex only has 3 layers)
Sensory/Motor Cortices:
- Vision (occipital lobe)
- Audition(gyrus of Heschl- temporal lobe)
- Somatosensory (post-central gyrus-parietal lobe)
- Motor (pre-central gyrus-frontal lobe)
- Cerebellum
Primary Sensory Cortices:
- Detect basic features of stimulus input.
- Location
- Duration
- Intensity
- Pitch; colour
Speech Areas:
- Motor (communicate) aspects: Broca's area
- (two hemispheres, one theory is that they both do the same thing, if you lose one you can
still run on the other (backup brain), )
- Sensory (receptive) aspects: Wernicke's area
- Non-dominant hemisphere: tonality; emotional expression.
- (if you are right handed, it is thought that your right brain is the more dominant one)
Association Areas:
- Massive areas of the frontal lobe.
- Massive areas of the parietal lobe.
- Massive areas of the temporal lobe.
- Portions of the occipital lobe.
Frontal Lobe:
- Psychological functional
- Selective attention, concentration, will, initiative (initiator of appropriate action),
- Inhibitor of inappropriate action; social norms,
- Executive control
- Insight, logic, feedback
- Consciousness, self-consciousness, personality
Evolution of the Frontal Lobe:
- How long does it take for the frontal lobe to mature?: 18-20 years

Self-Consciousness:
- Theory of mind. (learn whats appropriate and inappropriate)
Parietal Lobe:
- Post-Central Gyrus
- Permanent memory systems (?) (me must store memories)
- Switching of attention. (you are forced to switch attention)
- Naming object (?) (associates with your memory, has nothing to do with your visual cortex,
you can still see shapes and describe, just do not remember what it is)