Suggested Answers Electronics

December 2008
a) (i) Q 1 is cmos p- channel while Q2 is cmos n- channel
input Switch position Q1 Q2 output

0V 1 ON OFF 15
15V 2 OFF ON 0V
(b)
2a
Gain- bandproduct = product of open loop gain and bandwidth

.
With voltage gain of 1000 and bandwidth of 1000,
Gain- bandwidth = 1000 × 1000 = 10 6

b. i The circuit is a low- pass active filter
R2 56
ii mid- band gain ( Av ) = 1 ⊕ =1 ⊕ = 1.56
R3 100
1 1
iii cut- off frequency = = = 723.4Hz
2πRC 2π × 2.2 ×10 3 ×100 ×10 −9
3 a.i hfe is the ratio of the collector current to the base current at constant of collector- emitter voltage.
IC
i.e hfe = @ Constant Vce
IB
ii hie is the ratio of the base- emitter voltage to the base current at constant of base – emitter
Vbe
voltage. i.e hie = @ Constant Vbe
Ib
bi
×
ROUT
ii Voltage gain = hfe ×
R IN
1 0.01 ×10000
Rin = hie = 1K Ω= 100 Ω; Rout =
hoe // R L = 0.01 ⊕10000 =9.99 × 10 −3 Ω
80 ×9.99 ×10 −3
Voltage gain = = 799.2
1000
VOUT
Voltage gain=
V IN
Vout = Voltage gain × Vin = 799 .2 ×10 ×10 −3 = 7.992V
a
N- Channel JFET comprises of a channel of n- type material surrounded by material of the
opposite polarity. The ends of the channel( in which conduction takes place ) form electrode
known as the source and drain. The effective width of the channel is controlled by a charge placed
on the third electrode called gate.
OPERATION
There are two distinct regions of operation, both of which have useful application.
For low values of drain- source voltage, the drain current is progressively increased as the gate-
source voltage is made less negative. The operation region is known as the triode region
(amplification)
For high values of drain- source voltage, the drain current is progressively reduced as the gate-
source voltage is made more negative. At a certain value of gate- source voltage, drain current
falls to zero and the dvice is said to be cut-off( switching)
b) Limiting conditions of transistor as a switch are;

i Saturation
ii Cut-off
c) Vin = I B R B I C = 4mA ; h fe = 90
V IN IC
RB = h fe =
IB IB
IC 4 ×10 =3 5 5000
IB = = = 0.04 mA RB = −3
= = 125 KΩ
h fe 90 0.04 ×10 0.04
VCC − I C RC =VCE
RC = VCC − VCE
IC
10
@ Saturation VCE ≅ 0V RC = = 2.5 KΩ
0.004
5 a Effects of negative feedback
1 Less harmonic
2 Increase bandwidth
3 Highly stabilized gain
b) i Voltage- series feedback
ii Practical circuit which utilizes this type of feedback is emitter- follower ( common- collector
configuration )
openedloop gain
c) closedloop edgain =
1 ⊕ feedback × openedloop gain
100000
= = 33 .32
1 ⊕ 0.03 ×100000
6a
1. The gain must be infinite
2. The overall loop voltage gain must be greater than one
3. Must occur at a single frequency
b) Tunned- LC Oscillator
When the supply is first switched ON a transient current is developed in the tunned circuit as the
collector current rises to its quiescent value. This transient current initials natural oscillations in the tank
circuit (LC) . These natural oscillations induce a small e.m.f into L2 by mutual induction which causes
corresponding variation in base current. These variations in base current are amplified β times and
appear in the collector circuit. Part of this amplified energy is used to meet losses taking place in the
oscillatory circuit and the balance is radiated out in form of electromagnetic wave.
1 1
ii frequency of oscillation = = = 79 .6 KΩ
2π LC 2π 1 ×10 −3
× 4 ×10 −9
7a
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A.B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
A.B.C ±A.B.C ±A.B C ±A.BC

AB (C ±C ) ± AB (C ±C )
AB ± A B = A( B ±B ) = A
c)
d) Latch is needed to momentarily store information electronically.

8a
i Class A- 50%
ii Class AB- 70%
iii Class B- 78.5%
b) The complementry pair is made use of in push- pull class B amplifier. One NPN and one PNP
transistor. The NPN is forward biased during positive half- cycle allowing current to flow while
PNP is reverse biased, so it cut-off. The PNP is forward biased during negative half- cycle
allowing current to flow while NPN is reverse biased. During this operation, crossover distortion
occurs as show below.
Crossover distortion can be eliminated by applying slight forward bias to each emitter diode. i.e locating
the Q- point of each transistor slightly above cu-off so that each one operates for more than one half cycle.
9
a)
i Channel gain ; It is used for the adjustment of pattern width and height.
ii Time base ; This controls the speed at which the beam is swept across the screen from left to right. It
does this by setting the sweep time of the time base generator.
b) i Where two or more waveforms are to be display simultaneously

ii Where waveshape needed to be measured and displayed with equal accuracy.
c) Expected voltage drop across resistor 5k Ω when voltmeter is not connected is given by
5000
= ×10 = 9.9900 V
5000 ⊕ 5
4000
With the voltmeter connected; The reading of the voltmeter = ×10 = 9.9875 V
4000 ⊕ 5
Error in the measured reading = 9.9900- 9.9875= 0.0025V
10
a)
Phototransistor is light- sensitive transistor and similar to an ordinary bipolar junction transistor except that
it has no connection to the base terminal. Its operation is based on the photodiode that exists at the
collector-base junction . Instead of the base current, the input to the transistor is provided in the form of
light.
OPERATION
When light is incident on the collector- base junction, a base current is produced which is directly
proportional to the light intensity. When there no incident light on the collector – base junction, there is a
small thermally generated collector- to- emitter leakage current which in this case, is called dark current
and is in the nanoamps range.
b)
In a fibre- optical communication system, information signal which is an incoming electrical signal is turn
into light using a device called an emitter. The emitter may be a LED ( light emitter diode ) or laser diode.
The light travels down the core . It remains in the core and never leaves it ( never entering the cladding ) .
At the receiver side, the light signal, which made it through the fibre- optic cable is returned to an electrical
signal by a detector. Detector might be a PIN diode or an APD ( Avalanche photo diode ). The light send
down the fibre- optic cable corresponds to an electromagnetic wave with a frequency in the range of 10 14
to 10 15 Hz. This system is capable of sending information at rates of 10 14 bits/s.
c) When the intensity of the incident light on the light depend resistor increases, the resistance of the LDR
decreases, current flow through LDR and not to the base of the transistor . Thus TR2 is OFF and no
output. When the intensity of the incident light on the LDR decreases, in such a way that the resistance of
the LDR is greater than R1 , current flow to the base of TR2 and turn it ON. Thus, there is output.
June 2008
3 a) i hfe is the ratio of the collector current to the base current at constant of collector- emitter voltage.
IC
i.e hfe = @ Constant Vce
IB
ii hie is the ratio of the base- emitter voltage to the base current at constant of base – emitter voltage. i.e
Vbe
hie = @ Constant Vbe
Ib
b)
ROUT
ii Voltage gain = hfe ×
R IN
250 ×100000
Rin = hie// R B = = 249 .4 Ω; Rout = 1 h // R L =
250 ⊕100000 oe
10000 × 2000
= 1666 .7Ω = 1.7 KΩ
10000 ⊕ 2000
120 ×1.7 ×10 3
249 .4
VOUT
Voltage gain=
V IN
Vout = Voltage gain × Vin = 817 .96 ×10 ×10 −3 =8.2V
4. a)
i Class A The transistor is biased that output current flows for the full- cycle of the input signal .
That is the transistor remains forward biased through out the input cycle. Its condition angle is 360
0 . The maximum efficiency of the amplifier is 50%.
ii Class B The transistor is biased and the amplitude of the input signals are such that output
current flows for only half- cycle (180 0 ) of the input signal.
The maximum efficiency of the amplifier is 78.5%.
iii Class C The transistor is biased and signals amplitudes are such that output current flows for
appreciably less than half- cycle of the input signal i.e 120 0 or 150 0 angle codition.
b) Distortion can occur in a class A amplifier if a large signal is applied to it which will
eventually cause a shift in Q- point to non-linear regions near saturation . This in turn
results to distortion.
5 a)
Values of characteristics of a typical operational amplifier are ;
i Input resistance is high ( infinite )
ii Output resistance is low
iii Open loop gain is finite
iv Wide bandwidth
b)
i High pass active filter
ii Cut-off frequency =
1 1
= = 1591 .6 Hz = 1.592 KHz
2πRC 2 × π ×10 ×10 3 ×10 ×10 −9
R2 100 ×10 3
iii Mid- band voltage gain = − = = −10
R1 10 ×10 3
6
a) Feedback factor ( β) is the ratio of the portion of output that is fed back into the input.
b)
i Less harmonic
ii Increase bandwidth
iii Highly stabilized gain
c)
i The RC phase- shift oscillator uses an amplifier and RC network to provide feedback . The
amplifier is to provide phase reversal and amplified the oscillating signal while RC network is
used to control the phase of the feedback signal. This enable the oscillator to become sensitive to a
signal of only one particular frequency
ii
1 0.065 0.065
Resonant frequency (f o ) = = = 527 .6 Hz
2π 6 RC RC 5.6 ×10 3 × 22 ×10 −9
7
a)
i OR GATE ii NAND GATE
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

A B A±B A B A.B
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
b)
Assuming A is high, A will be low since the output of an inverter is the complement of the input . The
low input to NAND gate 1 cause the Q output to go high. This high Q output is also fed to the input of
NAND gate 2 . The other input to NAND gate 2 B is high , with both input to gate 2 high, the output goes
low. The low Q output is also fed to NAND gate 1 to be used as the LATCH signal . If A goes low while
this condition exists, there will be no change to the output because the flip-flop would be in the LATCH
condition both A and B low.
c)
F= AB C ± A BC ± A BC
ii F = AB C ± A BC ± A BC ± ABC = AB C ±BC ( A ± A) ± ABC

= AB C ± BC ± ABC = AB (C ±C ) ± BC = AB ± BC
8a b)
i Class A- 50% Linear audio amplifier
ii Class B- 78.5% push- pull amplifier
c) The complementry pair is made use of in push- pull class B amplifier. One NPN and one
PNP transistor. The NPN is forward biased during positive half- cycle allowing current to flow
while PNP is reverse biased, so it cut-off. The PNP is forward biased during negative half- cycle
allowing current to flow while NPN is reverse biased. During this operation, crossover distortion
occurs as show below.
9 a)
ii Time base ; This controls the speed at which the beam is swept across the screen from
left to right. It does this by setting the sweep time of the time base generator.
iii Synch/trigger; These controls allow the scope to triggered from various selected
sources. Triggering causes the trace to being its sweep across the screen.
b)
i It produces a visual indication of waveform

ii The frequency, period and phase angle of the waveform(s) can be determined
iii It can display two or more waveforms simultaneously
c)
c) Expected voltage drop across resistor 5k Ω when voltmeter is not connected is given by
1000000
= ×12 = 6V
200000
The resistance of the voltmeter at 10V range is= 10000 Ω/V × 10V= 100000 Ω
50
With the voltmeter connected; The reading of the voltmeter = ×12 = 4V
50 ⊕100
Error in the measured reading = 6V-4V= 2V
10 a
i Construction
Optical- isolators are designed to electrically isolate one circuit from another which allowing one circuit to
control the other .The purpose of isolation is to provide protection from high- voltage transients surge
voltages and low-level electrical noise that could possible result in an erroneous output or damage to the
device. An optical isolator consists of a light source such as light emitting diode (LED ) and a photo
detector such as phototransistor
Operation
When LED is forward biased, the light produced by it is transferred to the phototransistor which is turned
ON thereby producing current through the external load.
ii Application
They are used in applications where a low-level input voltage is required to latch a high voltage relay for
activating some kind of electromechanical device
b)
i The resistance of a light dependent resistor is affected by the amount of light falling on its surface. The
higher the intensity of the light , the lower the resistance of the light dependent resistor.
ii The T1 is a phototransistor which is turned ON by the ray of light descending on it.

This causes current to flow through to transistor T2 which is also turned ON by producing current through
the relay coil to the external load.
December 2009
1a
i
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
0 0 ON ON OFF OFF VDD
0 1 ON OFF OFF ON 0V
1 0 OFF ON ON OFF 0V
1 1 OFF OFF ON ON 0V
The operation of the circuit is described as per the above truth table shown above
ii The logic function is NOR gate
b)
Time constant ( τ )= CR = 1 ×10 −9 ×10 ×10 3 = 0.00001 s
1 1
Period(T)= = = 0.001 s
f 100
CR ≤≤ T
2a
N- Channel JFET comprises of a channel of n- type material surrounded by material of the opposite
polarity. The ends of the channel( in which conduction takes place ) form electrode known as the source
and drain. The effective width of the channel is controlled by a charge placed on the third electrode called
gate.
OPERATION
(amplification)
falls to zero and the dvice is said to be cut-off( switching)
b)
i The biasing conditions are achieved by the use of voltage- divider consisting of R1 & R2
ii The circuit is stabilized against temperature variation by the emitter resistor R4
3a
i hfe is the ratio of the collector current to the base current at constant of collector- emitter voltage. i.e hfe
IC
= @ Constant Vce
IB
ii hie is the ratio of the base- emitter voltage to the base current at constant of base – emitter voltage. i.e
Vbe
hie = @ Constant Vbe
Ib
b)
ROUT
ii Voltage gain = hfe × NB: hie=t5K Ω is assumed to be an
R IN
erro from the examiner. Hence, the value of Rb is considered as the Rin
Rin = hie// R B ≅ 68 K
1
Ω; Rout = h // R L / Rc=
oe
1803 .3 × 20000
= 1651 .1Ω = 1.7 KΩ
1803 .3 ⊕ 20000
100 ×1.7 ×10 3
68 ×10 3
VOUT
Voltage gain=
V IN
Vout = Voltage gain × Vin = 2.5 ×10 ×10 −3 =25mV
4a
b)
The reasons why the gain falls off at the lower and higher frequencies is th presence of
capacitances, some of which are connected in series along the signal path and some in parallel.
c)
.i Increase bandwidth
ii Highly stabilized gain
iii Less harmonic distortion
5a
First- order high- pass active filter
The filter allows signals of frequency greater than the cutt-off to pass while blocking signals of
frequency below the cutt-off.
The function of this filter is to differentiate the signal.The presence of an operational amplifier
gives room for infinite gain but does not alter the function of the circuit.
b)
i Class B The transistor is biased and the amplitude of the input signals are such that output
ii Class C The transistor is biased and signals amplitudes are such that output current flows for
appreciably less than half- cycle of the input signal i.e 120 0 or 150 0 angle condition.
6a
1. The gain must be infinite

2. The overall loop voltage gain must be greater than one
3. Must occur at a single frequency
c) Tunned- LC Oscillator
1 1
ii frequency of oscillation = = = 15 .9 KHz
2π LC 2π 1 ×10 −3
× 0.1 ×10 −6
7a
i EX-OR gate
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A ⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Boolean Expression
= AB ⊕A B
b)
c)
AB C ± ABC ± A BC ± A BC = AB (C ±C ) ±BC ( A ±A)

AB ±BC A =A ( B ±BC )
8a
i Class A- 50%
ii Class B—78.5%
b) A practical circuit using class B element is the complementary pair or ‘push- pull’ arrangement .
The complementary devices are used to amplify the opposite halves of the input signal which is
then recombined at the output . This arrangement gives excellent efficiency but suffers from the
drawback that there is a small mismatch at the joins between the two halves of the signal.
iii Crossover distortion can be eliminated by applying slight forward biased to each emitter transistor . In
effect, it means locating the Q- point of each transistor slightly above cut-off so that each one operates for
more than one half-cycle. This resulted to class AB operation.
9a
ii Time base ; This controls the speed at which the beam is swept across the screen from
left to right. It does this by setting the sweep time of the time base generator
b)
i When the frequency, period and phase angle of a waveform is to be determined

ii When simultaneous display of two or more waveforms is required .
iii When a visual indication of the waveform of a quantity is needed.
c)
Limitation of the instrument
The instrument disturbing the circuit
Instrument aging
10 a
Like all other diode, light-emitter diodes are constructed of a p-layer and n-layer between which a depletion
layer is formed. If a diode is operated in the forward direction , and if the doping of the two layers is
roughly the same, the same number of electrons will travel from the n-layer to the p-layer as the number of
holes migrating from the p-layer to the n-layer. In the case of LED, however, the n-layer is very heavily
doped, whereas the p-layer is less heavily doped.
Operation
When the LED is operated in a forward direction the current through the depletion layer is almost
completely carried by electrons. The electrons reaching the p-layer recombine with the holes present
there.Energy is liberated ,which , depending on the material
Used, is emitted to some extent as visible light or as infra-red radiation.

b)
An optical-fibre is a glass or plastic fibre designed to guide light along its length
It is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmit light along its axis by the process of total internal
reflection
c)
June 2009
1a
i Differential amplifier
ii Single-ended and Double-ended operations
iii The typical voltage gains for single-ended and double –ended operation of differe ntial amplifier are
ONE (1) and TWO (2) respectively.
b)
i
input voltage(Vin) = 10 sin ωt = 10 sin 2 ×100 × π × t
output voltage(Vout)
d
= − CR × 10 sin 200 π × t = −1 ×10 −6 ×1.6 ×10 3 × 200 π ×10 cos 200 π × t
dt
The amplitude of the output waveform= 10 .6 ×cos( 200 ×3.142 ×0.01 ) =10 .54 V
The phase shift between the input and the output waveform is given by;
φ = ωt = 200 ×π ×0.01 = 6.3 0
2a
ii The primary cause of gain variation in amplifiers is the presence of capacitances, some of which are
connected in series along the signal path and some in parallel
At low frequencies, the series connected capacitors offer relatively large reactance thereby dropping off a
large part of the input signal.
At high frequencies, the reactance of the internal transistor capacitance and stray capacitances drops.
b)
VCC = I B R1 ±V BB ---------- (1) V BB = V BE ± I E R E ---- (2) V E = I E R E --- (3)
Using Voltage- Divider Rule
R2 33 ×10 3
V BB = ×VCC = × 9 = 2.941V
R1 ± R2 33 ×10 3 × 68 ×10 3
VCC − V BB 9 − 2.941
From (1) I B = = = 0.0891 mA
R1 68 ×10 3
I E ≈ IC
⇒ VE 2
V E = I C R4 ---- (4) IC = = = 2mA
R4 1 ×10 3
VCC = I C RC ±VCE ±V E
Collector Voltage
(VCE ) = VCC − I C RC −VE
= 9 − (0.002 × 2.2 ×10 3 ± 2) = 2.6V
3a
N- Channel JFET comprises of a channel of n- type material surrounded by material of the opposite
polarity. The ends of the channel ( in which conduction takes place ) form electrode known as the source
and drain. The effective width of the channel is controlled by a charge placed on the third electrode called
gate.
OPERATION
(amplification)
falls to zero and the device is said to be cut-off ( switching)
b)
VGS =V IN ----- (1) VO = g mVGS ROUT ----- (2)
1 1
ROUT = // RD // RL = R DS = 50 KΩ
YOS YOS
50 ×10 3 × 3.4 ×10 3

ROUT = = 3.2 KΩ 25 × 3.9 ×10 6
53 .4 ×10 3 R D // R L = = 3.4 KΩ
28 .9 ×10 3
VOUT g V R
Voltage Gain = = m GS OUT = 5 ×10 −3 × 3.2 ×10 3 = 16
V IN VGS
The output voltage (VOUT ) = VoltageGai n ×V IN = 16 × 0.5 = 8V
4a
i Input resistance is high ( infinite )
ii Output resistance is low
b)
The function of the operational amplifier is to allow signals whose frequency is less than cut-off frequency
to pass while blocking the signals with frequency above cut-off. It integrates the input signals.
ii with
CR ≥≥ T
c)
i Class A The transistor is biased that output current flows for the full- cycle of the input signal .
That is the transistor remains forward biased through out the input cycle. Its condition angle is 360
0 . The maximum efficiency of the amplifier is 50%.
ii Class B The transistor is biased and the amplitude of the input signals are such that output
iii Class C The transistor is biased and signals amplitudes are such that output current flows for
appreciably less than half- cycle of the input signal i.e 120 0 or 150 0 angle condition.
5a
i Voltage- series or shunt derived series and current- series or series derived series fed feedback.
ii The effects of current-series fed feedback on the input and output impedance is that both the impedances
increased.
While the effect of voltage-series fed feedback is that the input impedance increased but the output
impedance decreased.
b)
.i Increase bandwidth
ii Highly stabilized gain
iii Less harmonic distortion
iv Reduced noise
6a
d) Tunned- LC Oscillator
1 1
ii frequency of oscillation = = = 79 .6 KHz
2π LC 2π 1 ×10 −3
× 4 ×10 −9
b)
Two advantages of using crystal control in oscillators are

i For high frequency stability
ii Frequency can be adjusted
7a
EX-OR gate
The gate will produce a logic 1 output whenever either one of the input is at logic 1 and the other is at
logic 0
INPUT OUTPUT
A B A ⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Boolean Expression
= AB ⊕A B
b)
i
F = AB C ± A BC ± ABC ± ABC
ii F = AB (C ±C ) ± A BC ± ABC = AB ± A BC ± ABC
= A( B ±BC ) ± ABC = A( B ±C ) ± ABC = AB ± AC ± ABC
= AB ±C ( A ± AB ) = AB ± AC ± BC
8a
i Class A- 50%
ii Class B—78.5%
b)
i Class B push- pull amplifier
VCC 12
ii I C = = = 1.77 mA
RL 6.8 ×10 3
iii
A practical circuit using class B element is the complementary pair or ‘push- pull’ arrangement . The
complementary devices are used to amplify the opposite halves of the input signal which is then
recombined at the output . This arrangement gives excellent efficiency but suffers from the drawback
that there is a small mismatch at the joins between the two halves of the signal.
Crossover distortion can be eliminated by applying slight forward biased to each emitter transistor . In
effect, it means locating the Q- point of each transistor slightly above cut-off so that each one operates for
more than one half-cycle. This resulted to class AB operation.
iv
9a
1 10 3
i Frequency of W1 = = ii Amplitude of
4 ×1 ×10 −3 4
W2 = 1 ×10 ×10 −3 = 10 mV
iii phase difference between W1 andW 2 = 90 0
b)
i Resolution is the size or magnitude of each piece. It is the analog equivalent weight of the least
significant bit
full − scaleinput 20
ii Resolution = = 3.5 = 1.9V NB: n= Number of digit
2 −1
n
2 −1
10 a
i Basic function of photovoltaic is to convert light energy into electrical energy.

ii Basic function of photoconductive is to create resistance which varies inversely with intensity of light
that falls upon it.
b)
Phototransistor is light- sensitive transistor and similar to an ordinary bipolar junction transistor except
that it has no connection to the base terminal. Its operation is based on the photodiode that exists at the
collector-base junction . Instead of the base current, the input to the transistor is provided in the form of
light.
OPERATION
When light is incident on the collector- base junction, a base current is produced which is directly
proportional to the light intensity. When there no incident light on the collector – base junction, there is a
small thermally generated collector- to- emitter leakage current which in this case, is called dark current
and is in the nanoamps range.
c)
An optical-fibre is a glass or plastic fibre designed to guide light along its length
It is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmit light along its axis by the process of total internal
reflection

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December 2008

a) (i) Q 1 is cmos p- channel while Q2 is cmos n- channel

input Switch position Q1 Q2 output

Gain- bandproduct = product of open loop gain and bandwidth

Gain- bandwidth = 1000 × 1000 = 10 6

b) Limiting conditions of transistor as a switch are;

5 a Effects of negative feedback

A.B.C ±A.B.C ±A.B C ±A.BC

d) Latch is needed to momentarily store information electronically.

b) i Where two or more waveforms are to be display simultaneously

Error in the measured reading = 9.9900- 9.9875= 0.0025V

i Input resistance is high ( infinite )

ii Output resistance is low

iii Open loop gain is finite

INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

ii F = AB C ± A BC ± A BC ± ABC = AB C ±BC ( A ± A) ± ABC

i It produces a visual indication of waveform

Error in the measured reading = 6V-4V= 2V

ii The T1 is a phototransistor which is turned ON by the ray of light descending on it.

ii The logic function is NOR gate

ii The circuit is stabilized against temperature variation by the emitter resistor R4

iii Less harmonic distortion

First- order high- pass active filter

1. The gain must be infinite

AB C ± ABC ± A BC ± A BC = AB (C ±C ) ±BC ( A ±A)

i When the frequency, period and phase angle of a waveform is to be determined

Used, is emitted to some extent as visible light or as infra-red radiation.

φ = ωt = 200 ×π ×0.01 = 6.3 0

VCC = I B R1 ±V BB ---------- (1) V BB = V BE ± I E R E ---- (2) V E = I E R E --- (3)

Using Voltage- Divider Rule

VGS =V IN ----- (1) VO = g mVGS ROUT ----- (2)

50 ×10 3 × 3.4 ×10 3

The output voltage (VOUT ) = VoltageGai n ×V IN = 16 × 0.5 = 8V

ii Output resistance is low

ii Highly stabilized gain

iii Less harmonic distortion

Two advantages of using crystal control in oscillators are

= A( B ±BC ) ± ABC = A( B ±C ) ± ABC = AB ± AC ± ABC

iii phase difference between W1 andW 2 = 90 0

i Basic function of photovoltaic is to convert light energy into electrical energy.

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