Heat Transfer Equipment Design and Performance - Фенкойлы, Фанкойлы - Вентиляторные Доводчики

02/01/2016
HeatTransferEquipmentDesignandPerformance|,
HeatTransferEquipmentDesignand
Performance
8.1Estimatingsurfaceareaofheattransferequipmentoverallheattrans
Fercoefficientapproximatingoverallheattransfercoefficientinwatertubeboilers,firetubeboilers,
andairheaterslogmeantemperaturedifference
8.2Estimatingtubesideheattransfercoefficientsimplifiedexpressionfor
Estimatingtubesidecoefficient
8.3Estimatingtubesidecoefficientforair,fluegas,water,andsteam
8.4Estimatingheattransfercoefficientoutsidetubes
8.5Estimatingconvectiveheattransfercoefficientoutsidetubesusing
Grimsonscorrelations
8.6Effectofinlinevs.staggeredarrangement
8.07aEvaluatingnonluminousradiationheattransferusingHottelscharts
8.07bNonluminousradiationusingequations
8.08aPredictingheattransferinboilerfurnaces
8.08bDesignofradiantsectionforheatrecoveryapplication
8.09aEvaluatingdistributionofradiationtotubebanks
8.09bEstimatingthetemperatureofalanceinsideboilerenclosure
8.10Sizingfiretubeboilers
8.11Effectofgasvelocity,tubesizeonfiretubeboilersize
8.12Computingheatflux,tubewalltemperatures
8.13Effectofscaleformationontubewalltemperatureandboilerperfor
Mance
8.14Designofwatertubeboilers
8.15aPredictingoffdesignperformance
8.15bLogicforoffdesignperformanceevaluationforwatertubeboilers
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8.16Estimatingmetaltemperatureinaboilersuperheatertubethermalresistancesinheattransfer
calculatingheatflux
8.17Predictingperformanceoffiretubeandwatertubeboilers
8.18Whyfinnedtubesareusedandtheirdesignaspects
8.19aHeattransferandpressuredropinfinnedtubesusingESCOAcorrela
Tions
8.19bHeattransferinfinnedtubesusingBriggsandYoungcorrelation
8.19cPredictingtheperformanceofafinnedtubesuperheater
8.20Sizingoffinnedtubeevaporator
8.21Comparisonofbaretubeandfinnedtubeboilers
8.22Inlineversusstaggeredarrangement
8.23Effectoftubesideheattransferonfinconfiguration
8.24Effectoftubesidefoulingonbareandfinnedtubeboilers
8.25Estimatingweightoffinnedtubes
8.26Effectoffinthicknessandconductivityonboilerperformanceandtubeandfintiptemperatures
8.27aIssurfaceareaanimportantcriterionforboilerselection?
8.27bOptimizationofafinnedevaporatorsurface
8.28Designoftubularairheaters
8.29Offdesignperformanceofairheaters
8.30PredictingperformanceofeconomizersusingNTUmethod
8.31Evaluatingnaturalconvectionheattransfercoefficientsinair
8.32Naturalconvectionheattransferinliquids
8.33Determiningsizeofcoil/tubebundleimmersedinliquids
8.34Evaluatinggas/steamtemperatureprofilesinHRSGs
8.35aSimulatingoffdesignperformance
8.35bAsimplifiedapproachtodeterminingauxiliaryfuelrequirementinan
HRSG
8.36WhygasexittemperaturecannotbeassumedinHRSGs
8.37HowtooptimizetemperatureprofilesinHRSGs
8.38EfficiencyofHRSGsaccordingtoASMEPowerTestCode
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8.39aEffectoffreshairfansizeonHRSGperformance
8.39bPerformanceofamultipressureHRSGinfreshairfiredmode
8.40HowtoevaluateoperatingcostsinHRSGs
8.41WhyeconomizersteamingoccursingasturbineHRSGs
8.42Whywatertubeboilersarepreferredtofiretubeboilersforgasturbineapplications
8.43Why10%increaseinsurfaceareadoesnotmean10%moredutyinboilersorheattransfer
equipment
8.44aTimerequiredtoheatupboilers
8.44bTransientheatingofasuperheaterbundle
8.44cTransientresponseofawatertubeevaporatortocutoffinheatinputand
Feedwatersupply
8.44dResponseofawatertubeevaporatorwhensteamdemandincreasesandfeedwatersupplyiscut
off8.45aParameterstobeconsideredintestingperformanceofHRSGs
8.45bEvaluatingHRSGperformancefromoperatingdata
8.46Estimatingboilingheattransfercoefficientandcriticalheatfluxinwater
Tubeboilers
8.47aRelatingheatflux,steampressure,quality,flowinwatertubeboilers
8.47bEstimatingcriticalheatfluxinfiretubeboilers
8.47cEstimatingcriticalheatfluxinafiretubeboilercorrectingforbundle
Geometry
8.48Simplifiedapproachtodesigningfiretubeboilers
8.49Simplifiedapproachtodesigningwatertubeboilers
8.50Estimatingtubebundlesize
8.51Estimatingthicknessofinsulationforflatandcurvedsurfaceseffectof
Windvelocityestimatingthicknesstolimitsurfacetemperatures
8.52Estimatingsurfacetemperatureofgiventhicknessofinsulationtrialanderrorprocedureto
determinecasingtemperature
8.53Sizinginsulationtopreventfreezingdeterminingwaterdewpoint
8.54aEstimatingheatlossfrompipesforvariousinsulationthicknesses
8.54bEstimatingtemperaturedropoffluidsininsulatedpiping
8.55Optimumthicknessofinsulationlifecyclecostingannualheatlossandcapitalizedcostannual
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heatlossifnoinsulationisused
8.56Designofhotcasing
8.57Temperatureofductorstackwallwithandwithoutinsulation
8.58Effectofwindvelocity,casingemissivityonheatloss
8.59aCheckingfornoiseandvibrationproblemsinheattransferequipment
8.59bDeterminingnaturalfrequencyofvibrationofatubebundle
8.59cComputingacousticfrequency
8.59dDeterminingvortexsheddingfrequency
8.59eCheckingforbundlevibrations
8.59fChecksfortubebundlevibrationusingdampingandfluidelasticinstabilitycriteria
8.60Estimatingspecificheat,viscosity,andthermalconductivityforagasmixture
8.61Effectofgasanalysisonheattransfer
8.62Effectofgaspressureonheattransfer
8.63Convertinggasanalysisfromweighttovolumebasis
8.64Effectofgaspressureandanalysisondesignoffiretubeboiler
8.01Q:
Howisthesurfaceareaofheattransferequipmentdetermined?Whattermscanbeneglectedwhile
evaluatingtheoverallheattransfercoefficientinboilers,economizers,andsuperheaters?
A:
Theenergytransferredinheattransferequipment,Q,isgivenbythebasicequation
Q=UxAxAT(1)
Also,
WhAhh=WcAhc(2)
Where
A=surfacearea,ft2W=fluidflow,lb/h
Ah=changeinenthalpy(subscriptshandcstandforhotandcold)
AT=correctedlogmeantemperaturedifference,FU=overallheattransfercoefficient,Btu/ft2hF
Forextendedsurfaces,Ucanbeobtainedfrom[1]1AA
U=h~At+ffxA+ffo+
Atd,d1
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xxInH
Aw24Kmdtzh0
Where
At=surfaceareaoffinnedtube,ft2/ftA,=tubeinnersurfacearea=%di/12,ft2/ftAw=averagewall
surfacearea=p(d+d,)/24,ft2/ftKm=thermalconductivityofthetubewall,Btu/fthF
D,d,=tubeouterandinnerdiameter,in.ff,,ffo=foulingfactorsinsideandoutsidethetubes,ft2h
F/Btuh,,ho=tubesideandgassidecoefficients,Btu/ft2hFZ=fineffectiveness
Ifbaretubesareusedinsteadoffinnedtubes,At=pd/12.
Equation(3)canbesimplifiedto
1d1dd
U=hd+ho+24kxd
D(4)
+ff,xd+ffo
Wherehoistheoutsidecoefficient.
Nowletustakethevariouscases.
WaterTubeBoilers,Economizers,andSuperheaters
Thegassideheattransfercoefficienthoissignificanttheothertermscanbeneglected.Inatypical
baretubeeconomizer,forexample,h,=1500Btu/ft2hF,ff,andffo=0.001ft2hF/Btu,andho=12
Btu/ft2hF.d=2.0in.,d,=1.5in.,andKm=25Btu/fthF.
SubstitutingintoEq.(4)yields
12.012.0,2
11xln
U1500x1.51224x251.5
+0.001x20+0.001=0.0874
Hence,
U=11.44Btu/ft2hF
Thusweseethattheoverallcoefficientisclosetothegassidecoefficient,whichisthehighestthermal
resistance.Themetalthermalresistanceandthetubesideresistancearenothighenoughtochangethe
resistancedistributionmuch.
However,inaliquidtoliquidheatexchanger,alltheresistanceswillbeofthesameorder,andhence
noneoftheresistancescanbeneglected.
TOCo"15"hzEveniffinnedtubeswereusedinthecaseabove,withAt/A,=9substitutedintoEq.
(3),U=9.3Btu/ft2hF,whichisclosetoho.Thus,whiletryingto
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FigureUforeconomizers,watertubeboilers,orgastoliquidheatexchangers,U
Maybewrittenas
U=0.8to0.9xho(5)
FireTubeBoilers,GasCoolers,andHeatExchangerswithGasFlowInsideTubeswithLiquidor
SteamWaterMixtureontheOutside
Hoislarge,ontheorderof10001500Btu/ft2hF,whereash,willbeabout1012Btu/ft2hF.Again,
usingEq.(4),itcanbeshownthat
Uhxd(6)
Alltheotherthermalresistancescanbeseentobeverysmall,andUapproachesthetubeside
coefficienth,.
GastoGasHeatExchangers(Example:AirHeaterinBoilerPlant)
Ingastogasheattransferequipment,bothhiandhoaresmallandcomparable,whiletheother
coefficientsarehigh.
Assumingthatho=10andhi=15,andusingthetubeconfigurationabove,
1
4
2.01
++0.001+9.6x10
U15x1.510
+0.001x15=0.1922
Or
U=5.2Btu/ft2hF
SimplifyingEq.(4),neglectingthemetalresistancetermandfouling,weobtain
H:d:/d,,
U=hoxhoiim(7)
Thusbothhoandh,contributetoU.
AT,thecorrectedlogmeantemperaturedifference,canbeestimatedfrom
ATAT
AT=FTxATmm_
Ln(ATmax/ATmin)
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WhereFTisthecorrectionfactorforflowarrangement.Forcounterflowcases,FT=1.0.Forother
typesofflow,textbooksmaybereferredtoforFT.Itvariesfrom0.6to0.95[2].ATmaxandATmin
arethemaximumandminimumterminaldifferences.
Inaheatexchangerthehotterfluidentersat1000Fandleavesat400F,whilethecolderfluidenters
at250Fandleavesat450F.Assumingcounterflow,wehave
ATmax=1000450=550FATmin=400250=150F
Then
550150
AT=mc55i07T50)=307F
Inboilereconomizersandsuperheaters,FTcouldbetakenas1.Intubularairheaters,FTcouldvary
from0.8to0.9.Ifaccuratevaluesareneeded,publishedchartscanbeconsulted[1,2].
8.02Q:
Howisthetubesideheattransfercoefficienthtestimated?
A:
Thewidelyusedexpressionforhtis[1]
TOCo"15"hzNu=0.023Re08Pr04(8)
WheretheNusseltnumberis
Nu=(9)
TheReynoldsnumberis
Wd,,,
Re=15.2,(10)
Wherewistheflowinthetubeinlb/h,andthePrandtlnumberis
Pr=mi(ii)
where
M=viscosity,lb/fthCp=specificheat,Btu/lbFk=thermalconductivity,Btu/fthF
Allestimatedatthefluidbulktemperature.
SubstitutingEqs.(9)(11)intoEq.(8)andsimplifying,wehave
W8k6CS4w8C
Hi=244xd/V4=244x"dp"(12)
WhereCisafactorgivenby
p
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K06c04
M04
C=
Cisavailableintheformofchartsforvariousfluids[1]asafunctionoftemperature.Forairand
fluegases,CmaybetakenfromTable8.1.
Forhotwaterflowinginsidetubes,Eq.(8)hasbeensimplifiedand,fort<300F,canbewrittenas[3]
V08
H,=(150+1.550^(13)
Where
V=velocity,ft/st=watertemperature,F
Forveryviscousfluids,Eq.(8)hastobecorrectedbytheterminvolvingviscositiesattubewall
temperatureandatbulktemperature[1].
8.03aQ:
Estimateh,when200lb/hofairat800Fandatmosphericpressureflowsinatubeofinnerdiameter
1.75in.
Table8.1FactorCfor
AirandFlueGases
Temp(F)C
200
0.162
400
0.172
600
0.180
800
0.187
1000
0.194
1200
0.205
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UsingTable8.1AndEq.(12),wehaveC=0.187.
0187
H=2.44x20008xia=11.55Btu/f2hF1.7518
Where
W=flow,lb/h
Dt=innerdiameter,in.
Forgasesathighpressures,Ref.1givestheCvalues.(Seealsop.531.)
8.03bQ:
Inaneconomizer,50,000lb/hofwateratanaveragetemperatureof250Fflowsinapipeofinner
diameter2.9in.Estimateht.
A:
LetususeEq.(13).Firstthevelocityhastobecalculated.FromQ5.07a,
V=0.05(wv/dt2).v,thespecificvolumeofhotwaterat250F,is0.017cuft/lb.Then,t
V=0.05x50,000x2^=5.05ft/s
0.017
J00x
Hence,fromEq.(13),
5058
H=(150+1.55x250)x=1586Btu/ft2hF
2902
8.03cQ:
Estimatetheheattransfercoefficientwhen4000lb/hofsuperheatedsteamat500psiaandanaverage
temperatureof750Fflowsinsideatubeofinnerdiameter1.5in.
A:
UsingTable8.2,weseethatC=0.318.FromEq(12)
Ht=2.44x4000X80318=285Btu/ft2hF1.518
Ifsteamweresaturated,C=0.383andht=343Btu/ft2hF.
Pressure(psia)
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Temperature(F)100
500
200
Saturation
1000 2000
0.282
0.310 0.383 0.498
0.8733
400
0.27160.3059
500
0.27370.29090.3595
600
0.28130.28960.3228
0.413
700
0.29170.29650.3161
0.35860.5206
800
0.30500.30900.3206
0.34530.4214
900
0.31610.31970.3277
0.34770.3946
1000
0.32760.33020.3392
0.35310.386
8.04Q:
Howistheoutsidegasheattransfercoefficienthoinboilers,airheaters,economizers,andsuperheaters
determined?
A:
Theoutsidegasheattransfercoefficienthoisthesumoftheconvectiveheattransfercoefficienthcand
nonluminousheattransfercoefficient.
Ho=hc+(14)
Forfinnedtubes,hoshouldbecorrectedforfineffectiveness.isusuallysmall
Ifthegastemperatureislessthan800Fandcanbeneglected.
EstimatinghcforBareTubes
Aconservativeestimateofhcforflowoffluidsoverbaretubesininlineandstaggeredarrangements
isgivenby[1]
Nu=0.33Re06Pr033(15)
Substituting,wehavetheReynolds,Nusselt,andPrandtlnumbers
Re=(16)
Nu=M(17)
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And
Pr=^(18)
K
Where
G=gasmassvelocity,lb/ft2hd=tubeouterdiameter,in.m=gasviscosity,lb/fthk=gasthermal
conductivity,Btu/fthFCp=gasspecificheat,Btu/lbF
Allthegaspropertiesabovearetobeevaluatedatthegasfilmtemperature.SubstitutingEqs.(16)(18)
intoEq.(15)andsimplifying,wehave
Hc=.9G6^(19)
Where
C0.33
F=k061^(20)
FactorFhasbeencomputedforairandfluegases,andagoodestimateisgiveninTable8.3.
ThegasmassvelocityGisgivenby
W
G=12(21)
NwL(Std)v
Where
Nw=numberoftubeswideST=transversepitch,in.
L=tubelength,ftWg=gasflow,lb/h
Table8.3FFactorfor
AirandFlueGases
Temp(F)F
200
0.094
400
0.103
600
0.110
800
0.116
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1000
0.123
1200
0.130
Forquickestimates,gasfilmtemperaturefcanbetakenastheaverageofgasandfluidtemperature
insidethetubes.
Example
Determinethegassideconvectiveheattransfercoefficientforabaretubesuperheatertubeofdiameter
2.0in.withthefollowingparameters:
Gasflow=150,000lb/hGastemperature=900FAveragesteamtemperature=500FNumberof
tubeswide=12Lengthofthetubes=10.5ftTransversepitch=4.0in.
Longitudinalpitch=3.5in.(staggered)
Solution.EstimateG.FromEq.(21),
G=12xT9r=7142lb/ft2h12x10.5x(42)
UsingTable8.3,atafilmtemperatureof700F,F=0.113.Hence,
Hc=0.9x714206x0143=15.8Btu/ft2hF
Becausethegastemperatureisnothigh,thehNvaluewillbelow,so
Uhohc=15.8Btu/ft2hF
(Filmtemperaturemaybetakenastheaverageofgasandsteamtemperatures,forpreliminary
estimates.Ifanaccurateestimateisrequired,temperaturedropsacrossthevariousthermalresistances
asdiscussedinQ8.16amustbedeter
mined.)
TheconvectiveheattransfercoefficientobtainedbytheabovemethodorGrimsonsmethodcanbe
modifiedtoincludetheeffectofangleofattackaofthegasflowoverthetubes.Thecorrectionfactor
Fnis1forperpendicularflowanddecreasesasshowninTable8.4forotherangles[1].
If,forexample,hc=15andtheangleofattackis60,thenhc=
0.94x15=14.1Btu/ft2hF.
Table8.4CorrectionFactorforAngleofAttack
A,deg90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Fn
1.01.00.980.940.880.780.670.520.42
8.05Q:
HowistheconvectiveheattransfercoefficientforairandfluegasesdeterminedusingGrimsons
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correlation?
A:
Grimsonscorrelation,whichiswidelyusedforestimatinghc[1],is
Nu=BxReN(22)
CoefficientBandpowerNaregiveninTable8.5.
Example
150,0lb/hoffluegaseshavingananalysis(vol%)ofCO2=12,H2O=12,N2=70,andO2=6flows
overatubebundlehaving2in.ODtubesat4in.squarepitch.Tubesperrow=18length=10ft.
Determinehcifthefluidtemperatureis353Fandaveragegastemperatureis700F.TheAppendix
tablesgivethepropertiesofgases.
Atafilmtemperatureof0.5x(353+700)=526F,Cp=0.2695,m=0.0642andk=0.02344.Then
massvelocityGis
G=12x150000=5000lb/ft2h
18x10x(42)
Table8.5GrimsonsValuesofBandN
SL/d
Staggered
1.25
StId =3
0.5180.556 0.5050.5540.5190.5560.522 0.562
1.50
0.4510.568 0.4600.5620.4520.5680.488 0.568
2.0
0.4040.572 0.4160.5680.4820.5560.449 0.570
3.0
0.3100.592 0.3560.5800.44 0.5620.421 0.574
Inline
1.25
StId =1.25StId =1.5 StId =2
0.3480.592 0.2750.6080.1000.7040.06330.752
1.50
0.3670.586 0.2500.6200.1010.7020.06780.744
2.0
0.4180.570 0.2990.6020.2290.6320.198 0.648

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3.0
0.2900.601 0.3570.5840.3740.5810.286 0.608
5000x2
Re==12,980
12x0.0642
Hv2
Nu=0.229x12,980632=91=c
12x0.02344or
2
Hc=12.8Btu/ft2hF
8.06Q:
CompareinlineversusstaggeredarrangementsofplaintubesfromthepointofViewofheattransfer
andpressuredropconsiderations.Inawasteheatboiler
180,0lb/hoffluegasesat880Farecooledto450Fgeneratingsteamat150psig.Thegasanalysisis
(vol%)CO2=7,H2O=12,N2=75,andO2=6.TubeOD=2in.tubes/row=24length=7.5ft.
Comparethecaseswhentubesarearrangedininlineandstaggeredfashionwithtransversepitch=4
in.andlongitudinalspacingvaryingfrom1.5to3in.
A:
UsingGrimsonscorrelation,theconvectiveheattransfercoefficienthcwascomputedforthevarious
cases.Thenonluminouscoefficientwasneglectedduetothelowgastemperature.Thesurfaceareaand
thenumberofrowsdeeprequiredwerealsocomputedalongwithgaspressuredrop.Theresultsare
showninTable8.6.
GasmassvelocityG=180.00^X12=6000lb/ft2hJ24x(42)x7.5
Table8.6InLineVersusStaggeredArrangementofBareTubes
Heattransfercoeff.hc
FrictionfactorfNo.of
rowsdeepGaspressure
drop,in.WC
SL/d=1.5
SL/d=2.0 SL/d=3.0
Inline
Staggered
Inline
Staggered
12.515.34
0.0386
0.07857965
2.954.92
14.4314.59 14.4314.10
0.0480
0.0668
0.07856968 0.07856970
3.25.2
4.55.5
Inline
Staggered
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Averagegastemperature=0.5x(880+450)/2=665F,andfilmtemp
eratureisabout525F.
Cp=0.2706,m=0.06479,k=0.02367atgasfilmtemperatureandCp=0.2753attheaveragegas
temperature.
6000x2,
Re==15,434
12x0.06479
DutyQ=180,000x0.99x0.2753x(880450)=21MMBtu/hSaturationtemperature=366F.
(880366)(450366)
AT=logmeantemperaturedifference=
Ln[(880366)/(450366)]=237F
WithSL/d=1.5inline,wehavethevaluesforBandNfromTable8.5:
B=0.101andN=0.702Hence
0.7022
Nu=0.101x15,434=88.0=hcx
12x0.02367
Or
Hc=12.5
Becauseotherresistancesaresmall,U=0.95hc=11.87Btu/ft2hF.
Hence
21x106
A==7465=3.14x2x24x7.5Nd/12
237x11.87d
OrthenumberofrowsdeepNd=79.
Thefrictionfactorf,usingthemethoddiscussedinQ7.27,is
F=15,434~,15(0.044+0.08x1.5)=0.0386
Averagegasdensity=0.0347lb/ft3
_1(120.0386
Gaspressuredrop=9.3x1010x60002x79x=2.95in.WC
FF0.0347
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ThecalculationsfortheothercasesaresummarizedinTable8.6.
1.Thestaggeredarrangementofbaretubesdoesnothaveasignificantimpactontheheattransfer
coefficientwhenthelongitudinalspacingexceeds2,whichistypicalinsteamgenerators.Ratioslower
than1.5arenotused,owingtopotentialfoulingconcernsorlowligamentefficiency.
2.Thegaspressuredropismuchhigherforthestaggeredarrangement.Hence,withbaretubeboilers
theinlinearrangementispreferred.However,withfinnedtubes,thestaggeredarrangementis
comparablewiththeinlineandslightlybetterinafewcases.Thisisdiscussedlater.
8.07aQ:
Howisthenonluminousradiationheattransfercoefficientevaluated?
A:
Inengineeringheattransferequipmentsuchasboilers,firedheaters,andprocesssteamsuperheaters
wheregasesathightemperaturestransferenergytofluidinsidetubes,nonluminousheattransferplays
asignificantrole.Duringcombus
tionoffossilfuelssuchascoaloil,orgastriatomicgasesfor
example,watervapor,carbondioxide,andsulfurdioxideareformed,whichcontributetoradiation.
TheemissivitypatternofthesegaseshasbeenstudiedbyHottel,andchartsareavailabletopredictgas
emissivityifgastemperature,partialpressureofgases,andbeamlengthareknown.
Netinterchangeofradiationbetweengasesandsurroundings(e.g.,awallortubebundleoracavity)
canbewrittenas
(23)
Where
Sg=emissivityofgasesatTg
Ag=absorptivityatTo
Tg=absolutetemperatureofgas,R
To=absolutetemperatureoftubesurface,R
Sgisgivenby
(24)
Sg=Sc+ZSwAs
AgiscalculatedsimilarlyatTo.zisthecorrectionfactorforthewaterpressure,andAsisthe
decreaseinemissivityduetothepresenceofwatervaporandcarbondioxide.
Althoughitisdesirabletocalculateheatfluxby(23),itistedioustoestimateagattemperatureTo.
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ConsideringthefactthatT4willbemuchsmaller
ThanTg4,withaverysmalllossofaccuracywecanusethefollowingsimplifiedequation,which
lendsitselftofurthermanipulations.
(25)
Q=Sg(TgT)=hN(TgTo)
ThenonluminousheattransfercoefficienthNcanbewrittenas
(26)
ToestimatehN,partialpressuresoftriatomicgasesandbeamlengthLarerequired.Lisa
characteristicdimensionthatdependsontheshapeoftheenclosure.Forabundleoftubes
interchangingradiationwithgases,itcanbeshownthat
(27a)
Listakenapproximatelyas3.43.6timesthevolumeofthespacedividedbythe
Surfaceareaoftheheatreceivingsurface.Foracavityofdimensionsa,bandc,
1.7
L=
2(ab+bc+ca)1/a+1/b+1/c
3.4xabc
(27b)
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Inthecaseoffiretubeboilers,L=di.
SgcanbeestimatedusingFigs.8.1a8.1d,whichgiveec,ew,z,
andAs,respectively.Forpurposesofengineeringestimates,
radiationeffectsofSO2canbetakenassimilartothoseofCO2.Hence,partialpressuresofCO2and
SO2canbeaddedandFig.8.1usedtogetsc.
Example1
DeterminethebeamlengthLifST=5in.,SL=3.5in.,andd=2in.
Solution.
=7.8in.
L=1.08x
5x3.50.785x4
2
Example2
Inafiredheaterfiringawastegas,CO2influegases=12%andH2O=16%.Thegasesflowovera
bankoftubesintheconvectivesectionwheretubesarearrangedasinExample1(henceL=7.8).
DeterminehNiftg=1650Fandto=600F.
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FIgure8.1aEmissivityofcarbondioxide.(FromRef1.)
Solution.
7.8
TOCo"15"hzPcL=0.12x=0.078atmftc12
78
PwL=0.16x=0.104atmftw12
InFig.8.1aatTg=(1650+460)=2110RandPcL=0.078,sc=0.065.InFig.8.1b,atTg=2110R
andPwL=0.104,sw=0.05.INFig.8.1c,correspond
ingto(P+Pw)/2=1.16/2=0.58andPwL=
0.104,z=1.1.InFig.8.1d,
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FIgure8.1bEmissivityofwatervapor.(FromRef1.)
CorrespondingtoPw/(Pc+Pw)=0.16/0.28and(Pc+Pw)L=0.182,As:0.002.Hence,
Sg=0.065+(1.1x0.05)0.002=0.118
UsingEq.(26)withtheBoltzmannconstanta=0.173x108,
2110410604
21101060
HN=0.173x108x0.118x=3.6Btu/ft2hFThus,hNcanbeevaluatedforgases.
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FIgure8.1c,d(c)Correctionfactorforemissivityofwatervapor.(d)Correctiontermduetopresence
ofwatervaporandcarbondioxide.(FromRef1.)
8.07bQ:
Cangasemissivitybeestimatedusingequations?
A:
Gasemissivitycanbeobtainedasfollows.hNisgivenbyEq.(26),
T4t
1go
HN=asg
NgT______T
TgTo
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Where
A=StefanBoltzmannconstant=0.173x108TgandTo=gasandtubeouterwalltemperature,R
Sg,gasemissivity,isobtainedfromHottelschartsorfromtheexpression
[1]
Eg=0.9x(1eKL)(28a)
(0.8+1.6pw)x(10.38Tg/1000)
K=u,rx(Fc+Fw)(28b)
V(pc+pw)L
TgisinK.Listhebeamlengthinmeters,andpcandpwarethepartialpressuresofcarbondioxide
andwatervaporinatm.L,thebeamlength,canbeestimatedforatubebundlebyEq.(27a),
L=1.08xSTxSL.785d2
D
STandSLarethetransversepitchandlongitudinalpitch.Methodsofestimatingpcandpwaregiven
inChapter5.
Example
Inaboilersuperheaterwithbaretubes,theaveragegastemperatureis1600Fandthetubemetal
temperatureis700F.Tubesizeis2.0in.,andtransversepitchST=longitudinalpitchSL=4.0in.
Partialpressuresofwatervaporandcarbondioxidearepw=0.12,pc=0.16.Determinethe
nonluminousheattransfercoefficient.
FromEq.(27a),thebeamlengthLiscalculated.
4x40:785x2x2
L=1.08x
2
=6.9in.=0.176m
UsingEq.(28b)withTg=(160032)/1.8+273=1114K,weobtain
(0.8+1.6x0.12)x(10.38x1.114)A
K=.x0.28
0:28x0:176
=0:721FromEq.(28a),
Sg=0.9x[1exp(0.721x0.176)]=0.107Then,fromEq.(26),
82060411604
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HN=0.173x0.107x108x1600700=3.33Btu/ft2hF
8.08aQ:
Howisheattransferinaboilerfurnaceevaluated?
A:
Furnaceheattransferisacomplexphenomenon,andasingleformulaorcorrelationcannotbe
prescribedforsizingfurnacesofalltypes.Basically,itisanenergybalancebetweentwofluidsgas
andasteamwatermixture.Heattransferinaboilerfurnaceispredominantlyradiation,partlydueto
theluminouspartoftheflameandpartlyduetononluminousgases.Ageneralapproximateexpression
canbewrittenforfurnaceabsorptionusinganenergyapproach:
Qf=ApSwSfs(TgTo4)
=WfLHVWghe)
Gastemperature(Tg)isdefinedinmanywayssomeauthorsdefineitastheexitgastemperatureitself.
Someputitasthemeanofthetheoreticalflametemperatureandte.However,plantexperienceshows
thatbetteragreementbetweenmeasuredandcalculatedvaluesprevailswhentg=tc+300to400F
[1].Theemissivityofagaseousflameisevaluatedasfollows[1]:
Sf=p(1eKPL)(30)
Pcharacterizesflamefillingvolumes.
P=1.0fornonluminousflames=0.75forluminoussootyflamesofliquidfuels=0.65forluminous
andsemiluminousflamesofsolidfuelsL=beamlength,m
=attenuationfactor,whichdependsonfueltypeandpresenceofashanditsconcentration.Fora
nonluminousflameitis
K=08+(10.38Te/1000)(pc+pw)(28b)
V(pc+pw)L
Forasemiluminousflame,theashparticlesizeandconcentrationenterintothecalculation:
0:8+1:6pw
K=,(10.38Te/1000)(pc+pw)
V(pc+pw)L
1/3
DbTB(28c)
Where
Dm=themeaneffectivediameterofashparticles,inmmdm=13forcoalsgroundinballmills
=16forcoalsgroundinmediumandhighspeedmills=20forcombustionofcoalsmilledin
hammermillsm=ashconcentrationing/Nm3Te=furnaceexittemperature,K
Foraluminousoilorgasflame,
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K=05<28d>
Pwandpcarepartialpressuresofwatervaporandcarbondioxideinthefluegas.
Theaboveequationsgiveonlyatrend.Awidevariationcouldexistduetothebasiccombustion
phenomenonitself.Again,theflamedoesnotfillthefurnacefully.Unfilledportionsaresubjectedto
gasradiationonly,theemissivityofwhich(0.150.30)isfarbelowthatoftheflame.Hence,decreases.
Godridgereportsthatinapulverizedcoalfiredboiler,emissivityvariedasfollowswithrespectto
location[3]:
TOCo"15"hzExcessair15%25%
Furnaceexit0.60.5
Middle0.70.6
Also,furnacetubescoatedwithferricoxidehaveemissivities,sw,oftheorderof
0.8,dependingonwhetheraslaglayercoversthem.Sootblowingchangesswconsiderably.Thus,
onlyanestimateofSfandswcanbeobtained,whichvarieswithtypeofunit,fuel,andoperation
regimes.
Toillustratetheseconcepts,afewexamplesareworkedout.Thepurposeisonlytoshowtheeffectof
variableslikeexcessairandheatreleaseratesonfurnaceabsorptionandfurnaceexitgastemperature.
Example1
Determinetheapproximatefurnaceexitgastemperatureofaboilerwhennetheatinputisabout2000x
106Btu/h,ofwhich1750x106Btu/hisduetofuelandtherestisduetoair.HHVandLHVofcoals
firedare10,000and9000Btu/lb,respectively,andafurnaceheatreleaserateof80,000Btu/ft2h
(projectedareabasis)hasbeenused.ThevaluesswandSfmaybetakenas0.6and0.5,respectively
25%istheexcessairused.Waterwalloutertemperatureis600F.Ashcontentincoalis10%.
Solution.
QLHV
Q=80,000=Wf
ApfAp
FromcombustioncalculationmethodsdiscussedinChapter5,using1MMBtufiredbasis,wehavethe
followingratiooffluegastofuel:
Wg760x1.24x104|110
Wf=10+1100
=10.4lb/lb
Q=APSwSfs(TgT4)=WfLHVWghe
DividingthroughoutbyWfgivesA
WfSwSfS(TgT)=LHVW/e
Ap/Wf=LHV/80,000=0.1125
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Assumete=1900F.Then
Cpm=0.3Btu/lbF
Tg=1900+300=2200F=2660R
Letusseeiftheassumedteiscorrect.SubstitutingforAp/Wf,sw,Sf,s,Tg,Teintheaboveequation,
wehave(LHS=lefthandsideRHS=righthandside)
LHS=0.1125x0.6x0.5x0.173x(26.6410.64)=2850RHS=(900010.4x1900x0.3)=
3072
Thesedonottally,sowetryte=1920F.NeglecttheeffectofvariationinCpm:
LHS=0.1125x0.6x0.5x(26.8410.64)x0.173=2938RHS=90001920x0.3x10.4=3009
Theseagreeclosely,sofurnaceexitgastemperatureisaround1920F.Notethattheeffectofexternal
radiationtosuperheatershasbeenneglectedintheenergybalance.Thismaygiverisetoanerrorof
1.52.5%inte,butitsomissiongreatlysimplifiesthecalculationprocedure.Also,lossesoccurringin
thefurnacewereomittedtosimplifytheprocedure.Theerrorintroducedisquitelow.
Example2
Itisdesiredtouseaheatloadingof100,000Btu/ft2hinthefurnaceinExample
1.Otherfactorssuchasexcessairandemissivitiesremainunaltered.Estimatethefurnaceexitgas
temperature.
Solution.
QLHV
Q=100,000=wf
ApfAp
Al=^HV_=0.09
Wf100,000
W
=10.4,te=2000Ftg=2300F
Wfg
Cpm=0.3Btu/lbFTg=2300+460=2760RLHS=0.09x0.6x0.5x0.173x(27.6410.64)=
2664RHS=(900010.4x2000x0.3)=2760
Fromthisitisseenthattewillbehigherthanassumed.Lette=2030F,Tg=2790R
Then
LHS=0.09x0.6x0.5x0.173
X[(27.9)4(10.6)4]=2771RHS=900010.4x2030x0.3=2667
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Hence,tewillliebetween2000and2030F,perhaps2015F.
Theexerciseshowsthattheexitgastemperatureinanysteamgeneratorwillincreaseasmoreheat
inputisgiventoitthatis,thehighertheloadoftheboiler,thehighertheexitgastemperature.
Example3showstheeffectofexcessairon
Te
Example3
Whatwillbethefurnaceexitgastemperaturewhen40%excessairisusedinsteadof25%,heat
loadingremainingatabout100,000Btu/ft2hinthefurnacementionedinearlierexamples?
Solution.
QLHVAp
Q=100,000=Wf,p=0.09
ApfApWf
Wg760x1.4x104
W=106+09=1L54lb/lb
Te=1950F,Cpm=0.3Btu/lbF
Tg=1950+300+460=2710R
LHS=0.09x0.6x0.5x0.173
X[(27.1)4(10.6)4]=2460RHS=9000(11.54x1950x0.3)=2249
Thesenearlytallyhence,teisabout1950F,comparedtoabout2030FinExample2.Theeffectof
thehigherexcessairhasbeentolowerte.
Example4
Ifewxf=0.5insteadof0.3,whatwillbetheeffectontewhenheatloadingis
100,0Btu/ft2handexcessairis40%?
Solution.Let
Te=1800FTg=1800+300+460=2560RLHS=0.09x0.5x0.173x[(25.6)4(10.6)4]
=3245
RHS=9000(11.54x1800x0.3)=2768
Try
Te=1700FTg=2460R
LHS=0.09x0.5x0.173x[(24.6)4(10.6)4]
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=2752
RHS=9000(11.54x1700x0.3)=3115
Try
Te=1770FTg=2530R
Then
LHS=3091RHS=2872
Hence,tewillbearound1760F.Thisexampleshowsthatwhensurfacesarecleanerandcapableof
absorbingmoreradiation,tedecreases.
Inpractice,furnaceheattransferisnotevaluatedassimplyasshownaboveBecauseoftheinadequacy
ofaccuratedataonsootemissivity,particlesize,distribution,flamesize,excessair,presenceandeffect
ofashparticles,etc.Hence,designersdevelopdatabasedonfieldtests.Estimatingteisthestarting
pointforthedesignofsuperheaters,reheaters,andeconomizers.
Someboilerfurnacesareequippedwithtiltingtangentialburners,whereassomefurnaceshaveonly
frontorrearnontiltablewallburners.Thelocationoftheburnersaffectstesignificantly.Hence,in
thesesituations,correlationswithpracticalsitedatawouldhelpinestablishingfurnaceabsorptionand
temperatureprofiles.(Seealsop.112,Chapter3.)
Apromisingtechniqueforpredictingfurnaceheattransferperformanceisthezonemethodofanalysis.
Itisassumedthatthepatternoffluidflow,chemicalheatrelease,andradiatinggasconcentrationare
known,andequationsdescribingconservationofenergywithinthefurnacearedeveloped.Thefurnace
isdividedintomanyzones,andradiationexchangecalculationsarecarriedout.
8.08bQ:
Howisheattransferevaluatedinunfiredfurnaces?
A:
Radiantsectionsusingpartiallyorfullywatercooledmembranewalldesignsareusedtocoolgas
streamsathighgastemperatures(Fig.8.2).Theygeneratesaturatedsteamandmayoperateinparallel
withconvectiveevaporatorsifany.Thedesignprocedureissimpleandmayinvolveaniterationor
two.Thehigherthepartialpressuresoftriatomicgases,thehigherwillbethenonluminousradiation
andhencetheduty.
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Figure8.2Radiantfurnaceinawatertubeboiler.
IfaburnerisusedasintheradiantsectionofafurnacefiredHRSG,theemissivityoftheflamemust
alsobeconsidered.Asexplainedelsewhere[8],radiantsectionsarenecessarytocoolthegasesto
belowthesofteningpointsofanyeutecticspresentsoastoavoidbridgingorslaggingattheconvection
section.Theyarealsorequiredtocoolgasestoareasonabletemperatureatthesuper
heaterifitisused.
Example
200,0lb/hoffluegasesat1800Fhastobecooledto1600Finaradiantsectionofawasteheatboiler
ofcrosssection9ftx11ft.Saturatedsteamat200psigisgenerated.Determinethefurnacelength
required.Fluegasanalysisis(vol%)CO2=8,H2O=18,N2=72,O2=2.Assumealengthof25ft
andthatthefurnaceiscompletelywatercooled.
Surfaceareaforcooling=(11+9)x2x25=1000ftvolume
Beamlength=3.4x
Surfacearea
9x11x25
=3.4x=7.1ft=2.15m
2x(11x9+9x25+11x25)
Averagegastemperature=1700F=1200K.PartialpressureofCO2=0.08,andthatofH2O=0.18.
UsingEq.(28b),
K=(0.8+1.6x0.18)(10.38x1.2)x
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Gasemissivitysg=0.9x(1e02053x216)=0.3223
Lettheaveragesurfacetemperatureofthefurnacebe420F(saturationtemperatureplusamargin).
Thentheenergytransferredis
Qr=0.173x0.9x0.3223x(21.648.84)x1000=10.63MMBtu/h
Requiredduty=200,000x0.99x0.32x200=12.67MMbtu/h
Where0.32isthegasspecificheat.Hencethefurnaceshouldbelonger.Thebeamlengthandhence
thegAsemissivitywillnotchangemuchwithchangeinfurnacelengththereforeonemayassumethat
thefurnacelengthrequired=(12.67/10.63)x25=29.8or30ft.
Iftheperformancesatothergasconditionsarerequired,atrialanderrorprocedureiswarranted.First
theexitgastemperatureisassumedthentheenergytransferrediscomputedasshownaboveand
comparedwiththeassumedduty.
8.09aQ:
Howisthedistributionofexternalradiationtotubebundlesevaluated?Discusstheeffectoftube
spacing.
A:
Tubebanksareexposedtodirectorexternalradiationfromflames,cavities,etc.,inboilers.Depending
onthetubepitch,theenergyabsorbedbyeachrowoftubesvaries,withthefirstrowfacingthe
radiationzonereceivingthemaximumenergy.Itisnecessarytocomputetheenergyabsorbedbyeach
row,particularlyinsuperheaters,becausethecontributionoftheradiationcanresultinhightubewall
temperatures.
Thefollowingformulapredictstheradiationtothetubes[8].
(31)
Whereaisthefractionofenergyabsorbedbythefirstrow.Thesecondrowwouldthenabsorb(1
a)athethirdrow,{1[a+(1a)a]}aandsoon.
1MMBtu/hofenergyfromacavityisradiatedtoasuperheatertubebankthathas2in.ODtubesata
pitchof8in.Iftherearesixrows,estimatethedistributionofenergytoeachrow.
Solution.Substitutingd=2,S=8intoEq.(31),wehave
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A=3.14
Sin1(+p4x412
28
=0.39250.25(0.2526+VT54)=0.361
Hencethefirstrowabsorbs0.361MMBtu/h.
Thesecondrowwouldreceive(10.361)x0.361=0.231or0.231MMBtu/h.
Thethirdrowreceives[1(0.361+0.231)]x0.361=0.147MMBtu/h.
Thefourthrow,[1(0.361+0.231+0.147)]x0.361=0.094MMBtu/h,andsoon.
Itcanbeseenthatthefirstrowreceivesthemaximumenergyandtheamountlessensasthenumberof
rowsincreases.ForatubepitchSof4in.,a=0.6575.Thefirstrowreceives0.6575MMBtu/hthe
second,0.225MBtu/handthethird,0.077MMBtu/h.Henceifthetubepitchissmall,alargeamount
ofenergyisabsorbedwithinthefirsttwotothreerows,resultinginhighheatfluxinthosetubesand
consequentlyhightubewalltemperatures.Henceitisbettertouseawidepitchwhentheexternal
radiationislargesothattheradiationisspreadovermoretubesandtheintensityisnotconcentrated
withintwoorthreetubes.Screentubesinboilersandfiredheatersperformthisfunction.
8.09bQ:
Asootblowerlanceisinsertedinaboilerconvectionsectionwherehotfluegasesat2000Fare
flowingaroundthetubes.Ifthewaterwallenclosureisat400F,whatwillbethelancetemperature?
Assumethattheheattransfercoefficientbetweenthefluegasandthelanceis15Btu/ft2hFandthe
emissivityofthelanceandthewaterwalltubesis0.9.
Theenergytransferredbetweenthefluegasesandlanceandfromthelancetothewaterwallenclosure
inBtu/ft2hisgivenby
Q=hc(2000T)
=0.173x0.9x0.9x[(T+460)4(400+460)4]x108
Where
T=lancetemperature,F
0.173x108istheradiationconstant
Emissivityoflanceandenclosure=0.9
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Actually,atrialanderrorprocedureisrequiredtosolvetheaboveequation.However,itmaybeshown
thatatT=1250F,bothsidesbalanceandQ=11,250BtU/ft2h.Atlowloads,whenhc=5andwith
otherparametersremainingthesame,whatwillbethelancetemperature?Itcanbeshowntobeabout
970FandQ=5150btu/ft2h.
Hencejustasathermocouplereadsalowertemperatureduetotheradiationtotheenclosure,thelance
alsowillnotreachthegastemperature.Itstemperaturewillbelowerthanthatofthegas.
8.10
Q:
Determinethesizeofafiretubewasteheatboilerrequiredtocool100,000lb/hoffluegasesfrom
1500Fto500F.Gasanalysisis(vol%)CO2=12,H2O=12,N2=70,andO2=6gaspressureis
5in.WC.Steampressureis150psig,andfeedwaterentersat220F.Tubesusedarein2in.ODx1.77
in.IDfoulingfactorsaregassidefoulingfactor(ft)0.002ft2hF/Btuandsteamsideff=0.001ft2h
F/Btu.Tubemetalthermalconductivity=25Btu/fthF.Steamsideboilingheattransfercoefficient
=2000Btu/ft2F.Assumethatheatlossesandmargin=2%andblowdown=5%.
A:
UseEq.(4)tocomputetheoverallheattransfercoefficient,andthenarriveatthesizefromEq.(1).
Hdo/d),_L
24Kmh0
Hi,thetubesidecoefficient,isactuallythesumofaconvectiveportionhcplusanonluminous
coefficienthn.hcisobtainedfromQ8.04:
C
Hc=2.44xw08xrTcd/8
Attheaveragegastemperatureof1000F,thegaspropertiescanbeshowntobeCp=0.287Btu/lbF,
m=0.084lb/fth,andk=0.0322Btu/fthF.Hence,
C=x(0.0322)06=0.208
.084/v
BoilerdutyQ=100,000x0.98x0.287x(1500500)
=28.13x106Btu/h
Enthalpiesofsaturatedsteam,saturatedwater,andfeedwaterfromsteamtablesare1195.5,338,and
188Btu/lb,respectively.Theenthalpyabsorbedbysteamisthen(1195.5188)+0.05x(338
188)=1015Btu/lb,where0.05istheblowdownfactorcorrespondingto5%blowdown.
Hence,
28:13106.
Steamgeneration==27,710lb/h
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Inordertocomputeht,theflowpertubewisrequired.Typicallywrangesfrom100to200lb/hfora2
in.tube.Letusstartwith600tubeshencew=100,000/600=167lb/h.
1670:8
Hc=2.44x0.208x^=10.9Btu/ft2hF
C(1.77)
Thenonluminouscoefficientisusuallysmallinfiretubeboilersbecausethebeamlengthcorresponds
tothetubeinnerdiameter.However,theprocedureusedinQ8.07canalsobeusedhere.Letusassume
thatitis0.45Btu/ft2hF.Then
Ht=10.90+0.45=11.35Btu/ft2hF
LetuscomputeU.Becauseitisbasedontubeoutsidesurface,letuscallitU0.
12/1772
W0=iL^T+01+0.002x177
+^(177)x24xx25+0.0005
=0.10+0.001+0.00226+0.00041+0.0005=0.10417
Hence,U0=9.6Btu/ft2hF.
Thevariousresistancesinft2hF/Btuare
Gassideheattransfer 0.10
Gassidefouling
0.00226
Metalresistance
0.00041
Steamsidefouling
0.001
Steamsideheattransfer0.0005
IfUiscomputedonthebasisoftubeinnersurfacearea,thenUisgivenbytheexpression
AixUi=AoxUo
Hence,
U=9.6x=10.85Btu/ft2hF
I1.77
Logmeantemperaturedifferenceis
(1500366)(500366)_ln[(1500366)/(500366)]
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Hence
Ao=28J3x106=6261ft2
0468x9.6
=3.14x2x600x
12
SorequiredlengthLofthetubes=19.93ft.Use20ft.Then
202A0=3.14x2x600x=6280ft2
012
Ai5558ft2
LetuscomputethegaspressuredropusingEq.(12)ofChapter7.
DPg=93x10~6xw2/Lej5
Frictionfactorfdependsontubeinnerdiameterandcanbetakenas0.02.TheequivalentlengthLecan
beapproximatedbyL+5dttoincludethetubeinletandexitlosses.
Specificvolumevobtainedas1/density,orv=1/p.Gasdensityattheaveragegastemperatureof
1000Fispg=39/1460=0.0267lb/cuft.Therefore,
DPg=93x10~6x1672x0.02
X20+5xL775=3.23in.WC
0.0267x(1.77)5
Thisisonlyonedesign.Severalvariablessuchastubesizeandmassflowcouldbechangedtoarriveat
severaloptionsthatcouldbereviewedforoptimumoperatinganDiNstalledcosts.
8.11Q:
Whatistheeffectoftubesizeandgasvelocityonboilersize?Issurfaceareathesolecriterionfor
boilerselection?
A:
Surfaceareashouldnotbeusedasthesolecriterionforselectingorpurchasingboilers,becausetube
sizeandgasvelocityaffectthisvariable.
ShowninTable8.7arethedesignoptionsforthesameboilerdutyusingdifferentgasvelocitiesand
tubesizestheproceduredescribedinQ8.10wasusedtoarriveattheseoptions.Thepurposebehind
thisexampleistobringoutthefactthatsurfaceareacanvarybyasmuchas50%forthesameduty.
1.Asthegasvelocityincreases,thesurfacearearequireddecreases,whichisobvious.
2.Thesmallerthetubes,thehighertheheattransfercoefficientforthesamegasvelocity,whichalso
decreasesthesurfacearea.
3.Forthesamegaspressuredrop,thetubelengthissmallerifthetubesizeissmaller.Thisfacthelps
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whenwetrytofitaboilerintoasmallspace.
4.Forthesametubesize,increasingthegasvelocityresultsinalongerboiler,agreatergaspressure
drop,butsmallersurfacearea.
Inthecaseofwatertubeboilers,morevariablessuchastubespacingandinlineorstaggered
arrangementinadditiontogasvelocityandtubesizecanaffectsurfacearea.Thisisdiscussed
elsewhere.
Tubesize
1.75x1.521
2x1.773
2.5x2.238
Velocity,ft/s
109 141
166 110 140
165 109 140
166
Tubes
1100850
725 800 630
535 510 395
335
Length,ft
19
21
25
33
Surfacearea,ft2
83186766
6059 83517015
6205 88117286
6474
U,Btu/ft2hF
9.74 11.78
13.259.6 11.43
12.899.15 11.02
12.43
6.3
6.2
6.2
20
Pressuredropin.WC2.5 4.4
22.5 24
2.6 4.4
29.5 31.5
2.5 4.3
Gasflow=110,000lb/hinlettemperature=1450Fexittemperature=500Fsteampressure=
300psigfeedwaterin=230Fblowdown=5%steam=28,950lb/hgasanalysis(vol%):CO2=7,
H2O=12,N2=75,O2=6boilerduty=29.4MMBtu/h.
Q:
Howisthetubewalltemperatureinfiretubeboilersevaluated?Discusstheimportanceofheatflux.
A:
Tocomputethetubewalltemperatures,heatfluxmustbeknown.qo=heatfluxoutsidetubes=Uox
(tgt,)Btu/ft2h
Similarly,qt(heatfluxinsidethetube)wouldbeUx(tgt,).However,heatfluxoutsidethetubesis
relevantinfiretubeboilersbecauseboilingoccursoutsidethetubes,whereasinwatertubeboilersthe
heatfluxinsidethetubeswouldberelevant.Ahighheatfluxcanresultinaconditioncalleddeparture
fromnucleateboiling(DNB),whichwillresultinoverheatingofthetubes.Itispreferabletokeepthe
actualmaximumheatfluxbelowthecriticalheatflux,whichvariesfrom150,000to250,000Btu/ft2h
dependingonsteamquality,pressure,andtubecondition[1].
Anelectricalanalogycanbeusedindeterminingthetubewalltempera
tures.Heatfluxisanalogousto
current,electricalresistancetothermalresistance,andvoltagedroptotemperaturedrop.Usingthe
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exampleworkedinQ8.10,wehavethatataveragegasconditionstheproductofcurrent(heatflux)and
resistance(thermalresistance)givesthevoltagedrop(temperaturedrop):
Qo=heatflux=9.6x(1000366)=6086Btu/ft2h
Temperaturedropacrossgasfilm=6086x0:1=609FTemperaturedropacrossgassidefouling=
6086x0.00226=14FTemperaturedropacrosstubewall=6086x0:00041=3FTemperaturedrop
acrosssteamsidefouling=6086x0:001=6FTemperaturedropacrosssteamfilm=6085x0:0005=
3F
Hence,
Averageinsidetubewalltemperature=100060914=377FOutsidetubewalltemperature=
3773=347F.
Thesameresultsareobtainedworkingfromthesteamside.
Outsidetubewalltemperature=366+6+3=375F
Onecanalsocomputethemaximumtubewalltemperaturebyobtainingtheheatfluxatthehotgas
inletend.
8.13Q:
Whatistheeffectofscaleformationontubewalltemperatures?
A:
Ifnonsolublesaltssuchascalciumormagnesiumsaltsorsilicaarepresentinthefeedwater,theycan
depositinathinlayerontubesurfacesduringevaporation,therebyresultinginhighertubewall
temperatures.
Table8.8liststhethermalconductivitykofafewscales.Outsidefoulingfactorff0canbeobtainedif
thescaleinformationisavailable.
Thicknessofscale
Ff=
Oconductivity
LetususethesameexampleasinQ8.10andchecktheeffectofff0onboilerdutyandtubewall
temperatures.Letasilicatescaleofthickness0.03in.beformed.Then,
Ff0=M3=0.05ft2hF/Btu
0.6
Table8.8ThermalConductivitiesof
ScaleMaterials
Material
Thermalconductivity
[(Btu/ft2hF)/in.]
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Analcite
8.8
Calcium
phosphate
25
Calcium
sulfate
16
Magnesium
phosphate
15
Magneticiron
20
oxide
Silicatescale
0.6
(porous)
Boilersteel
310
Firebrick
Insulating
brick
0.7
Assumethatotherresistanceshavenotchanged.(Becauseofdifferentdutyandgastemperature
profile,thegassideheattransfercoefficientwillbeslightlydifferent.However,forthesakeof
illustration,weneglectthis.)Wehave
L=0.10+0.00226+0.00041+0.05+0.0005
Uo
=0.15317
Hence,Uo=6.52Btu/ft2hF
Heatfluxqo=6.52x(1000366)=4133Btu/ft2h
Temperaturedropacrossoutsidesteamfilm=0:0005x4133
=2F
Temperaturedropacrosssteamsidefoulinglayerorscale=4133x0:05
=207F
Temperaturedropacrosstubewall=4133x0.00041
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=2F
Weseethataveragetubewalltemperaturehasrisento366+2+207+2=577Ffromanearliervalue
ofabout375F.Scaleformationisaseriousproblem.Notethattheheatfluxisnowlower,butthat
doesnothelp.Atthefrontend,wheretheheatfluxishigher,thetubeswouldbemuchhotter.
Nowletuschecktheeffectonboilerduty.Itcanbeshown[1,8]that
Lnsat=UA(32)
Tg2tsatWgxCPxhlf
Wherehlfistheheatlossfactor.If2%lossesareassumed,thenhlf=0.98.
WeknowthatUo=6.52,Ao=6280,tg1=1500,tsat=366.Hence,
15003666.52x6280
Ln
Tg2366100,000x0.98x0.287
=1.456
Or
1500366=4.29tg2366
Hencetg2=630Fcomparedto500Fearlier.Thereasonfortg2goingupisthelowerUocausedby
scaleformation.
Hencenewduty=100,000x0.98x0.287x(1500630)=24.47x106Btu/h.Thedecreaseindutyis
28.1324.47=3.66MMBtu/h.Evenassuming
Amodestenergycostof$3/MMBtu,theannuallossduetoincreasedfoulingis3.66x3x8000=
$87,800.Thesteamproductioninturngetsreduced.
Plantengineersshouldchecktheperformanceoftheirheattransferequipmentperiodicallytoseeifthe
exitgastemperaturerisesforthesameinletgasflowandtemperature.Ifitdoes,thenitislikelydueto
foulingoneitherthegasorsteamside,whichcanbechecked.Foulingonthegassideaffectsonlythe
dutyandsteamproduction,butfoulingonthesteamsideincreasesthetubewalltemperaturein
additiontoreducingthedutyandsteamproduction.
Toensurethatvariationsinexitgastemperaturearenotduetofoulingbutareduetochangesingas
flowortemperature,onecanusesimulationmethods.Forexample,if,forthesamegasflow,theinlet
gastemperatureis1800F,wecanexpecttheexitgastemperaturetorise.Undercleanconditions,this
canbeestimatedusingtheequation(32)
15003661800366
=,ortg2=535F
500366tG2366g2
Nowif,inoperation,theexitgastemperaturewere570600F,thenfoulingcouldbesuspectedbutif
thegastemperaturewereonlyabout535F,thiswouldonlybeduetotheincreasedgasinlet
temperature.Similarly,onecanconsidertheeffectofgasflowandsaturationtemperature.
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8.14Q:
Howisthesizeofawatertubeboilerdetermined?
A:
Thestartingpointinthedesignofanevaporator(Fig.8.3)istheestimationoftheoverallheattransfer
coefficientU.Thecrosssectionaldatasuchasthenumberoftubeswide,spacing,andlengthoftubes
areassumed.Fromthedutyandlogmeantemperaturedifference,thesurfaceareaisobtained.Then
thenumberofrowsdeepisestimated.Tubewalltemperaturecalculationsandgaspressuredrop
evaluationthenfollow.Acomputerprogramisrecommendedtoperformthesetediouscalculations,
particularlyifseveralalternativeshavetobeevaluated.
Example
200,0lb/hofcleanfluegasfromanincineratormustbecooledfrom1100Fto600Finabaretube
evaporator.Steampressure=250psigsaturated.Feedwatertemperature=230F.Blowdown=5%.
Foulingfactorsonsteamandgasside=0.001ft2hF/Btu.Gasanalysis(vol%):CO2=7,H2O=
12,N2=75,
O2=6.Letheatlossfromcasing=1%.
FIgure8.3Boilerevaporatorbundle.
S0luti0n:Use2x1.773incarbonsteeltubesnumberwide=24length=10fttubespacing=4in.
square.
Averagegastemperature=0.5x(1100+600)=850F
Steamtemperatureinsidetubes=406F.Assumetubewalltemperature=410F(thisshouldbe
checkedagainlater).
Filmtemperature=0.5x(850+410)=630F
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Gaspropertiesatfilmtemperatureare(fromAppendix)Cp=0.2741,m=0.0693,k=0.0255
Cpataveragegastemperature=0.282
DutyQ=200,000x0.99x0.282x(1100600)=27.92MMBtu/hSteamenthalpychange=(1201.7
199)+0.05x(381.4199)=1011.82Btu/lb
Hence
Steamgeneration=27.92x=27,600lb/h
61011.82
GasmassvelocityG=200,000x12=4167lb/ft[2]h
24x12x(42)
4167x2
ReynoldsnumberRe=Gd/12m=^=10,021
J12x0.0693
UsingGrimsonscorrelation,
Nu=0.229x(10,021)0632=77.3Theconvectiveheattransfercoefficient
Hc=Nux12k=77.3x12x00255=11.83Btu/ft2hFd2
LetuscomputethenonluminousheattransfercoefficienthN.PartialpressuresofCO2andH2Oare
0.06and0.12,respectivelybeamlengthL=1.08x(4x40.785x4)/2=6.95in.=0.176m.
Averagegastemperature=850F=727K
UsingEq.(28b),
^(0.8+1.6x0.12)x(10.38x0.727)x0.19^
K=jrr=0.746
(0.19x0.176)
Gasemissivityeg=0.9x(1e07460176)=0.1107Assumingthatthetubewallisat420F(tobe
checkedlater)
131488[3]
HN=0.173x0.9x0.1107x=0.94Btu/ft2hF
N1310880
Usingaconservativeboilingheattransfercoefficientof2000Btu/ft2handatubethermalconductivity
of25Btu/fthFwehave
Or
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(1100406)(600406)
Logmeantemperaturedifference=
5Fln[(1100406)/(600406)]
=393F
2792x1062
SurfacearearequiredA==5776ft
412.3x393
A=3.14x2xNdx24x12/12=5776,orNd=38.4
Use40rowsdeep.Surfaceprovided=6016ft2.Letusestimatethegaspressuredrop.
282492
Gasdensityp=^=0.0295lb/ft
*F359x(460+850)
Frictionfactorf=10,020a15x(0.044+0.08x2)=0.0512
20.0512
AP=9.3x1010x41672x40x=1.12in.WC
G0.0295
TheaverageheatfluxontubeIDbasisis
Q=12.3x(850406)x2/1.773=6160Btu/ft2h
Temperaturedropacrossinsidefoulinglayer=6160x0.001=62FTemperaturedropacrossinside
filmcoefficient=6160/2000=3.1FDropacrosstubewall=0.0004x1.773x6160/2=2.2F
Hencetubeouterwalltemperature=406+6.2+3.1+2.2=418F.Sincethisisclosetotheassumed
valueanotheriterationisnotnecessary.
Notethatthisisonlytheaveragetubewalltemperature.Themaximumheatfluxisatthegasinlet,and
onehastoredothesecalculationstoobtainthemaximumtubewalltemperature.Acomputerprogram
wouldhelpspeedupthesecalculations.
8.15a
Q:
Howistheoffdesignperformanceofaboilerevaluated?Predicttheperformanceoftheboiler
designedearlierunderthefollowingconditions:Gasflow=
230,0lb/hgasinlettemperature=1050Fsteampressure=200psig.Gasanalysisremainsthesame.
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Performancecalculationsaremoreinvolvedthandesigncalculations,becausewedonotknowthegas
exittemperature.TheNTUmethoddiscussedinQ8.30minimizesthenumberofiterations.However,
foranevaporator,asimpleprocedureexistsforpredictingtheperformance.
TheboilerdutyQisgivenbytheexpression
Q=WgCp(t1t2)=UA(tf~<2)(33)
Ln[(t1ts)/(t2ts)]
Where
Ti,t2=gasinletandexittemperatures,Fts=saturationtemperature,FWg=gasflow,lb/h
(correctingforheatlossfactor)
Cp=gasspecificheatataveragegastemperature,Btu/lbFU=overallheattransfercoefficient,
Btu/ft2hFA=surfacearea,ft2
Simplifying,wehave
T!s=_^L(34)
T2tsWgCp
FirstwehavetoestimateU.Assuming580Fasthegasexittemperature,averagegastemperature=
815Fandaveragefilmtemperature=613F.
M=0.06875,k=0.0252,Cp=0.2735Cpataveragegastemperature=0.28Btu/lbF
122
G=230,000x=4791lb/ft2h
24x12x2
4791x2
Re==11,615
12x0.06875
Nu=0.229x11,6150632=84.9
Or
Hc=84.8x12x0.0252/2=12.9Btu/ft2hF
Thenonluminousheattransfercoefficientmaybecomputedasbeforeandshowntobe0.895Btu/ft2h
F.
1=1/(0.895+12.9)+0.001+0.0011+0.000565+0.0004=0.0756
U=13.2Btu/ft2hF
UsingEq.(34)withsaturationtemperatureof388F,wehave105038813.2x601615
T2388=230,000x0.99x0.28=.
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Or
T2=578FFromeq.(32)
Q=230,000x0.99x0.28x(1050578)=30.0MMBtu/h
Steamgeneration=29,770lb/h
Thetubewalltemperatureandgaspressuredropmaybecomputedasbefore.Itmaybeshownthatthe
gaspressuredropis1.5in.WCandthetubewalltemperatureis408F.Thusoffdesignperformanceis
predictedfortheevapora
tor.Withaneconomizerorsuperheater,Morecalculationsareinvolvedasthe
waterorsteamtemperaturechanges.Also,thedutyisaffectedbytheconfigura
tionoftheexchanger,
whethercounterflow,parallelflow,orcrossflow.TheNTUmethoddiscussedinQ8.29andQ8.30may
beusedtopredicttheoffdesignperformanceofsuchanexchanger.
8.15bQ:
Discussthelogicfordeterminingtheoffdesignperformanceofawatertubewasteheatboilerwiththe
configurationshowninFig.8.4.
A:
Inthedesignprocedureonecalculatesthesizeofthevariousheatingsurfacessuchassuperheaters,
evaporators,andeconomizersbythemethodsdiscussedearlierbasedontheequationA=Q/(UxAT).
Inthissituation,thedutyQ,logmeantemperaturedifferenceAT,andoverallheattransfer
coefficientUareknownorcanbeobtainedeasilyforagivenconfiguration.
Intheoffdesignprocedure,whichismoreinvolved,thepurposeistopredicttheperformanceofa
givenboilerunderdifferentconditionsofgasflow,inletgastemperature,andsteamparameters.In
thesecalculationsseveraltrialanderrorstepsarerequiredbeforearrivingatthefinalheatbalance
andduty,becausethesurfaceareaisnowknown.Theprocedureisdiscussedforasimplecase,
configuration1ofFig.8.4,whichconsistsofascreensection,superheater,evaporator,and
economizer.
1.AssumeasteamflowWsbasedongasconditions.
2.Solveforthescreensection,whichisactuallyanevaporator,byusingthemethodsdiscussedin
Q8.15a.
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FIgure8.4Configurationsforwatertubeboiler.
Solveforthesuperheatersection,eitherusingtheNTUmethodorbytrialanderror.Assumeavalue
forthedutyandcomputetheexitgas/steamtemperaturesandthenAT.
AssumeddutyQa=WgCp(Tg,Tgo)hlf
=Ws(hsohsi)
Where
Hso,hsi=enthalpiesofsteamatexitandinletTgi,Tgo=gasinletandexittemperatures.
ComputeU.ThentransferreddutyisQt=UxAxAT.IfQaandQtareclose,thentheassumedduty
andgas/steamtemperaturesarecorrectproceedtothenextstep.Otherwiseassumeanotherdutyand
repeatstep3.
4.Solvefortheevaporatorsectionasinstep1.Notrialanderrorisrequired,becausethesteam
temperatureisconstant.
5.Solvefortheeconomizerasinstep3.Assumeavalueforthedutyandthencomputeexitgas/water
temperatures,AT,andQt.IterationproceedsuntilQaandQtmatch.TheNTUmethodcanalsobeused
toavoidseveraliterations.
6.TheentireHRSGdutyisnowobtainedbyaddingthetransferreddutyofthefoursections.Thesteam
flowiscorrectedbasedontheactualtotaldutyandenthalpyrise.
7.Iftheactualsteamflowfromstep6equalsthatassumedinstep1,thentheiterationsarecomplete
andthesolutionisoverifnot,gobacktostep1withtherevisedsteamflow.
Thecalculationsbecomemorecomplexifsupplementaryfiringisaddedtogenerateadesiredquantity
ofsteamthegasflowandanalysischangeasthefiringtemperaturechanges,andthecalculationsforU
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andthegas/steamtemperatureprofilemusttakethisintoconsideration.Again,ifmultipressureHRSGs
areinvolved,thecalculationsareevenmorecomplexandcannotbedonewithoutacomputer.
8.16aQ:
Determinethetubemetaltemperatureforthecaseofasuperheaterunderthefollowingconditions:
Averagegastemperature=1200F
Averagesteamtemperature=620F
Outsidegasheattransfercoefficient=15Btu/ft2hF
Steamsidecoefficient=900Btu/ft2hF
(EstimationofsteamandgasheattransfercoefficientsisdiscussedinQ8.03andQ8.04.)
Tubesize=2x0.142in.(2in.ODand0.142in.thick)
Tubethermalconductivity=21Btu/fthF(carbonsteel)
(ThermalconductivityofmetalscanbelookedupinTable8.9.)
A:
Becausetheaverageconditionsaregivenandtheaveragetubemetaltemperatureisdesired,wemust
havetheparametersnotedaboveunderthemostsevereconditionsofoperationthehighestgas
temperature,steamtemperature,heatflux,andsoon.
Material200300400500600700800900100011001200130014001500
Aluminum(annealed)
Type11000
126124123122121120118
Type30030
111111111111111111111
Type30040
97 98 99 100102103104
Type60610
102103104105106106106
Aluminum(tempered)
Type1100(alltempers) 123122121120118118118
Type3003(alltempers) 96 97 98 99 100102104
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Type3004(alltempers) 97 98 99 100102103104
Type6061T4andT6
95 96 97 98 99 100102
Type6063T5andT6
116116116116116115114
Type6063T42
111111111111111111111
Castiron
31 31 30 29 28 27 26 25
Carbonsteel
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23
Carbonmoly(1%)steel 29 28 27 26 25 25 24 23
Chromemolysteels
1%Cr,2%Mo
27 27 26 25 24 24 23 2121
21%Cr,1%Mo
25 24 23 23 22 22 21 212020
5%Cr,2%Mo
21 21 21 20 20 20 20 191919
12%Cr
14 15 15 15 16 16 16 161717
Austeniticstainlesssteels
18%Cr,8%Ni
9.3 9.8 10 11 11 12 12 131314
25%Cr,20%Ni
7.8 8.4 8.9 9.5 10 11 11 121213
(continued)
Temperature(F)
Material
200 300400 500600 700800900100011001200130014001500
Admiraltymetal
70 75 79 84 89
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Navalbrass
71 74 77 80 83
Copper(electrolytic)
225 225224 224223
Copperandnickelalloys
90%Cu,10%Ni
30 31 34 37 42 47 49 51 53
80%Cu,20%Ni
22 23 25 27 29 31 34 37 40
70%Cu,30%Ni
18 19 21 23 25 27 30 33 37
30%Cu,70%Ni(Monel)15 16 16 16 17 18 18 19 20
20
Nickel
38 36 33 31 29 28 28 29 31
33
Nickelchromeiron
9.4 9.7 9.9 10 10 11 11 11 12
12
Titanium(grB)
10.9
10.4
12
13
13
13
10.5
Letususetheconceptofelectricalanalogy,inwhichthethermalandelectricalresistances,heatflux
andcurrent,andtemperaturedifferenceandvoltageareanalogous.Forthethermalresistanceofthe
tubemetal,
Dd2,2
=_.,,ln=xln
M24Kmd24x21"1.72
=0.0006ft2hF/Btu
Outsidegasfilmresistance
Ro==0.067ft2hF/Btu
12
InsidefilmresistanceR,==0.0011fthrF/Btu
900
TotalresistanceRt0.0670.00060.0011
=0.0687ft2hF/Btu
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Hence
12006202HeatfluxQ=00687=8443Btu/fth
Temperaturedropacrossthegasfilm=8443x0.067=565F
Temperaturedropacrossthetubemetal=8443x0.0006=5F
Temperaturedropacrosssteamfilm=8443x0.0011=9.3F
(Herewehaveappliedtheelectricalanalogy,wherevoltagedropisequaltotheproductofcurrentand
resistance.)Hence,
*.(1200565)+(620+9.3)
Averagetubemetaltemperature=2=632F
Wenotethatthetubemetaltemperatureisclosetothetubesidefluidtempera
ture.Thisisbecausethe
tubesidecoefficientishighcomparedtothegasheat
Transfercoefficient.Thistrendwouldprevailinequipmentsuchaswatertube
Boilers,superheaters,economizers,oranygasliquidheattransferequipment.
Anapproximationofthetubemetaltemperatureforbaretubesinagas
liquidorgasgasheattransfer
deviceis
Hi
Tm=to,(toti)(35)
Hi+ho
Where
Ht,ho=heattransfercoefficientsinsideandoutsidethetubes,Btu/ft2hFt,,to=fluidtemperatures
insideandoutside,F
8.16bQ:
Inaboilerairheater,ho=9,ht=12,tt=200F,andto=800F.Estimatetheaveragetubewall
temperaturetm.
A:
UsingEq.(35),wehave12
Tm=800x(800200)=457F
M12+9
8.17Q:
Howistheperformanceoffiretubeandwatertubeboilersevaluated?Canweinfertheextentof
foulingfromoperationaldata?AwatertubewasteheatboilerasshowninFig.8.5Generates10,000
lb/hofsaturatedsteamat300psiawhenthegasflowis75,000lb/handgastemperaturesinandoutare
1000Fand500F.Whatshouldthesteamgenerationandexitgastemperaturebewhen50,000lb/hof
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gasat950Fenterstheboiler?
A:
ItcanbeshownasdiscussedinQ8.15athatinequipmentwithaphasechange[1,8],
Lnt1tsat__UA
T2tsatWgCp
WhichwasgiventhereasEq.(34).
Forfiretubeboilers,theoverallheattransfercoefficientisdependentonthegascoefficientinsidethe
tubesthatis,UisproportionaltoWg,8.Inawatertubeboiler,UisproportionaltoWg,6.
SubstitutingtheseintoEq.(34)givesusthefollowing.
FIgure8.5Sketchof(a)firetubeand(b)watertubeboilers.
Forfiretubeboilers:
H~^sit9tst
Ln
_Kl
W
Forwatertubeboilers:
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(36)
T1~^sa
To
Ln
II
W04
(37)
Aslongasthefoulingisnotsevere,Eqs.(36)and(37)predicttheexitgastemperatures
correctly.Ift2isgreaterthanpredicted,wecaninferthatfoulinghasoccurred.Also,ifthe
gaspressuredropacrosstheboilerismorethanthecalculatedvalue(seeChap.7for
pressuredropcalculations),wecaninferthatfoulinghastakenplace.
CalculateK2fromEq.(37).tsat=417fromthesteamtables(seetheAppendix).
K2=Inf1000417)x(75,000)4=173
25004177
LetuspredicttheexitgastemperaturewhenWg=50,000.
Ln(95~417)=^50000^04=2.29Vt2417/173
950417t2=417+^29)=471F
Nowtheactualexitgastemperatureis520F,whichmeansthatthefoulingissevere.
TheenergylossduetofoulingisQ=50,000x0.26x(520471)
=0.63x106Btu/h
Ifenergycosts$3/MMBtu,theannuallossofenergyduetofoulingwillbe
3x0.63x8000=$15,120(assuming8000hoursofoperationayear).
8.18Q:
Whenandwherearefinnedtubesused?Whataretheiradvantagesoverbaretubes?
A:
Finnedtubesareusedextensivelyinboilers,superheaters,economizers,andheatersforrecovering
energyfromcleangasstreamssuchasgasturbineexhaustorfluegasfromcombustionofpremium
fossilfuels.Iftheparticulateconcentra
tioninthegasstreamisverylow,finnedtubeswithalowfin
densitymaybeused.However,thechoiceoffinconfiguration,particularlyincleangasapplications,is
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determinedbyseveralfactorssuchastubesideheattransfercoefficient,overallsize,cost,andgas
pressuredrop,whichaffectstheoperatingcost.
Solidandserratedfins(Fig.8.6)areusedinboilersandheaters.Finnedsurfacesareattractivewhenthe
ratiobetweentheheattransfercoefficientsontheoutsideofthetubestothatinsideisverysmall.In
boilerevaporatorsoreconomizers,thetubesidecoefficientcouldbeintherangeof1500
3000Btu/ft2hF,andthegassidecoefficientcouldbeintherangeof10
Figure8.6Solidandserratedfins.
20Btu/ft2hF.Alargefindensityoralargeratioofexternaltointernalsurfaceareaisjustifiedinthis
case.Astheratiobetweentheoutsideandinsidecoefficientsdecreases,theeffectivenessofusinga
largeratioofexternaltointernalsurfaceareasdecreases.Forexample,insuperheatersorhighpressure
airheaters,wherethetubesidecoefficientcouldbeintherangeof30300Btu/ft2hF,itdoesnotpay
tousealargefinsurfaceinfact,itiscounter
productive,aswillbeshownlater.Amoderatefindensity
suchastwoorthreefinsperinchwouldbeadequate,whereasforeconomizersorevaporators,fiveor
evensixfinsperinchmaybejustifiedifcleanlinesspermits.
Theotherimportantfacttobekeptinmindisthatmoresurfaceareadoesnotnecessarilymeanmore
energytransfer.Itispossible,throughpoorchoiceoffinconfiguration,tohavemoresurfaceareaand
yettransferlessenergy.Onehastolookattheproductofsurfaceareaandoverallheattransfer
coefficientandnotatsurfaceareaalone.Theoverallheattransfercoefficientissignificantlyreducedas
weincreasethefinsurfaceorusemorefinsperinch.
Finnedtubesofferseveraladvantagesoverbaretubessuchasacompactdesignthatoccupiesless
space,lowergaspressuredrop,lowertubesidepressuredropduetothefewerrowsoftubes,and
smalleroverallweightandcost.
Solidfinsofferslightlylowergaspressuredropthanserratedfins,whichhaveahigherheattransfer
coefficientforthesamefindensityandconfiguration.Particulates,ifpresent,arelikelytoaccumulate
onserratedfinnedtubes,whichmaybedifficulttoclean.
Q:
Howaretheheattransferandpressuredropoverfinnedtubesandtubeandfinwalltemperatures
evaluated?
A:
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ThewidelyusedESCOAcorrelationsdevelopedbyESCOACorporation[9]willbeusedtoevaluate
theheattransferandpressuredropoversolidandserratedfinnedtubesininlineandstaggered
arrangements.ThebasicequationforheattransfercoefficientwithfinnedtubesisgivenbyEq.(3).
Thecalculationfortubesidecoefficienthtwasdiscussedearlier.hoconsistsoftwoparts,a
nonluminouscoefficienthN,whichiscomputedasdiscussedinQ8.07,andhc,theconvectiveheat
transfercoefficient.Computationofhcinvolvesanelaborateprocedureandthesolvingofseveral
equations,asdetailedbelow.
DeterminationofHc[9]
D+2h5fte+46025
TOCo"15"hzhc=C3CiC51x
D)ta+460
(
!067
A)(38)
Wg
G=[(Sr/12)Ao]NwL(39)
Dnbh_N
Ao=12+6T(40)
C1C2,andC3areobtainedfromTable8.10.
Gd
Re=12m(41)
S=b(42)
n
FinEfficiencyandEffectiveness
Forbothsolidandserratedfins,effectivenesszis
Af
Z=1(1E)A(43)
Solidfins
C=0.25Re035C2=0.07+8Re045Inline
C3=0.2+0.65e025h/sC4=0.08(0.15ST/d)11^15C5=1.1(0.751.5e0.7Nd)e2.
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0SL/STC6=1.6(0.751.5e0.7Nd)e0.2(Sl/st)2Staggeredo2o
C3=0.35+0.65e0.25h/sC4=0.11(0.15ST/d)0:7(h/s)020C5=0.7+(0.70.8e0
15Nd2)e10SL/ST
C6=1.1+(1.82.1e015Nd2)e2.0(sl/st)(0.70.8e015Nd2)e06(SL/Sr)
Serratedfins
C1=0.25Re035C2=0.07+8.0Re045Inline
C3=0.35+0.5e035h/sC4=0.08(0.15ST/d)11(h/s)02C5=1.1(0.751.5e0.7Nd)e2.
0SL/STC6=1.6(0.751.5e07wd)e0.2(st/sr)2Staggered
C3=0.55+0.45e0.35h/sC4=0.11(0.05ST/d)0.7(h/s)023C5=0.7+(0.70.8e0
15Nd2)e10SL/ST
C6=1.1+(1.82.1e015Nd2)e2.0(sl/st)(0.70.8e015Nd2)e0.6(sl/st)
Source:FintubeTechnologies,Tulsa,OK.
Forsolidfins,
Af=pnx(44)
At=Af+p(45)
4dh+4h2+2bd+4bh
^4"
D(1nb)
T2"
TOCo"15"hzE=1/{1+0.002292m2h2[(d+2h)/d]05}(46)
Where
M=(24ho/Kb)05(47)
Forserratedfins,
Af=pdn(48)
2h(ws+b)+bws12ws
At=Af+pd(112nb)(49)
E=tanh(mh)(50)
mh
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SolidfinsInline
C=0053(1.452.9Sl/d)23Re021C2=0.11+1.4Re04
C3=020+0.65e025h/sC4=0.08(0.15ST/d)11(h/s>015
C5=1.1(0.751.5e07Nd)e20Sl/stc6=1.6(0.751.5e07Nd)e02(Sl/st)2
J=CC3C5[(d+2h)/d]05[(tg+460)/(ta+460)]5f=C2C4C6[(d+2h)/d][(tg+460)/(ta+460)]0
25Staggered
C1=0.091Re025C2=0.075+1.85Re03o2o
C3=0.35+0.65e025h/sC4=0.11(0.05ST/d)[4]
6(Sl/St)
C5=0.7+(0.70.8e015Nd2)[e10SL/ST]C6=1.1+(1.82.1e015Nd2)e2
0(SL/ST>[0.70.8e015N2]e~
J=C1C3C5[(d+2h/d]05[(fg+460)/(ta+460)]05
F=C2C4C6[(d+2h)/d]05[(tg+460)/(ta+460)]025
SerratedfinsInline
C1=0.053(1.452.9Sl/d)23Re021C2=0.11+14Re04
C3=0.25+0.6e026h/sC4=0.08(0.15ST/d)^H^)015
C5=1.1(0.751.5e07Nd)e20SL/STC6=1.6(0.751.5e07Nd)e02(Sl/st)2
J=C1C3C5[(d+2h)/d]05[(tg+460)/(ta+460)]05f=C2C4C6[(d+2h)/d][(tg+460)/(ta+460)]0
25Staggered
C1=0.091Re025C2=0.075+1.85Re03o
C3=035+0.65e017h/sC4=0.11(0.05ST/d)2
:6(Sl/St)
C5=07+(0.70.8e015Nd2)e10SL/stC6=1.1+(1.82.1e015Nd2)e20(SL/ST)
(0.70.8e015Nd2)e
J=CCsCsKd+2h)/d]:5[(fg+460)/(fa+460)]25f=C2C4C6[(d+2h)/d]5[(fg+460)/(fa+
460)]25
Where
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Kbws
GaspressuredropAPgis
DPg=(f+a)Pgx1.083dX109(52)
Where
2h05
TOCo"15"hzf=C2C4C6x^Jforstaggeredarrangement(53)
D~)2h
=C2C4C6xforinlinearrangement(54)
D
1+B2tg2tgi
A4NdX4(50+tg(55)
B=ffreegaSareaV(56)
totalarea/
C2,C4,C6aregiveninTable8.10forsolidandserratedfins.
TubeWallandFinTipTemperatures
Forsolidfinstherelationshipbetweentubewallandfintiptemperaturesisgiven
By
TOCo"15"hztgtf=K1(mre)xI0(mre)+I1(mre)XK0(mre)(57)
TgtbKi(mre)xIo(mro)+Ko(mr0)x^1(mre)
ThevariousBesselfunctionaldataareshowninTable8.11forserratedfins,treatedaslongitudinal
fins:
Tgtf1
Tgf=(58)
Tgtbcosh(mb)
Agoodestimateoftfcanalsobeobtainedforeithertypeoffinasfollows:
Tf=tb+(tgtb)x(1.421.4E)(59)
Tb,thefinbasetemperature,isestimatedasfollows:
Tb=ti+q(R3+R4+R5)(60)
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WhereR3,R4,andR5areresistancestoheattransferoftheinsidefilm,fouling
Layer,andtubewall,respectively,andheatfluxqoisgivenby
Q0=Uo(tg1,)(1)
Thefollowingexampleillustratestheuseoftheequations.
X Wx) /1(x) K)(x) K1(x)

0 1.0
0.11.0020.05 2.427 9.854

0.21.0100.10 1.753 4.776
0.31.0230.1521.372 3.056
0.41.0400.2041.114 2.184
0.51.0630.2580.924 1.656
0.61.0920.3140.778 1.303
0.71.1260.3720.66
1.05
0.81.1660.4330.565 0.862
0.91.2130.4970.487 0.716
1.01.2660.5650.421 0.602
1.21.3940.7150.318 0.434
1.41.5530.8860.244 0.321
1.61.75 1.0850.188 0.241
1.81.99 1.3170.146 0.183
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2.02.28 1.5910.114 0.140

2.22.6291.9140.08930.108
2.43.0492.2980.07020.0837
2.63.5532.7550.554 0.0653
2.84.1573.3010.04380.0511
3.04.8813.9530.03470.0402
3.25.7474.7340.02760.0316
3.46.7855.6700.02200.0250
3.68.0286.7930.01750.0198
3.89.5178.1400.01400.0157
4.011.309.7590.01120.0125
4.213.4411.700.00890.0099
4.416.0114.040.00710.0079
4.619.0916.860.00570.0063
4.822.7920.250.00460.0050
5.027.2424.340.00370.0040
Example
Asteamsuperheaterisdesignedforthefollowingconditions.
Gasflow=225,000pphGasinlettemperature=1050FGasexittemperature=904F
Gasanalysis(vol%):CO2=3,H2O=7,N2=75,O2=15
Steamflow=50,000pphSteamtemperaturein=501F(sat)
Steamexittemperature=758FSteampressure(exit)=650psig
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Tubesused:2x0.120lowalloysteeltubes18tubes/row,6deep,10ftlong,inlinearrangementwith
4in.squarepitchandninestreams.Tubeinnerdia
meter=1.738in.outerdiameter=2in.
Finsused:solidstainlesssteel,2fins/in.,0.5in.highand0.075in.thick.FinthermalconductivityK=
15Btu/fthF.
Determinetheheattransfercoefficientandpressuredrop.
So/wt/on.
A=H+2x056x0075=0.17917ft2/ft
G=__________^____________=8127lb/ft2h
18x10x[(4/12)0.17917)]
Thegaspropertiesattheaveragegastemperature(fromtheAppendix)are
Cp=0.276,m=0.086,k=0.03172
8127x2
Re==15,750
12x0.086
C=0.25x(15,750)0.35=0.0085
S=1/20.075=0.425
C3=0.2+0.65e0425=0.6843
C5=1.1(0.751.5e076)(e24/4)=1.0015
Assumethattheaveragefintemperatureis750F.Theaveragegastemperature=977F,andsteam
temperature=630F.Thefinthermalconduc
tivityKisassumedtobe15Btu/fthF.Then,
/3^0
Hc=0.0085x0.6843x1.0015x(977+460.25
75^)x8127x0.276
0.
2029
03172x67
0.276x0.086
UsingmethodsdiscussedinQ8.07,wefindhN=1.0.Thebeamlengthforfinnedtubesiscomputedas
3.4xvolume/surfacearea.Hence
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H0=20.29+1.0=21.29
24x21.295=2131
V15x0.075y
E=1/(1+0.002292x21.31x21.31x0.5x0.5xVL5)
=0.758Af=3.14x2
4x2x0.5+4x0.5x0.5+2x0.075x2+4x0.075x5
X
24
=1.426
At=1.426+3.14x2x12x0.075=L87112
Hence
Z=1(10.758)1426=0.81561871
Letuscomputeh,forsteam.w=50,000/9=5555lb/hpertube.FromTable8.2,factorC=0.34.
X0.8
(5555)02
H=2.44x0.34x^=303Btu/ft[5]hF
(1.738)18
111871
+12x
U21.29x0.816303x3.14x1.738
+0.001+0.001x1871x12+24ln^2
3.14x1.7381.738
1871
24x20x314x1738=0.0576+0.01358+0.001+0.0041+0.0032
=0.0795orU=12.58Btu/ft2hF
CalculationofTubeWallandFinTipTemperature
Heatfluxq=12.58x(977630)=4365Btu/ft2htb=630+4365x(0.0032+0.0041+0.01358)
722F
1.5
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Mre=21.29x=2.661ft,mro=1.7742ft
E12
K0(2.661)=0.0517K1(2.661)=0.061
I0(2.661)=3.737,I1(2.661)=2.921
K0(1.7742)=0.1515,I0(1.7742)=1.959
Hence,
977tf0.061x3.737+2.921x0.0517
}==0.6743
9777220.061x1.959+0.1515x2.921
Tf=805FUsingtheapproximation
Tf=tb+(1.421.4x0.758)x(977722)=813F
Notethatthisisonlyanaveragebaseandfintiptemperature.Formaterialselectionpurposesone
shouldlookatthemaximumheatflux,whichoccurs,forinstance,atthegasinletinacounterflow
arrangement,andalsoconsiderthenonuniformityormaldistributioningasandsteamflow.A
computerprogramcanbedevelopedtocomputethetubewallandfintiptemperaturesatvariouspoints
alongthetubelengthandtheresultsusedtoselectappropriatematerials.
Itcanbenotedfromtheabovethatthereareafewwaystoreducethefintiptemperature:
C2=0.07+8x(15,750)~45=0.1734
C4=0.08x(0.15x2)
1.11x(0.5/0.425)15_03107
DPg=(0.08080.0051)x8120x8120x
6
0.0271x1.083x109
90410501+0.2134
460+977x24
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=0.005
C6=1
3
F=0.1734x0.3107x1x=0.0808
2
=0.2134
=1.02in.WC
(Gasdensity=0.0271.)
Computersolutionoftheabovesystemof
equationssavesalotoftime.However,I
havedevelopedachart(Fig.8.7)thatcanbe
usedtoobtainhc(orhg)andzvaluesfor
serratedfinsandaninlinearrangementfor
variousfinconfigurationsandgasmass
velocitiesforgasturbineexhaustgasesatan
averagegastemperatureof700F.Although
acomputerprogramisthebesttool,the
chartcanbeusedtoshowtrendsandthe
effectoffinconfigurationonthe
performanceoffinnedsurfaces.Theuseof
thechartisexplainedlaterwithanexample.
Thefollowingpointsshouldbenoted.
1.FromFig.8.7,itcanbeseenthatforagivenmassvelocity,thehigherthefindensityorheight,the
lowerthegassidecoefficientoreffec
tiveness,whichresultsinlowerUo.Theamountofenergy
transferredinheattransferequipmentdependsontheproductoftheoverallheattransfercoefficient
andsurfaceareaandnotonthesurfaceareaalone.Wewillseelaterthatonecanhavemoresurface
areaandyettransferlessdutyduetopoorchoiceoffinconfiguration.
2.HigherfindensityorheightresultsinhigherAPg.Evenafteradjustingfortheincreasedsurfacearea
perrow,itcanbeshownthatthehigherthefindensityorthegreatertheheight,thehigherthegas
pressuredropwillbeforagivenmassvelocity.
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Figure8.7Chartofconvectiveheattransfercoefficientandpressuredropversusfingeometry.(Data
fromRef.10)
8.19bQ:
DescribeBriggsandYoungscorrelation.
A:
Chartsandequationsprovidedbythemanufactureroffinnedtubescanbeusedtoobtainhc.Inthe
absenceofsuchdata,thefollowingequationofBriggsandYoungforcircularorhelicalfinnedtubesin
staggeredarrangement[4]canbeused.
12k=0^(62)
Simplifying,wehave
/G0.681Zk067c033/S0.313
Hc=0295(d0319)(mi.o35i)(63)
Where
G
NWL(ST/12A0)
S=finclearance=1/nb,in[Eq.(42)]
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D,h,b=tubeouterdiameter,height,andthickness,in.
Dnbd2
A0=finobstructionarea=H,ft/ft[Eq.(40)]
126
ThegaspropertiesCp,m,andkareevaluatedattheaveragegastemperature.
Thegasheattransfercoefficienthchastobecorrectedforthetemperature
Distributionalongthefinheightbythefinefficiency
E=*,(64)
1/mhId+2h
+3W2
Where
L24h
M=/*i[Eq.(47)]
Kmisthefinmetalthermalconductivity,inBtu/fthF.
Inordertocorrectfortheeffectoffinnedarea,atermcalledfineffectivenessisused.Thisterm,z,is
givenby
Af
Z=1(1E)xf[Eq.43]
At
WherethefinnedareaAfandtotalareaAtaregivenby
Pn
Af=(4dh+4h2+2bd+4bh)[Eq.(44)]
Pd
At=Af+(1nb)[Eq.(45)]
Nisthefindensityinfins/in.Thefactor
K0.67c0.33
F(65)isgiveninTable8.12.
Theoverallheattransfercoefficientwithfinnedtubes,U,canbeestimatedasU=0.85zhc,neglecting
theeffectofthenonluminousheattransfercoeffi
cient.
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TAble8.12FactorFforFinnedTubes
F
Temp(F)
200 0.0978
400 0.1250
Example
600 0.1340
Determinethegassideheattransfercoefficientwhen150,000lb/hoffluegasesatan
800 0.1439averagetemperatureof900Fflowoverhelicallyfinnedeconomizertubeswiththe
followingparameters:
10000.1473
D=tubeouterdiameter=2.0in.n=fins/in.=3h=finheight=1in.b=finthickness=
12000.15400.06in.
16000.1650L=effectivelengthoftubes=10.5ftNw=numberoftubeswide=12
=transversepitch=4.5in.(staggered)
CalculateAo,Af,andAt.FromEq.(40),
A0=+3x0.06x1=0.2ft2/ft
0
126
FromEq.(44),
+2x0.06x2+4x0.06)=4.9ft2/ft
FromEq.(45),
At=4.9+p
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G=_________^__________=6800lbfh
12x10.5x(4.5/120.2)
FinpitchS=10.06=0.27
UsingEq.(65)withF=0.145fromTable8.12Givesush=0.295x68800681x0.145
0.27a313
=12.74Btu/ft2hF
20319x102x0.060113
CalculatefinefficiencyfromEq.(64).Letmetalthermalconductivityoffins(carbonsteel)=24Btu/fth
F.
24x1274
M=J=14.57
24x006
E=2.=0.6
1+0.33x(14.57x1/12)2xV(2+2)/2
49
Fineffectivenessz=1(106)5=063Hence,
Zhc=0.63x12.74=8Btu/ft2hF
Rangesfrom23to27Btu/fthFforcarbonsteels,dependingontemperature[1].Foralloysteelsitis
lower.
8.19c
Q:
Thisexampleshowshowonecanpredicttheperformanceofagivenheattransfersurface.A
superheaterisdesignedforthefollowingconditions:18tubes/row,6rowsdeep,10ftlongwith2
fins/in.,0.5in.highand0.075in.thicksolidfins.Ithas18streams.Surfacearea=2022ft2.Tube
spacing=4in.square.
Predicttheperformanceofthesuperheaterunderthefollowingconditions:
Gasflow=150,000lb/hat1030F
Steamflow=35,000lb/hat615psigsat
Fluegasanalysis(vol%):CO2=7,H2O=12,N2=75,O2=6
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Heatloss=2%
SurfaceareaA2022ft2
LetussaythatUhasbeenestimatedas10.6Btu/ft2hFusingmethodsdiscussedearlier.
A:
LetususetheNTUmethodtopredicttheperformanceofthesuperheater.ThisisdiscussedinQ8.30.
Thesuperheaterisincounterflowarrangement.
EnergytransferredQ=eCmin(tgtSi)
Where
1exp[NTU(1C)]
E=
1Cexp[NTU(1C)]
CCmin/Cmax
Cministhelowerof(massxspecificheatofthefluid)ongasandsteamsides.
Tgi,t=gasandsteamtemperatureatinlettosuperheater,F
Use491Fforsteamsaturationtemperature.
ThoughNTUmethodsgenerallyrequirenoiterations,afewroundsarenecessaryinthiscaseto
evaluatethespecificheatforsteamandgas,whicharefunctionsoftemperature.However,letus
assumethatthesteamsidespecificheat=0.6679andthatofgas=0.286Btu/lbF.
Cgas=150,000x0.98x0.286=42,042Csteam=35,000x0.6679=23,376
Hence,Cmin=23,376.
C==0.556
42,042
10.62x2022NTU=UA/Cmin=23376=0.9186
Hence
1exp[0.9186x(10.556)]=05873
10.556exp[0.9186x(10.556)].
Hence
EnergytransferedQ=0.5873x23,376x(1030491)=6.7MMBtu/h
6,700,000
Exitsteamtemperature=h491=287+491=778F
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F35,000x0.06679
6,700,000
Tgas=1030150.000x0.286x0.98=871F
Steamsidepressuredropisobtainedasfollows:
Equivalentlengthoftube=(18/9)x6x10+(18/9)x6x2.5x2=180ft
Use185ftforestimation.Specificvolumeofsteamattheaveragesteamconditionsof620psiaand
635Fis0.956ft3/lb.
/352185
Pressuredrop=3.36x0.02x0.956xIj^pyggs=H4psi
GassidepressuredropmaybeestimatedusingthechartinFig.8.7Andisabout
0.6in.WC.
8.20Q:
AgasturbineHRSGevaporatoroperatesunderthefollowingconditions:
Gasflow=230,000lbh(vol%CO2=3,H2O=7,N2=75,O2=15)
Gasinlettemperature=1050FExitgastemperature=406F
Duty=230,000x0.99x0.27x(1050406)=39.6MMBtu/hSteampressure=200psigFeedwater
temperature=230FBlowdown=5%
Foulingfactors=0.001ft2hF/Btuonbothgasandsteamsides
Arrangement:4in.squarepitch
Tubesused:2x1.773in.,24tubes/row,11ftlong
Fins:5fins/in.,0.75in.high,0.05in.thick,serrated
Determinetheoverallheattransfercoefficientandpressuredropusingthechart.
A:
ThechartshowninFig.8.7hasbeendevelopedforserratedfinsininlinearrangementfortheabove
gasanalysis.Usersmaydeveloptheirchartsfor
Variousconfigurationsoruseacomputerprogram.Thechartisbasedonanaveragegastemperatureof
700Fandagasanalysis(vol%)ofCO2=3,H2O=7,N2=75,O2=15.
Ao=12+^5x0.75x005)=0.1979ft2/ft
230,02
G=24x11x(0.33330.1979)=6434lb/ft2h
Averagegastemperature=728F.FromTable8.12,thecorrectionfactoris
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0.1402/0.139=1.008.
ForG=6434,hcfromthechart=11.6Btu/ft2hF,Gaspressuredropover
10rows=1.7in.WC.
Fineffectiveness=0.75
HNissmall,about0.4Btu/ft2hF
H0=0.75x(0.4+1.008x11.6)=9.07Btu/ft2hF
Thefintotalsurfaceareacanbeshowntobe5.7ft2/ft.
Hence
At57x12
==1229
At3.14x1.773
Lettubesideboilingcoefficient=2000Btu/ft2hFandfinthermalcon
ductivity=25Btu/fthF
I=_L+0.001x12.29+0.001+1229+12,29x2xln(2/L773)
U9.07200024/25
=0.110+0.01229+0.001+0.006145+0.004935=0.1344U=7.4Btu/ft2hF
T..,.ff(1050388)(406388)
Logmeantemperaturedifference=
Ln[(1050388)/(406388)]=178F
TOCo"15"hz396x1062
Surfacearearequired=:=30,063ft
H178x7.4
30063
Numberofrowsdeeprequired=7=20
FH24x11x5.7
Gaspressuredrop=1.7x2=3.4in.Wc
Q:
Howdoesafinnedsurfacecomparewithabaretubebundleforthesameduty?A:
Letustrytodesignabaretubeboilerforthesamedutyasabove.Usethesametubesizeandspacing,
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tubesperrow,andlength.Use2x1.773in.baretubes.
UsingtheproceduredescribedinQ8.14,wecanshowthatU=13.05Btu/ft2hFandthat124rowsare
requiredforthesameduty.TheresultsareshowninTable8.13.
Itmaybeseenthatthefinnedtubebundleismuchmorecompactandhasfewerrowsandalsoalower
gaspressuredrop.Italsoweighslessandshouldcostless.Therefore,incleangasapplicationssuchas
gasturbineexhaustorfumeincinerationplants,extendedsurfacesmaybeusedforevaporators.Indirty
gasapplicationssuchasmunicipalwasteincinerationorwithfluegasescontainingashorsolid
particles,baretubesarepreferred.Finnedtubesmayalsobeusedinpackagedboilerevaporators.
However,theheatfluxinsidethefinnedtubesismuchlarger,whichisaconcerninhighgas
temperaturesituations.Thetubewalltemperatureisalsohigher.Hencewhenthegastemperatureis
high,say14001700F,weuseafew
Table8.13ComparisonofBareTubeandFinnedTubeBoilers
BaretubeFinnedtube
Gasflow,Ib/h
230,000
Inletgastemperature,F
1050
Exitgastemperature,F
407
Duty,MMBtu/h
39.5
Steampressure,psig
200
Feedwatertemperature,F
230
Steamflow,Ib/h
39,200
Surfacearea,ft2
17,141
30,102
Overallheattransfercoeff,Btu/ft2hF13.0
7.39
Gaspressuredrop,in.WC
5.0
3.5
Numberofrowsdeep
124
20
Heatflux,Btu/ft2h
9707
60,120
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Tubewalltemperature,F
409
516
Weightoftubes,lb
81,100
38,800
Tubes/row=24effectivelength=11ft4in.squarespacing.Gas
analysis(vol%)CO2=3H2=7,N2=75,O2=15.Blowdown=
5%.
Baretubesfollowedbytubeswith,say,2fins/in.findensityandthengobacktofourormorefinsper
inch.Thisensuresthatthegasstreamiscooledbeforeenteringtubebundleswithahighfindensityand
thatthetubesareoperatingatreasonabletemperatures,whichshouldalsolowerthefintip
temperatures.
Whenthetubesidefoulingislarge,ithasthesameeffectasalowtubesideheattransfercoefficient,
resultinginpoorperformancewhenahighfindensityisused.SeeQ8.24.Onemayalsonotethe
significantdifferenceinsurfaceareasandnotbemisledbythisvalue.
8.22Q:
Whichisthepreferredarrangementforfinnedtubes,inlineorstaggered?
A:
Bothinlineandstaggeredarrangementshavebeenusedwithextendedsurfaces.Theadvantagesofthe
staggeredarrangementarehigheroverallheattransfercoefficientsandsmallersurfacearea.Costcould
bemarginallylowerdependingontheconfiguration.Gaspressuredropcouldbehigherorlower
dependingonthegasmassvelocityused.Ifcleaninglanesarerequiredforsootblowing,anin
line
arrangementispreferred.
Bothsolidandserratedfinsareusedintheindustry.Generally,solidfinsareusedinapplications
wherethedepositionofsolidsislikely.
Thefollowingexampleillustratestheeffectofarrangementonboilerperformance.
Example
150,0lb/hofturbineexhaustgasesat1000Fenteranevaporatorofawasteheatboilergenerating
steamat235psig.Determinetheperformanceusingsolidandserratedfinsandinlineversusstaggered
arrangements.Tubesizeis
2x1.77in.
Solution.UsingtheESCOAcorrelationsandthemethodologydiscussedaboveforevaporator
performance,theresultsshowninTable8.14Werearrivedat.
8.23Q:
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Howdoesthetubesideheattransfercoefficientorfoulingfactoraffecttheselectionoffin
configurationsuchasfindensity,height,andthickness?
TAble8.14ComparisonBetweenStaggeredandInLineDesignsforNearlySameDutyandPressure
Dropa
Serratedfins
Solidfins
InlineStaggeredInlineStaggered
Finconfig.
5x0.75X0.050.1572x0.75X0.05x0
Tubes/row
18
20
18
20
No.offinsdeep20
16
20
16
Length
10
10
10
11
U0
7.18
8.36
9.75
10.02
APg
3.19
3.62
1.72
1.42
23.24
23.31
21.68
21.71
Surface
20,524 18,244
9802
9584
ADuty,MMBtu/hAPg,in.WCsurface,ft2temperature,F
Uo,Btu/ft2hF.
A:
Findensity,height,andthicknessaffecttheoverallheattransfercoefficientascanbeseeninFig.8.7.
However,thetubesidecoefficientalsohasanimportantbearingontheselectionoffinconfiguration.
AsimplecalculationcanbedonetoshowtheeffectofthetubesidecoefficientonUo.Itwas
mentionedearlierthatthehigherthetubesidecoefficient,thehighertheratioofexternaltointernal
surfaceareacanbe.Inotherwords,itmakesnosensetousethesamefinconfiguration,say5fins/in.
findensity,forasuperheaterasforanevaporator.
RewritingEq.(3)basedontubesideareaandneglectingotherresistances,
L_iA/A
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Uk,h0z
UsingthedatafromFig.8.7,U,valueshavebeencomputedfordifferentfindensitiesandfordifferent
k,valuesfortheconfigurationindicatedinTable8.15.TheresultsareshowninTable8.15.Also
shownaretheratioofU,values
Betweenthe5and2fins/in.designsaswellastheirsurfacearea.
Thefollowingconclusionscanbedrawn[10].
1.Asthetubesidecoefficientdecreases,theratioofU,values(between5and2fins/in.)decreases.
Withk,=20,theU,ratioisonly1.11.With
Ank,of2000,theU,ratiois1.74.Whatthismeansisthatask,
Decreases,thebenefitofincreasingtheexternalsurfacebecomeslessattractive.With2.325timesthe
surfaceareawehaveonly1.11foldimprovementinU,.Withahigherk,of2000,theincreaseisbetter,
1.74.
20
100
1000
N,fins/in. 25
25
25
G,lb/ft2h 55916366
55916366
55916366
At/A,Zh0a0.015460.008670.015460.008670.015460.00867
Uo
2.731.31
7.034.12
11.218.38
U,
15.2817.00
39.2853.55
62.66109
RatioU,
1.11
1.363
1.74
1.3
1.02
RatioDPg 1.6
Calculationsbasedon2.0x0.105tubes,29tubes/row,6ftlong,
0.05in.thickserratedfinstubeson4.0in.squarepitchfinheight
=0.75in.gasflow=150,000pphgasinlettemp=1000F.
ASurfaceareaA,of2fins/in.tube=2.59ft2/ft,andfor5fins/in.,
A,=6.02ft2/ft.
2.Asimpleestimationoftubewalltemperaturecantellusthatthehigherthefindensity,thehigherthe
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tubewalltemperaturewillbe.Forthecaseofht=100,withn=2,Ut=39.28,gastemperature=
900F,andfluidtemperatureof600F,
Heatfluxqt=(900600)x39.28=11,784Btu/ft2h
Thetemperaturedropacrossthetubesidefilm(hi=100)=
11,784/100=118F.Thewalltemperature=600+118=718F.
Withn=5,U=53.55,q=53.55x300=16,065Btu/ft2h.Tubewalltemperature=600+16,065/100=
761F.Notethatwearecomparingforthesameheight.Theincreaseinwalltemperatureis43F.
3.Theratioofthegaspressuredropbetweenthe5and2fins/in.designs(afteradjustingfortheeffect
ofUvaluesanddifferencesinsurfaceareaforthesameenergytransfer)increasesasthetubeside
coefficientreduces.Itis1.6forht=20and1.02forht=2000.Thatis,whenhtissmaller,itisprudent
touseasmallerfinsurface.
EffectofFoulingFactors
TheeffectsofinsideandoutsidefoulingfactorsffiandffoareshowninTables
8.16and8.17.Thefollowingobservationscanbemade.
1.Withasmallerfindensity,theeffectofffiisless.With0.01fouling
And2fins/in.,Uo=6.89comparedwith10.54with0.001fouling.Theratiois0.65.With5fins/in.,
thecorrespondingvaluesare4.01and
Fins/in.,n2
Uo,clean 11.2111.218.38 8.38

Ff/
0.0010.01 0.0010.01
Uo,dirty 10.546.89 7.56 4.01

Uoas% 100 65
100 53
ATubesidecoefficient=2000.
7.46,theratiobeing0.53.Thatmeansthatwithincreasedtubesidefoulingitmakessensetousea
lowerfindensityorsmallerratioofexternaltointernalsurfacearea.Thesameconclusionwasreached
withasmallertubesidecoefficient.
2.Theeffectofffoislesssignificant,becauseitisnotenhancedbytheRatioofexternaltointernal
surfacearea.AreviewofEq.(1)tellsusthatthetubesideheattransfercoefficientorfoulingfactoris
increasedbytheratiooftheexternaltointernalsurfacearea,andhenceitseffectiseasilymagnified.
8.24Q:
Comparetheeffectoftubesidefoulingonbare,low,andhighfinnedtubes.
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A:
Threeboilerevaporatorsweredesignedusingbaretubes,2fins/in.and5fins/in.,tocool150,000lb/h
ofcleanfluegasesfrom1000Fto520F.Theeffectoffoulingfactorsof0.001and0.01onduty,tube
walltemperatures,andsteamproductionareshowninTable8.18.Thefollowingpointsmaybe
observed[11].
1.Withbaretubes,thehighertubesidefoulingresultsinthelowestreductioninduty,from19.65to
18.65MMBtu/h,withtheexitgas
Table8.17Effectofffo,OutsideFoulingFactor3
Fins/in.,m2
Uo,clean 11.2111.218.38 8.38

Ffo
0.0010.01 0.0010.01
Uo,dirty 11.0810.088.31 7.73

Uoas% 100 91
100 93
ATubesidecoefficient=2000.
Case
1.Gastempin,F
1000 1000 1000
1000 1000
1000
2.Exittemp,F
520
604
646
3.Duty,MMBtu/h
19.65 18.65 19.65
4.Steamflow,lb/h
19,39018,40019,390 16,11019,390 14,400
5.ff,,ft2hF/Btu
0.001 0.01
545
520
0.001
520
16.30 19.65
0.01
0.001
14.60
0.01
6.Heatflux,Btu/ft2h9314 8162 35,360 23,08055,790 30,260

7.Walltemp,F
437
516
490
680
530
760
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8.Fintemp,F
730
840
725
861
9.At/A,
1.13
1.13
5.6
5.6
12.3
12.3
10.Fins
Bare Bare (2x0.75
(5x0.75
X0.05x 0.157) X0.05x 0.157)

11.Tubesperrow
20
20
20
20
20
20
12.No.deep
60
60
16
16
10
10
13.Length,ft
14.Surfacearea,ft2 5024 5024 6642
6642 9122
9122
15.GasDp,in.WC 3.0
1.90
2.1
3.1
1.80
2.0
Temperaturegoingupto545Ffrom520Fseecolumns1and2.With2fins/in.,theexitgas
temperatureincreasesfrom520Fto604F,withthedutyreducingto16.3from19.65MMBtu/h.The
steamgenerationisabout3200lb/hlower.With5fins/in.,thereduc
tionindutyandsteamgeneration
arethegreatest.
2.Theheatfluxincreaseswithfindensity.Therefore,withhightempera
tureunitsonehastobe
concernedwithDNBconditionshowever,heatfluxdecreasesbecauseoffouling.
3.Thetubewalltemperatureincreasessignificantlywithfindensity.Thesamefoulingfactorresultsin
amuchhighertubewalltemperatureforfinnedtubesthanforbaretubes.Thetubewalltemperature
increasesfrom530Fto760Fwith5fins/in.,andfrom437Fto516Fforbaretubes.Theeffectof
foulingismorepronouncedintubesofhighfindensity,whichmeansthathighfindensitytubeshave
tobekeptcleanerthanbaretubes.Demineralizedwaterandgoodwatertreatmentarerecommendedin
suchsituations.
8.25Q:
Howistheweightofsolidandserratedfinsdetermined?
A:Theweightoffinsisgivenbytheformulas
Wf=10.68xFbnx(do+h)x(h+0.03)forsolidfinsWf=10.68xFbndox(h+0.12)for
serratedfins
Where
Wf=thefinweight,lb/ft(Thesegmentwidthdoesnotaffecttheweight.)b=finthickness,in.n=fin
density,fins/in.h=finheight,in.do=tubeouterdiameter,in.
FactorFcorrectsformaterialoffinsandisgiveninTable8.19[9].
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TheweightoFthEtubeshastobeaddedtothefinweighttogivethetotalweightofthefinnedtube.
Tubeweightperunitlengthisgivenby
Wt=10.68xFxdmxtm(68)
Where
Dm=meandiameteroftube,in.tm=averagewallthickness,in.
Example
Determinetheweightofsolidcarbonsteelfinsona2in.ODtubeifthefindensityis5fins/in.,height
=0.75in.,andthickness=0.05in.Averagetubewallthicknessis0.120in.
Table8.19TableofFFactors
Material
Carbonsteel
Type304,316,321alloys1.024
Type409,410,430
0.978
Nickel200
1.133
Inconel600,625
1.073
Incoloy800
1.013
Incoloy825
1.038
HastelloyB
1.179
So/wtion.FfromTable8.19=1.UsingEq.(67a),wehaveWf=10.68x1x0.05x5x(2+0.75)x
(0.75+0.03)=5.725lb/ftThetubeweighthastobeaddedtothis.ThetubeweightisgivenbyWt=
10.68x1.94x0.12=2.49lb/ftHencethetotalweightofthefinnedtube=2.49+5.725=8.215lb/ft.
8.26Q:
Whatistheeffectoffinthicknessandconductivityonboilerperformanceandtubeandfintip
temperatures?
A:
Table8.20givestheperformanceofaboilerevaporatorusingdifferentfins.
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2x0.120carbonsteeltubes26tubes/row,14deep,20ftlong4x0.75x0.05thicksolidfinssurface
area=35,831ft2
4x0.75x0.102thicksolidfinssurfacearea=36,426ft2Inlinearrangement,4in.squarepitch.
Gasflow=430,000lb/hat1400Finvol%,CO2=8.2,H2O=20.9,N2=67.51,O2=3.1Steam
pressure=635psig
Foulingfactors=0.001ft2hF/Btuonbothgasandsteam.
Itcanbeseenthat
1.Duetotheslightlylargersurfaceareaandhigherheattransfercoefficient,moredutyistransferred
withhigherfinthickness.
Table8.20FinConfigurationandPerformance
Tube
Fincond.(Btu/ft Finthickness Duty(MM

hF)
(in.)
Btu/h)
Temp.
Inmp.
(Btu/ft2h
F)
F)
(F)
25
0.05
104
673
996
8.27
25
0.102
106.35
692
874
9.00
15
0.05
98.35
642
1164 6.78
15
0.102
103.48
670
990
7.98
2.Theoverallheattransfercoefficientisincreasedowingtohigherfineffectivenessforthesamefin
conductivityandgreaterfinthickness.
3.LowerfinconductivityreducesthefineffectivenessandtheoverallheattransfercoefficientU,and
hencelessdutyistransferred.
4.Thoughfintiptemperatureisreducedwithgreaterfinthickness,owingtoimprovedeffectiveness
thetubewalltemperatureincreases.Thisisduetotheadditionalresistanceimposedbythelarger
surfacearea.
8.27aQ:
Issurfaceareaanimportantcriterionforevaluatingdifferentboilerdesigns?
A:
Theanswerisyesifthepersonevaluatingthedesignsisknowledgeableinheattransferrelatedaspects
andnoifthepersonsimplycomparesdifferentdesignslookingonlyforsurfaceareainformation.We
haveseenthisinthecaseoffiretubeboilers(Q8.11),where,duetovariationsintubesizeandgas
velocity,differentdesignswithover4050%differenceinsurfaceareaswereobtainedforthesame
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duty.Inthecaseofwatertubeboilersalso,duetovariationsintubesize,pitch,andgasvelocity,one
canhavedifferentsurfaceareasforthesamedutyhenceonehastobecarefulinevaluatingboilers
basedonlyonsurfaceareas.
Inthecaseoffinnedtubeboilers,inadditiontotubesize,pitch,andarrangement(staggeredorinline),
onehastoreviewthefinconfigurationtheheight,thickness,andfindensity.Thehigherthefin
densityorratioofexternaltointernalsurfacearea,thelowertheoverallheattransfercoefficientwillbe
eventhoughthesurfaceareacanbe100200%greater.Itisalsopossibletotransfermoredutywith
lesssurfaceareabyproperselectionoffingeometry.
Example
AsuperheateristobedesignedfortheconditionsshowninTable8.21.Studythedifferentdesigns
possiblewithvaryingfinconfigurations.
Solution.Usingthemethodsdiscussedabove,variousdesignswerearrivedat,withtheresultsshown
inTable8.22[10].Severalinterestingobservationscanbemade.Incases1and2,thesameenergyof
19.8MMBtu/histransferredhowever,thesurfaceareaofcase2ismuchhigherbecauseofthehigh
findensity,whichdecreasesU,theoverallheattransfercoefficient.Also,thetubewallandfintip
temperaturesarehigherbecauseofthelargeratioofexternaltointernalsurfacearea.
Gasflow=240,000Ib/hGasinlettemperature=1300FGasanalysis(vol%)
CO2=7H2O=12N2=75
O2=6
Comparingcases3and4,weseethatcase3transfersmoreenergywithlesssurfaceareabecauseof
betterfinselection.Thusitisnotagoodideatoselectorevaluatedesignsbasedonsurfaceareaalone,
becausethiscanbemisleading.Inaddition,excessivefinsurfacecanleadtohighertubewallandfin
tiptempera
tures,Forcingonetousebettermaterialsandincreasingthecost.Somepurchas
ing
managersbelieveincorrectlythatiftheycangetmoresurfaceareaforthesameprice,theyaregettinga
gooddeal.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.
8.27bQ:
Whenextendedsurfacesareused,thechoiceoffindensityisgenerallyarrivedatbasedon
optimizationstudiesasillustratedbelow.Varyingthefindensityaffects
Table8.22EffectofFinGeometryonSuperheaterPerformance
Case1Case2Case3Case4
Duty,MMBtu/h
19.8
19.87 22.62 22.44
Exitsteamtemperature,F
729
730
770
768
0.8
1.3
1.2
1.5
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Exitgastemp,F
1017 1016 976
979
Fins/in.
4.5
2.5
5.5
Finheight,in.
0.5
0.75
0.75
0.625
Finthickness,in.
0.075 0.075 0.075 0.075
Surfacearea,ft2
2965 5825 5223 7106
Maxtubewalltemp,F
890
968
Fintiptemperature,F
996
1095 1115 1069
12.1
6.19
8.49
12
12.3
10
Numberofrowsdeep
Overallheattransfercoeff,F
Tubesidepressuredrop,psi
956
988
6.16
Thegaspressuredrop,surfacearea,andweightoftheboiler,nottomentionthetubewallandfintip
temperatures.Anincinerationplantevaporatoristobedesignedtocool550,000lb/hofcleanflues
gasesfrom1000Ftoabout460F.Steampressureis250psigsat.Feedwaterenterstheevaporatorat
230FFluegasanalysis(vol%)isCO2=7,H2O=12,N2=75O2=6.Foulingfactorsare0.001ft2h
F/Btuonboththegasandsteamsides.Studytheeffectoffinconfigurationonthedesign.
A:
ThecalculationprocedureforfinnedtubesisdetailedinQ8.19aQ8.19c.Onlytheresultsfromusinga
computerprogramwillbediscussedhere.Usingserratedfinsofdensity2,4,and6fins/in.,0.75in.
high,0.05in.thickwith30tubes/row,
4in.squarepitchconfiguration,thelengthswerevariedtoobtaindifferentgasmassvelocities.The
numberofrowsdeepwasadjustedtoobtainanexitgastemperatureofabout460Foradutyofabout
82MMBtu/h.Figure8.8showstheresultsfromthestudy.
Asthegasmassvelocityincreasesweseethatthegaspressuredropincreases,whereasthesurfacearea
decreasesforboth2and6fins/in.designs,whichshouldbeobvious.Thesurfacearearequiredforthe
6fins/in.designismuchlargerthanwith2fins/in.AsdiscussedinQ8.27a,theheattransfercoefficient
withhigherfindensityorlargeexternalfinsurfaceareaislower.Theweightofthetubebundleisalso
higherwithhigherfindensity.
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Gasmassvelocity.1000lb/fthFigure8.8EffectoffingeometryonHRSGsurfaceareaandgas
pressuredrop.
Table8.23summarizesthedesignsforthe2and6fins/in.casesforthesamedutyandgaspressure
dropof4in.WC.Itisseenthatthesurfaceareaismuchlargerwiththe6fins/in.design.Thetubewall
temperatureisalsohigherduetothehigherheatflux,andtheweightisslightlymore.However,the
fabricationcostmaybelessduetothesmallernumberofrowsdeep.Dependingonthedesign,the
drumlengthcouldalsobesmallerduetothis.Onemayevaluatethesefactorsandselecttheoptimum
design.
NoteonSurfaceAreas
Asdiscussedearlier,surfaceareasfromdifferentdesignsshouldbeinterpretedcarefullyOneshow/d
notselectadesignbasedonsurfaceareaconsiderations.Withhigherfindensity,theheattransfer
coefficientwillbelowerandviceversa.Simplylookingataspreadsheetthatshowssurfaceareasof
tubesofdifferentsuppliersanddecidingthatthedesignwithmoresurfaceareaisbetteristechnically
incorrect.Ascanbeseenbelow,thehighersurfaceareaoptionhashighertubewalltemperatureand
heatfluxinsidethetubes.Ifonewantstocomparealternativedesigns,oneshouldlookatUA,the
productofoverallheattransfercoefficientUandsurfaceareaAandnotthesurfaceareaalone.The
equationforenergytransferisQ=UAAT.QandATbeingthesame,UAshouldbeconstantforthe
variousoptions.Unlessoneknowshowtocalculatetheheattransfercoefficients,comparisonof
surfaceareasaloneshouldnotbeattempted,becauseitcanbemisleading.Factorssuchastubesize,
spacing,geometry,andfinconfigurationaffectU.Thediscussionalsoappliestofiretubeboilers,
wheretubesizesandgasvelocitiescanimpactsurfaceareas.
Table8.23DesignofaBoilerwith2and6
Fins/in.
Fins/in.
Gasmassvelocity,lb/ft2h7500 8000
Surfacearea,ft2
32,50050,020
Tubewalltemp,F
488
542
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Fintiptemp,F
745
724
Tubeswide
30
30
Tubelength,ft
16
17.6
No.ofrowsdeep
26
14
Weight,lb
59,65064,290
Q:
Howaretubularairheatersdesigned?
A:
LetWg,andWabethegasandairquantities.Normally,fluegasflowsinsidethetubeswhileairflows
acrossthetubesincrossflowfashion,asshowninFig.8.9.Carbonsteeltubesof1j3.0in.ODare
generallyused.Thicknessrangesfrom0.06to0.09in.becausehighpressuresarenotinvolved.The
tubesarearrangedininlinefashionandareconnectedtothetubesheetsattheends.Morethanone
blockmaybeusedinseriesinthiscase,airflowsacrossthetubebundleswithafewturns.Hence,
whilecalculatinglogmeantemperaturedifference,wemustconsidercorrectionfactorsFT.
Fluegasvelocityisintherangeof4070fps,andairsidemassvelocitiesrangefrom4000to8000
lb/ft2h.NwandNd,thenumbersoftubeswideanddeep,canbedecidedonthebasisofduct
dimensionsleadingtotheairheater.Inthecaseofaseparateheater,wehavethechoiceofNworNd.
Inaboiler,forexample,ductdimensionsattheeconomizersectionfixdimensionsoftheairheater
also,becausetheairheaterislocatedbelowtheeconomizer.
Tosizetheairheater,firstdeterminethetotalnumberoftubesNt[1]:
0TOCo"15"hz.05Wg,x
N=dvf(69)
ST/dandSL/drangefrom1.25to2.0.Forthegassideheattransfercoefficienth,,Eq.(12)isused:
H,=2.44xw0,8d,18
ValuesofCareevaluatedataveragefluegastemperature.
TheairsideheattransfercoefficienthoisgivenbyEq.(19)(variationinhobetweenstaggeredandin
linearrangementsissmallintherangeofReynoldsnumberandpitchesonecomesacross),
Ho=0.9xG06dF4
Thevaluehoiscalculatedatairfilmtemperature.
Becausethetemperaturedropsacrossthegasandairfilmsarenearlythesame,unlikeinanevaporator
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orsuperheater,filmtemperatureisapproximatedas
Tf=(3tg+ta)/4(70)
FIgure8.9Tubularairheater.
Wheretandtarefertotheaverageofgasandairtemperatures.CalculateUusing
11TOCo"15"hzxd1
U=hd+~r(71)
Uhidiho
Metalresistanceisneglected.Airandgassidepressuredropscanbecomputed
ByEqs.(26)and(28)ofChapter7,aftersurfacingisdone:
ôLt5di
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APg=93x106xfw21
Pgd<5
APair=9.3x1010xfG2
Pair
Itisalsogoodtocheckforpartialloadperformancetoseeifdewpointcorrosionproblemsarelikely.
MethodslikeairbypassorsteamairheatingmustBeconsidered.Vibrationoftubebundlesmustalso
bechecked.
CandFaregiveninTable8.24foreasyreference.
Example
Aquantityof500,000lb/hoffluegasfromaboileriscooledfrom700F
400,0lb/hofairat80Fisheatedto400F.Designasuitabletubularairheater.Carbonsteeltubesof2
in.ODand0.087in.thicknessareavailable.
Solution.Assumethatductdimensionsarenotalimitation.Hence,thebundlearrangementisquite
flexible.ChooseST/d=1.5andSL/d=1.25in.in
lineuseamaximumfluegasvelocityof50ft/s.
Fromanenergybalance,assumingnegligiblelossesandforaspecificheatof0.25forgasand0.24for
theairside,
Q=500,000x0.25x(700t)
=400,000x0.24x(40080)
=30.7x106Btu/h
Table8.24CandFFactorsfor
Calculatingh,andhoofTubularAir
Temp(F)C
200
0.1620.094
400
0.1720.103
600
0.18 0.110
800
0.1870.116
Hence,thegastemperatureleavingtheairheateris454F.Theaveragefluegastemperatureis(700+
454)/2=577F.Letthemolecularweightofthefluegasbe30.Then
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TOCo"15"hz30492
Pg=x=0.0396lb/cuft
359460+577
FromEq.(69),
=0.025x500,000=3800
*1.8262x0.0396x50
ST=3.0in.,Sl=2.5in.
LetNw=60.Hence,thewidthoftheairheateris
30
60^=15ft12
Nd=63becauseNt=NwxNd,soDepth=63x2.5/12=13.2ftAt577F,fromTable8.24Wehave
C=0.178:
/500,00080.178
H,=2.44xx
37807"(1.826)18
=7.2Btu/ft2hF
Toestimateho,Gisrequired.ThisrequiresanideaofL.Wemustassumeavalueforthelengthand
checklatertoseeifitissufficient.Hence,itisatrialanderrorapproach.TryL=15ft:
Std1o
FGA=xNwL=x60x15=75ft2
12w12
G=400,000/75=5333lb/ft2hAveragegasandairtemperaturesare
Tg=577F,ta=240F
T3x577+240=492f
4
(/
Ho=0.9x533306x0.105/20,4=12.3Btu/ft2hF
112.01
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=+
U7.21.82612.3
=0.152+0.081=0.233
U=4.3Btu/ft2hF
WemustcalculateFT,thecorrectionfactorforAT,forthecaseofonefluidmixedandtheother
unmixed.FromFig.8.10(singlepasscrossflow),
700454
R=18=0.77
40080
P==0.516
70080
FT=0.9
Therefore,
AT=0.9x(45480)(70400)=302Fln(374/300)
A=^=30.7X106=23,641ft*
UxAT4.3x302
=xTx3780L
12
L11.95ft
Hence,theassumedLisnotcorrect.TryL=11.0ft.
FGA=15x75=55ft2
G=7272lb/ft2h
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CornetIon
(actor
Correction
(actor
Cormltcn
loctor
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Corrtction
(actor
Figure8.10Crossflowcorrectionfactors(FromRefs.
1and2).
Takingratios,
=1xZ0+=0.152+0.067
U7.2x1.82614.8
=0.219
U=4.56Btu/ft2hF
A=307x=22,293ft2,L=11.25ft
4:56x302
Thecalculatedandassumedlengthsareclosetoeachother,andthedesignmaybefrozen.Checkthe
metaltemperatureattheexitportion.Becausethegassideresistanceandairfilmresistancesare
0.152and0.067,themetaltemperatureattheexitoftheairheatercanbecalculatedasfollows.ThE
dropacrossthegasfilmwillbe
0152(45480)=260F0.152+0.067
Metaltemperaturewillbe454260=194F.
Ifthefluegascontainssulfur,dewpointcorrosionmayoccurattheexit.Theairsideheattransfer
coefficientishigh,sothedropacrossitsfilmislowcomparedtothegassidefilmdrop.Ifweincrease
thefluegasheattransfercoefficient,thedropacrossitsfilmwillbelowandthemetaltemperaturewill
behigher.
8.29Q:
Howistheoffdesignperformanceevaluated?
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TheairheaterdescribedinQ8.28worksatpartialloads.Wg=
300,0lb/h,andfluegasenterstheairheaterat620F.Wa=250,000lb/h,
Andtheairtemperatureis80F.Checktheexitgastemperaturesofgasandair.
A:
Assumethegasleavestheairheaterat400F.ThenQ=300,000x0.25x(620400)
=250,000x0.24(t80)=16.5x106
Airtemperatureleaving=355F
Tocalculateh,andho,seeTable8.24.Atanaveragefluegastemperature
Of(620+400)/2=510F,C=0.175.Andatafilmtemperatureof
[3x510+(355+80)/2]/4=437F,F=0.104.
/300,000^.80.175
H,=2.44xIIxtt
V3825/(1.826)18
=4.75Btu/ft2hF
G=^=3333lb/ft2h
(3333)0,62
Ho=09xv204x0.104=9.22Btu/ft2hF
=2b^=0238
U1.826x4.739.22
U=4.22Btu/ft2hFFromFig.8.10,
35580P=62080=051620400=35580=
FT=0.9
(40080)(620355)
AT=09x^=262F
TransferredQ=4.2x262x23,640=26x106Btu/h,andassumed
Q=16.5x106Btu/h.Theydonttally.
Sincetheairheatercantransfermoreenergy,assumeahigherairtemperature,390F,attheexit:
Q=250,000x0.24(39080)=18.6x106=300,000x0.25x(620t)
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Thengastemperatureleaving=372F.
AssumeUremainsthesameat4.2Btu/ft2hF.Then
R=0.8,P=0.574,FT=0.82
AT=213F
TransferredQ=4.2x23,640x213=21.1x106Btu/h
Again,theydonttally.Next,tryQ=20x106Btu/h.
Airtemperatureleaving=410FGastemperatureleaving=353FFT=0.75,AT=0.75x242=
182F
TransferredQ=4.2x23,640x182=18x106Btu/h
Again,tryanexitairtemperatureat400F.Then
Q=250,000x0.24x(40080)
=19.2x106Btu/h
19.2x106
Exitgastemperature=620
300,0x0.25=364F
320
R=0.8,P=540=0.593,FT=0.77
284220
AT=0.77x=193F
Ln(284/220)
TransferredQ=4.2x193x23,640=19.16x106Btu/hQ=19.2x106Btu/h
Thegasleavesat364Fagainst454Fatfullload.
Metaltemperaturecanbecomputedasbefore.Atlowerloads,metaltemperatureislower,andtheair
heatershouldbegivensomeprotection.Thisprotectionmaytaketwoforms:Bypasspartoftheairor
usesteamtoheattheairenteringtheheaterto100120F.Eitherofthesewillincreasetheaverage
metaltemperatureoftheairheater.Inthefirstcase,theairsideheattransfercoefficientwillfall.
BecauseUdecreases,thegastemperatureleavingtheairheaterwillincreaseandlessQwillbe
transferred.Hence,metaltemperaturewillincrease.Inthesecondcase,airtemperatureentering
increases,soprotectionofthemetalisensured.Again,thegastemperaturedifferentialattheexitwill
behigher,causingahigherexitgastemperature.
Example
SolvetheproblemusingtheNTUmethod.
Solution.OftentheNTUmethodisconvenientwhentrialanderrorcalculationsofthetypeshown
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aboveareinvolved.
NTU=UL=42x23,640=1.65Cmin250,000x0.24
=0.80
Cmixed250,000x0.24
C_d300,000x0.25
E=effectivenessC
=1exp{cms[1_exp(NTUxC)]}
Cmin(2)
=1exp{1.25[1exp(1.65x0.8)]}
=0.59
.airtemperaturerise
Effectiveness=0.59=
62080
Airtemperaturerise=319F
Airtemperatureleaving=319+80=399F
Thiscompareswellwiththeanswerof400F.WhenUdoesnotchangemuch,thismethodisvery
handy.
8.30Q:
Predicttheexitgasandwatertemperaturesandtheenergytransferredinaneconomizerunderthe
followingconditions:
Tg1=gastemperaturein=1000Ftw1=watertemperaturein=250FA=surfacearea=6000ft2
Wg=gasflow=75,000lb/hWw=waterflow=67,000lb/hU=overallheattransfercoefficient=8
Btu/ft2hFCpg=gasspecificheat=0.265Btu/lbFCpw=waterspecificheat=1Btu/lbF
A:
Figure8.11Showsthearrangementofaneconomizer.Atrialanderrormethodisusuallyadoptedto
solveforthedutyofanyheattransferequipmentifthesurfaceareaisknown.Thisprocedureis
detailedinQ8.29.Alternatively,thenumberoftransferunits(NTU)methodpredictstheexit
temperaturesandduty.Formoreon
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Thistheory,thereaderisreferredtoanytextbookonheattransfer[2].Basically,thedutyQisgivenby
Q=eCmin(tg1tw1)(73)
Whereedependsonthetypeofflow,whethercounterflow,parallelflow,orcrossflow.Ineconomizers,
usuallyacounterflowarrangementisadopted.eforthisisgivenby
1exp[NTUx(1C)]
1Cexp[NTUx(1C)]()
Where
XrrTTUAJ^(WCP)min
NTU=andC=(WC)
^minVrv^p)max
(WCp)min=75,000x0.265=19,875(WCp)max=67,000x1=67,000
C=19875=0.3
67,000
6000
NTU=8x=2.42
19,875
SubstitutingintoEq.(74)yields
E=1exp(2Mx07)=0,86
10.3xexp(2.42x0.7)
FromEq.(73),
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Q=0.86x19,875x(1000250)
=12.8x106Btu/hLetuscalculatetheexitwaterandgastemperatures.
Q=WwCpw(tw2tw1)=WgCpg(tg1tg2)
Hence,
=441F
106
Tw2=250+12.8x
67,0x1106
Tg2=100012.8xg275,000x0.265
355F
TheNTUmethodcanbeusedtoevaluatetheperformanceofothertypesofheattransferequipment,
Table8.25givestheeffectivenessfactore.
Table8.25EffectivenessFactors
Effectiveness
Exchangertype
2
C
1
=
1S1
XNTU078)1]}
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NTU
+
1exp(NTUxC)
Crossflow,streamCminunmixede=C{1exp[C[1exp(NTU)]]}
1exp{C[1exp(NTUxC)]}
Crossflow,streamCmaxunmixede
Parallelflow,singlepasse
Counterflow,singlepasse
Shellandtube(oneshellpasse1
2,4,6,etc.,tubepasses)
Shellandtube(nshellpasses2n,4n,6n,etc.,tubepasses)
Crossflow,bothstreamsunmixed
Crossflow,bothstreamsmixed
N
1exp[NTUx(1+C)]
1+C
1exp[NTUx(1C)]
1Cexp[NTUx(1C)]
1+exp[NTUx(1+C2)1/2]
1exp[NTUx(1+C2)1/2]1
X(1+C2)1/2
1s1Cn
1exp{CxNTU022[exp(C1]}
NTU
1exp(NTU)NTUxC
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1e1C1S1
1+C+
1
Q:
Howisthenaturalorfree
convectionheattransfer
coefficientinairdetermined?A:
Thesituationsofinteresttosteam
plantengineerswouldbethose
involvingheattransferbetween
pipesortubesandairaswhenan
insulatedpiperunsacrossaroom
oroutsideitandheattransfercan
takeplacewiththeatmosphere.
Simplifiedformsofthese
equationsarethefollowing[12].
1.Horizontalpipesinair:
(75a)
Where
AT=temperaturedifferencebetweenthehotsurfaceandcoldfluid,Fdo=tubeoutsidediameter,in.
2.Longverticalpipes:
AT25
(75b)
3.Verticalplateslessthan2fthigh:
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(75c)
Wherez=height,ft.
4.Verticalplatesmorethan2fthigh:
Example
Determinetheheattransfercoefficientbetweenahorizontalbare
pipeofdiameter4.5in.at500Fandatmosphericairat80F.
Hc=0.3x(AT)025
(75d)
(75e)
Solution.
Notethattheaboveequationshavebeenmodifiedtoincludethe
effectofwindvelocityintheinsulationcalculationsseeQ8.51.
8.32Q:
(75f)
Howisthenaturalorfreeconvectionheattransfercoefficient
betweentubebundlesandliquidsdetermined?
A:
5.Horizontalplatesfacingupward:
Hc=0.38x(AT)025
Onehastodeterminethefreeconvectionheattransfer
coefficientwhentubebundlessuchasdesuperheatercoilsor
drumpreheatcoilsareimmersedinboilerwaterinorderto
arriveattheoverallheattransfercoefficientandthenthesurface
area.Drumcoildesuperheatersareusedinsteadofspray
desuperheaterswhensolidsarenotpermittedtobeinjectedinto
steam.Theheatexchangerisusedtocoolsuperheatedsteam
(Fig.8.12),whichflowsinsidethetubeswhilethecoolerwater
isoutsidethetubesinthedrum.Drumheatingcoilsareusedto
keepboilerwaterhotforquickrestartortopreventfreezing.
Inthisheatexchanger,steamcondensesinsidetubeswhilethe
6.Horizontalplatesfacingdownward:coolerwaterisoutsidethetubes.Thenaturalconvection
coefficientbetweenthecoilanddrumwaterhastobe
determinedtoarriveattheoverallheattransfercoefficientand
thenthesizeorsurfacearea.
Theequationthatrelateshcwithotherparametersis[2]
Hc=0.2x(AT)025
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Figure8.12Exchangerinsideboilerdrum.
Where
Do=tubeouterdiameter,in.k=fluidthermalconductivity,Btu/fthFC=fluidspecificheat,Btu/lb
Fp=volumetricexpansioncoefficient,R_1AT=temperaturedifferencebetweentubesandliquid,
Fm=viscosityoffluid,lb/fthp=fluiddensity,lb/ft3
InEq.(77)allthefluidpropertiesareevaluatedatthemeantemperaturebetweenfluidandtubes
exceptfortheexpansioncoefficient,whichisevaluatedatthefluidtemperature.
FluidpropertiesatsaturationconditionsaregiveninTable8.26.
Example
1in.pipesareusedtomaintainboilerwaterat100Finatankusingsteamat212F,whichis
condensedinsidethetubes.Assumethatthepipesareat200F,andestimatethefreeconvectionheat
transfercoefficientbetweenpipesandwater.
So/wfton.FromTable8.26,atameantemperatureof150F,k=0.381,m=1.04,p=0.0002,pf=
61.2
Cp=1.0,AT=100,do=1.32
61.22x1.0x0.0002x100
1.04x1.32
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=188Btu/ft2hF
8.33
Estimatethesurfaceareaoftheheatexchangerrequiredtomaintainwaterinaboilerat100Fusing
steamat212FasintheexampleofQ8.32.Assumethattheheatlosstothecoldambientfromthe
boileris0.5MMBtu/h.Steamiscondensedinsidethetubes.1in.schedule40pipesareused.
F
P
J
B
M
(lb/fth)
Vk(ft2/h)(Btu/hftF)(ft/h)
B
(R1)
F
0
32 1.009 62.42
CO
4.33 0.0694 0.3270.0052
313.37
0
40 1.005 62.42
3.75 0.0601 0.3320.00530.04511.36
50 1.002 62.38
3.17 0.0508 0.3380.00540.0709.41
60 1.000 62.34
2.71 0.0435 0.3440.00550.10 7.88
70 0.998 62.27
2.37 0.0381 0.3490.00560.13 6.78
80 0.998 62.17
2.08 0.0334 0.3550.00570.15 5.85
90 0.997 62.11
1.85 0.0298 0.3600.00580.18 5.13
1000.997 61.99
1.65 0.0266 0.3640.00590.20 4.52
1100.997 61.84
1.49 0.0241 0.3680.00600.22 4.04
1200.997 61.73
1.36 0.0220 0.3720.00600.24 3.65
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1300.998 61.54
1.24 0.0202 0.3750.00610.27 3.30
1400.998 61.39
1.14 0.0186 0.3780.00620.29 3.01
1500.999 61.20
1.04 0.0170 0.3810.00630.31 2.72
1601.000 61.01
0.97 0.0159 0.3840.00630.33 2.53
1701.001 60.79
0.90 0.0148 0.3860.00640.35 2.33
1801.002 60.57
0.84 0.0139 0.3890.00640.37 2.16
1901.003 60.35
0.79 0.0131 0.3900.00650.39 2.03
2001.004 60.13
0.74 0.0123 0.3920.00650.41 1.90
2101.005 59.88
0.69 0.0115 0.3930.00650.43 1.76
2201.007 59.63
0.65 0.0109 0.3950.00660.45 1.66
2301.009 59.38
0.62 0.0104 0.3950.00660.47 1.58
2401.011 59.10
0.59 0.0100 0.3960.00660.48 1.51
2501.013 58.82
0.56 0.0095 0.3960.00660.50 1.43
2601.015 58.51
0.53 0.0091 0.3960.00670.51 1.36
2701.017 58.24
0.50 0.0086 0.3960.00670.53 1.28
2801.020 57.94
0.48 0.0083 0.3960.00670.55 1.24
2901.023 57.64
0.46 0.0080 0.3960.00670.56 1.19
3001.026 57.31
0.45 0.0079 0.3950.00670.58 1.17
3501.044 55.59
0.38 0.0068 0.3910.00670.62 1.01
4001.067 53.65
0.33 0.0062 0.3840.00680.72 0.91
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4501.095 51.55
0.29 0.0056 0.3730.00660.93 0.85
5001.130 49.02
0.26 0.0053 0.3560.00641.18 0.83
5501.200 45.92
0.23 0.0050 0.3300.00601.63 0.84
6001.362 42.37
0.21 0.0050 0.2980.0052
0.96
A:
Theoverallheattransfercoefficientcanbeestimatedfrom
TT=~T+7+Rm+ffi+ffo
Uohnhi
WhereRm=metalresistance,andff,andffoareinsideandoutsidefoulingfactorsseeEq.(3).
Ho,thefreeconvectionheattransfercoefficientbetweenthetubesandboilerwater,obtainedfrom
Q8.32,=188Btu/ft2hF.Assumeh,=1500,ff,=ffo=
0.001,and
Dd
Metalresistance=ln=0.000524Kd,
Then
TT=d*++0.0025=0.00849
Or
Uo=177Btu/ft2hF
AT=logmeantemperaturedifference=212100=112F
Then,
Q500,0002
SurfaceareaA===38ft
UoAT11^x112
8.34Q:
Canwedeterminegasorsteamtemperatureprofilesinaheatrecoverysteamgenerator(HRSG)
withoutactuallydesigningit?
A:
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Yes.OnecansimulatethedesignaswellastheoffdesignperformanceofanHRSGwithoutdesigning
itintermsoftubesize,surfacearea,etc.Themethodologyhasseveralapplications.Consultantsand
plantengineerscandetermineforagivensetofgasinletconditionsforanHRSGhowmuchsteamcan
begeneratedandwhatthegas/steamtemperatureprofilewilllooklike,andhencewritebetter
specificationsfortheHRSGorselectauxiliariesbasedonthissimulationwithoutgoingtoaboilerfirm
forthisinformation.ThusseveraloptionscanberuledoutorruledindependingontheHRSG
performance.Themethodologyhasapplicationsincomplex,multipressurecogenerationorcombined
cycleplantevaluationwithgasturbines.MoreinformationonHRSGsimulationcanbefoundin
Chapters1and3andRefs.11,12.
140,0lb/hofturbineexhaustgasesat980FenteranHRSGgeneratingsaturatedsteamat200psig.
Determinethesteamgenerationandtemperatureprofilesiffeedwatertemperatureis230Fand
blowdown=5%.Assumethataveragegasspecificheatis0.27attheevaporatorand0.253atthe
economizer.
Twoimportanttermsthatdeterminethedesignshouldbedefinedhere(seeFig.8.13).Pinchôintis
thedifferencebetweenthegastemperatureleavingtheevaporatorandsaturationtemperature.
Approachô/ntisthedifferencebetweenthesaturationtemperatureandthewatertemperatureentering
theevaporator.Moreinformationonhowtoselecttheseimportantvaluesandhowtheyareinfluenced
bygasinletconditionsisdiscussedinexamplesbelow.
ForunfiredgasturbineHRSGs,pinchandapproachpointslieintherangeof1530F.Thehigher
thesevalues,thesmallerwillbetheboilersizeandcost,andviceversa.
Letuschooseapinchpointof20Fandanapproachpointof15F.Saturationtemperature=388F.
Figure8.14showsthetemperatureprofile.Thegastemperatureleavingtheevaporator=388+20=
408F,andwatertempera
tureenteringit=38815=373F.
Evaporatorduty=140,000x0.99x0.27x(980408)=21.4MMBtu/h
(0.99istheheatlossfactorwitha1%loss.)
Enthalpyabsorbedbysteaminevaporator
=(1199.3345)+0.05x(362.2345)
=855.2Btu/lb
(1199.3,345,and362.2aretheenthalpiesofsaturatedsteam,waterenteringtheevaporator,and
saturatedwater,respectively.0.05istheblowdownfactorfor5%blowdown.)
T01
Twl
Figure8.13Pinchandapproachpoints.
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900LaonFlow10.610lb/li
943
240
Figure8.14TemperatureprofileinanHRSG.
Hence
21.4x106
Steamgenerated==25,000lb/h
855.2
Economizerduty=25,000x1.05x(345198.5)
=3.84MMBtu/h
^++,3,840,000
Gastemperaturedrop=
FF140,000x0.253x0.99
=109F
Hencegastemperatureleavingeconomizer=408109=299F.Thusthethermaldesignofthe
HRSGissimulated.
8.35aQ:
SimulatetheperformanceoftheHRSGdesignedinQ8.34whenagasflowof
165,0lb/henterstheHRSGat880F.TheHRSGwilloperateat150psig.Feedwatertemperature
remainsat230F.
A:
Gasturbineexhaustflowandtemperaturechangewithambientconditionsandload.Asaresultthe
HRSGhastooperateatdifferentgasparameters,andhencesimulationisnecessarytodeterminehow
theHRSGbehavesunderdifferentgasandsteamparameters.
TheevaporatorperformancecanbedeterminedbyusingEq.(37).Basedondesignconditions,
computeK.
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980388
In
408388K=387.6
=Kx(140,000)04=3.388
Underthenewconditions,880366
In
=387.6x(165,000)04=3.1724
Tg2366
Hencetg2=388F.
Evaporatorduty=165,000x0.99x0.27x(880388)
=21.70MMBtu/h
Inordertoestimatethesteamflow,thefeedwatertemperatureleavingtheeconomizermustbeknown.
Thisisarrivedatthroughaseriesofiterations.Trytw2=360F.Then
2170106
Steamflow
(1195.7332)+0.05x(338.5332)
=25,110lb/h
EconomizerassumeddutyQa=25,110x1.05
X(332198.5)
=3.52MMBtu/h
Computetheterm(US)design=Q/ATfortheeconomizerbasedondesignconditions.
Q=3.84x106
^(299230)(408373)^
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AT=^69/35)=50F
Hence(US)design=3,840,000/50=76,800.Correctthisforoffdesigncondi
tions.
(USV=<us.Wx(ggfiefF
/165,000
=76,800x^=85,200
1140,000
Theeconomizertransferreddutyisthen(US)perfxAT.Basedon360Fwaterleavingtheeconomizer,
Qa=3.52MBtu/handtheexitgastemperatureis
Tg2=_____3,520,000________=85F
G2165,000x0.99x0.253
Hencetg2=38885=303F,and
(303230)(388360)_4yFln(73/28)
TransferreddutyQt=85,200x47=4.00MMBtu/h
Becausetheassumedandtransferreddutydonotmatch,anotheriterationisrequired.Wecanshowthat
atdutyof3.55MMBtu/hthe,assumedandtransferreddutymatch.Watertemperatureleavingthe
economizer=366F(saturation)exitgastemperature=301F.Steamgeneration=25,310lb/h.
Becausethecalculationsarequiteinvolved,IhavedevelopedasoftwareprogramcalledHRSGSthat
cansimulatethedesignandoffdesignperformanceofcomplex,multipressurefiredandunfired
HRSGs.MoreinformationcanbehadbywritingtoVGanapathy,P.O.Box673,Abilene,TX79604.
8.35bQ:
Intheabovecase,howmuchfuelisrequiredandatwhatfiringtemperatureif
35,0lb/hsteamat200psigistobegenerated?Gasflowis140,000lb/hat980FasinQ8.35a.
A:
Asimplesolutionisgivenhere,thoughtheHRSGsimulationwouldprovidemoreaccurateevaluation
andtemperatureprofiles.Wemakeuseoftheconceptthatthefuelefficiencyis100%andallofthat
goestogeneratingtheadditionalsteamasdiscussedearlier.
Energyabsorbedbysteam=35,000x(1199.3198.5)
=35.1MMBtu/h
Additionalenergytobeprovidedbytheburner=35.125.24=9.86MMBtu/h(theHRSGabsorbs
25.24asshowninQ8.34).
Theoxygenconsumedintheprocessofcombustion(seeQ6.27)is
9.86x106/(140,000x58.4)=1.2%
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9.86x106=140,000x0.3x(T980)
Or
T=1215F
Thus,byusingafewsimpleconcepts,preliminaryinformationabouttheHRSG
Maybeobtained.However,acompletetemperatureprofileanalysisrequiresa
ComputerprogramsuchastheHRSGsimulationsoftware.
8.36Q:
CanweassumethataparticularexitgastemperaturecanbeobtainedingasturbineHRSGswithout
doingatemperatureprofileanalysis?
A:
No.ItisnotgoodpracticetoassumetheHRSGexitgastemperatureandcomputethedutyorsteam
generationassomeconsultantsandengineersdo.Theproblemisthat,dependingonthesteampressure
andtemperature,theexitgastemperaturewillvarysignificantly.Often,consultantsandplantengineers
assumethatanystackgastemperaturecanbeachieved.Forexample,Ihaveseencatalogspublishedby
reputablegasturbinefirmssuggestingthat300Fstackgastemperaturecanbeobtainedirrespectiveof
thesteampressureorparameters.Nowthismaybepossibleatlowpressuresbutnotatallsteam
conditions.Inordertoarriveatthecorrecttemperatureprofile,severalheatbalancecalculationshave
tobeperformed,asexplainedbelow.
Itwillbeshownthatonecannotarbitrarilyfixthestackgastemperatureorthepinchpoint.
LookingatthesuperheaterandevaporatorofFig.8.13,
TOCo"15"hzWgxCpgx(Tg1Tg3)=Wsx(hsohw2)(78)
LookingattheentireHRSG,
WgxCpgx(TgTg4)=Wsx(hs0hwl)(79)
Blowdownwasneglectedintheaboveequationsforsimplicity.DividingEq.(78)byEq.(79)and
neglectingvariationsinCpg,wehave
Tg1Tg3=hs0hw2=X(80)
Tg1Tg4hs0hw1
FactorXdependsonlyonsteamparametersandontheapproachpointused.Tg3dependsonthepinch
pointselected.HenceifTg1isknown,Tg4canbecalculated.
ItcanbeconcludedfromtheaboveanalysisthatonecannotassumethatanyHRSGexitgas
temperaturecanbeobtained.Toillustrate,Table8.27showsseveraloperatingsteamconditionsandX
valuesandexitgastemperatures.Asthesteampressureorsteamtemperatureincreases,sodoesthe
exitgastemperature,withtheresultthatlessenergyistransferredtosteam.Thisalsotellsuswhywe
needtogoinformultiplepressurelevelHRSGswhenthemainsteampressureishigh.Notethateven
withinfinitesurfaceareaswecannotachievelowtempera
tures,becausethisisathermodynamic
limitation.
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Example1
DeterminetheHRSGexitgastemperaturewhenthegasinlettemperatureis900Fandthesteam
pressureis100psigsat.
So/wt/on.X=0.904.Saturationtemperature=338F.Hencewitha20Fpinchpoint,Tg3=358F,
andtw2=323Fwitha15Fapproachpoint,
900Tg4
g4=0.904,orTg4=300F
900358g4
Example2
WhatisTg4whensteampressureis600psigandtemperatureis750F?
TABLE8.27HRSGExitGasTemperaturesa
Pressure SteamtempSat.temp
Exitgastemp(F)
(psig)
(F)
(F)
100
Sat
338
0.904 300
150
Sat
366
0.8754313
250
Sat
406
0.8337332
400
Sat
448
0.7895353
400
600
450
0.8063367
600
Sat
490
0.740 373
600
750
492
0.7728398
ABasedon15Fapproachpoint,20Fpinchpoint,900Fgasinlet
temperature,andnoblowdown.Feedwatertemperatureis230F.
Similardatacanbegeneratedforotherconditions.
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Solution.X=0.7728.Saturationtemperature=492Ftw2=477F
Tg3=512F.
900512
900=0.7728,orTg4=398F
Soa300Fstacktemperatureisnotthermodynamicallyfeasible.Letusseewhathappensifwetryto
achievethat.
Example3
Canyouobtaina300Fstackgastemperaturewith900Finletgastemperatureandat600psig,750F,
and15Fapproachtemperature?
Solution.X=0.7728.Letussee,usingEq.(80),whatTg3resultsinaTg4of300F,becausethatisthe
onlyunknown.
(900Tg3)/(900300)=0.7728,orTg3=436F
Whichisnotthermodynamicallyfeasiblebecausethesaturationtemperatureat615psigis492F!This
isthereasononehastobecarefulinspecifyingHRSGexitgastemperaturesorcomputingsteam
generationbasedonaparticularexitgastemperature.
Example4
Whatshouldbedonetoobtainastackgastemperatureof300FinthesituationdescribedinExample
3?
Solution.OneoftheoptionsistoincreasethegasinlettemperaturetotheHRSGbysupplementary
firing.IfTg1isincreased,thenitispossibletogetalowerTg4.SayTg1=1600F.Then
1600Tg3
160031=0J728,orTg3=595F
Thisisafeasibletemperaturebecausethepinchpointisnow(595492)=103F.Thisbringsusto
anotherimportantrule:Pinchpointandexitgastemperaturecannotbearbitrarilyselectedinthefired
mode.Itispreferabletoanalyzethetemperatureprofilesintheunfiredmodeandevaluatetheoff
designperformanceusingavailablesimulationmethodsdiscussedearlier.
Example5
IfgasinlettemperatureinExample1is800Finsteadof900F,whathappenstotheexitgas
temperatureat100psigsat?
So/wfton.
800358800Tg4
OrTg4=312Fversusthe300Fwhentheinletgastemperaturewas900F.Wenotethattheexitgas
temperatureincreaseswhenthegasinlettemperaturedecreases,andviceversa.Thisisanother
importantbasicfact.
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Oncetheexitgastemperatureisarrivedat,onecanuseEq.(79)todeterminehowmuchsteamcanbe
generated.
8.37Q:
HowcanHRSGsimulationbeusedtooptimizegasandsteamtemperatureprofiles?
A:
HRSGsimulationisamethodofarrivingatthedesignoroffdesignperformanceofHRSGswithout
physicallydesigningthemasshowninQ8.34.Byusingdifferentpinchandapproachpointsand
differentconfigurations,particularlyinmultipressureHRSGs,onecanmaximizeheatrecovery.We
willillustratethiswithanexample[12].
Example
Agasturbineexhausts300,000lb/hofgasat900F.Itisdesiredtogenerateabout20,500lb/hof
superheatedsteamat600psigand650Fandasmuchas200psigsaturatedsteamusingfeedwaterat
230F.UsingthemethoddiscussedinQ8.34,wecanarriveatthegas/steamtemperatureprofilesand
steamflows.Figure8.15ShowsresultsobtainedwithHRSGSsoftware.Inoption1,wehavethehigh
pressure(HP)sectionconsistingofthesuperheater,evaporator,andeconomizerfollowedbythelow
pressure(LP)sectionconsistingoftheLPevaporatorandeconomizer.Byusingapinchpointof190F
andapproachpointof15F,wegenerate20,438lb/hofhighpressuresteamat650F.Then,usinga
pinchpointof20Fandapproachpointof12F,wemake18,670lb/hlowpressuresteam.Thestack
gastemperatureis370F.Inoption2,wehavetheHPsectionconsistingofthesuperheaterand
evaporatorandtheLPsectionconsistingofonlytheevaporator.Acommoneconomizerfeedsboththe
HPandLPsectionswithfeedwaterat375F.BecauseofthelargerheatsinkavailablebeyondtheLP
evaporator,thestackgastemperaturedecreasesto321F.TheHPsteamgenerationisadjustedusing
thepinchpointtomake20,488lb/hwhiletheLPsteamisallowedtofloat.Withapinchpointof20F,
weseethatwecanmake
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Figure8.15Optimizingtemperatureprofiles.
22,400lb/hincomparisonwiththe18,673lb/hearlier.TheASMEsystemefficiencyismuchhigher
now.ThusbymanipulatingtheHRSGconfiguration,onecanmaximizetheheatrecovery.
8.38Q:
HowistheHRSGefficiencydeterminedaccordingtoASMEPowerTestCode4.4?
A:
TheefficiencyEisgivenby
Energygiventosteam/water/fluids
E=
Gasflowxinletenthalpy+fuelinputonLHVbasis
Toevaluatetheefficiency,theenthalpyoftheturbineexhaustgasshouldbeknown.TheAppendix
givestheenthalpybasedonaparticulargasanalysis.FuelinputonLHVbasisshouldalsobeknownif
auxiliaryfiringisused.
InQ8.37theefficiencyinthedesigncaseis
(21.4+3.84)x106
E=()=0.715,or71.5%
140,0x242
Ifsteamorwaterinjectionisresortedto,thenthegasanalysiswillchange,andtheenthalpyhastobe
computedbasedontheactualanalysis.
TheHRSGsystemefficiencyingasturbineplantswillimprovewiththeadditionofauxiliaryfuel,
whichincreasesthegastemperaturetotheHRSGandhenceincreasesitssteamgeneration.Thereare
tworeasonsforthis.
1.Additionofauxiliaryfuelreducestheeffectiveexcessairintheexhaustgases,becausenoairis
added,onlyfuel.Hencetheexhaustgaslossinrelationtosteamproductionisreduced.
2.Withincreasedsteamgeneration,usuallytheHRSGexhaustgastemperaturedecreases.Thisisdue
totheincreasedflowofwaterintheeconomizer,whichoffersalargerheatsink,whichinturnpulls
downthegastemperaturefurther.Ingasturbineunits,thegasflowdoesnotvarymuchwithsteam
outputasinconventionalsteamgenerators,whichaccountsforthelargertemperaturedrop.
MoreinformationonHRSGtemperatureprofilescanbefoundinChapters
1and2.
Table8.28showstheperformanceofanHRSGundervariousoperatingconditions.Case1isthe
unfiredcasecases2and3havedifferentfiringconditions.Itcanbeseenthatthesystemefficiencyis
higherwhenmorefuelisfired,forreasonsexplainedabove.
TABLE8.28DataforSupplementaryFiredHRSG
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Case1 Case2 Case3

Gasflow,lb/h
250,000250,000250,000
Inletgastemperature,F 1000
1000
1000
Firingtemperature,F
1000
12S7
1642
Burnerduty,MMBtu/h
19.3
49.8
Steamflow,lb/h
45,700 65,000 95,000
Steampressure,psig
300
300
300
Feedwatertemperature,F230
230
230
Exitgastemperature,F 298
278
265
Boilerduty,MMBtu/h
46.3
66.1
96.7
ASMEefficiency,%
74.91
80.95
85.65
Q:
Insomecogenerationplantswithgasturbines,aforceddraftfanisusedtosendatmosphericairtothe
HRSGintowhichfuelisfiredtogeneratesteamwhenthegasturbineisnotinoperation.Whatshould
thecriteriabeforthefansize?
A:
TheairflowshouldbelargeenoughtohaveturbulentflowregimesintheHRSGandatthesametime
besmallenoughtominimizethelossduetoexitinggases.Iftheairflowishigh,thefiringtemperature
willbelow,butthesystemefficiencywillbelowerandthefuelinputwillbehigher.Thisisillustrated
forasimplecaseoftwofansgenerating250,000and210,000lb/hofairflowintheHRSG.The
HRSGSprogramwasusedinthesimulation.SeeTable8.29.
Itcanbeseenthatthoughthefiringtemperatureishigherwiththesmallerfan,theefficiencyishigher
duetothelowerexitgaslossesconsideringthelowermassflowandexitgastemperature.Itshouldbe
notedthatasthefiringtemperatureincreases,theexitgastemperaturewilldecreasewhenan
economizerisused.Also,withthesmallerfantheinitialandoperatingcostsarelower.Oneshould
ensurethatthefiringtemperaturedoesnotincreasetothepointofchangingthebasicdesignconceptof
theHRSG.Forexample,aninsulatedcasingdesignisusedupto1700Ffiringtemperature,beyond
whichawatercooledmembranewalldesignisrequired.SeeChapter1.
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8.39bQ:
HowistheperformanceofanHRSGdeterminedinfreshairfiredmode?
A:
Inthisexample,amultiplepressureHRSGwithacommoneconomizerissimulatedinthedesign
unfiredmodeandwearepredictingitsperformanceinthefiredmodewithfreshairfiringusingthe
HRSGSprogram.
TABLE8.29FreshAirFiringPerformance
Airflow,lb/h
250,000210,000
Inlettemperature,F
80
80
Firingtemperature,F 1258
1417
Exitgastemp,F
278
267
Steamflow,lb/h
65,000 65,000
Burnerduty,MMBtu/h79.7
ASMEefficiency,%
76.88
81.66 84.82
ThisisathreepressurelevelHRSGwithHPsteamat600psig,IPsteamat200psig,andLPsteamat
10psig.(HP=highpressure,IP=intermediatepressure,LP=lowpressure.)Acommoneconomizer
feedstheHPandIPsteam.OncethepinchpointsfortheHP,IP,andLPevaporatorsaresuggested,the
programarrivesatthesteamflowsandtemperatureprofilesasshowninFigs.8.16aand8.16b.The
flowthroughthecommoneconomizerisarrivedataftera
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Supfttrtsvaplsupbtrtevap26con3&vap4
Figure8.16aUnfiredmultipressureHRSGtemperatureprofile.
HRSGPERFORMANCEOffDesigncasetTtl
Evap
Shevapshsvapeco
Project3preshrsgUnits*BRITISHCasefreshairRemarks
AmbtempF=90heatl0SS%=1gastemptoHRSGF~90gasflowLb/h=975000%voIC02
=,H20=1,N2=780221.302.ASMEeff%=04.53totdutyMMBtu/h=279,4
Flow PstmPinchApprchUSmoduleno
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IWh
Btu/hF
15083 0
149674100
23471
149574100 256 15B
266622
90175 100
26910
696695
371537
465996
90175 100 22
55
242249
11617 100 9
119
DutypresMMB/hpsia3233601667615
133.57655.87.45215.
00.22227.5
2905700
12.4725.
Surf
Bum
Sh
Evap
Sh
Evap
Eco
Evap
Gastempwat/stm
in/outrin/outF
90130600
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1308124S496639
124B754337496
754726392528
726414337392
414299220337
299249120239
Staekgasflow=S900&3%C02=2.71H20=G29N2=759202=1507S02=
Fueloas.vol%
Rnethane=97swiane=2propane=1
LHVBlufcuft=942LHVSlu/lb=51430ugairl_Wh=
S2.B
414
337
SuphUlevaplsuphtr2evap2econ3
Figure8.16bFreshairfiredtemperatureprofile.
Fewcomplexiterations.Figure8.16aShowsthedesignmoderesultsfromtheHRSGSprogram.
Intheoffdesignorfiredmode,freshairisusedinsteadofturbineexhaust.Theairflowusediscloseto
thedesignexhaustgasflow.WeinputtheambientairflowandthedesiredHPsteamflow,andthe
programasksforfuelanalysisandautomaticallyarrivesatthefiringtemperature.Theoffdesign
performanceisshowninFig.8.16b.
TheefficiencyaccordingtoASMEPowerTestCode4.4,USvaluesofeachsurfaceinboththedesign
andoffdesignmodesmayalsobeseen,aswellastheexhaustgasanalysisaftercombustion.
Thisisyetanotherexampleofhowsimulationmaybeusedtoperformvariousstudieswithouta
physicaldesignofanHRSG.Consultantsandplannersofcogenerationorcombinedcycleprojects
shouldfindthisavaluabletool.
8.40Q:
HowdoweevaluatealternativeHRSGdesignsiftheoperatingcostsaredifferent?A:
LetusconsiderthedesignoftwoHRSGs,onewithlowpinchandapproachpoints(andhencemore
surfaceareaandgaspressuredrop),calleddesignA,andanotherwithhigherpinchandapproach
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points,calleddesignB,whichcostsless.TheseHRSGsoperateinbothunfiredandfiredmodesfor
50%ofthetime.Inthefiredmode,bothHRSGsgenerate70,000lb/hofsteamintheunfiredmode,
designAnaturallygeneratesmoresteam.Table8.30showstheperformanceoftheHRSGsinunfired
andfiredmodes.
Letfuelcost$3/MMBtu(LHV).Costofsteam=$3.5/1000lbandelectricity=6cents/kWh.Assume
thatanadditional4in.WCofgaspressuredropisequivalenttoa1%decreaseingasturbinepower
output,whichisanominal8000kW.TheHRSGoperatesinunfiredandfiredmodesfor4000h/y
each.
DesignAhasthefollowingedgeoverdesignBinoperatingcosts.
Duetohighersteamgenerationinunfiredmode:
(50,00047,230)x3x4000=$33,240
Duetolowerfuelconsumption:
(22.5519.23)x3.5x4000=$46,480
GastemptoHRSG
980
1208 980
1248
Gastemptoeconomizer,F 437
441
466
483
Exitgastemperature,F
314
298
353
343
4.
04.3 2.
Steamflow,lb/h
50,00070,00047,23070,000
Watertemptoeconomizer,F398
373
Burnerduty,MmBtu/h
19.23 0
22
Evaporatorsurfaceareaft2
39,809
27,866
Economizersurfacearea,ft2
24,383
13,933
396
753
370
Pinchpoint,F
16
20
45
62
Approachpoint,F
23
48
25
51
Gasflow=287,000lb/hGasanalysis(vol%)CO2=3,H2O=
7,N2=75,O2=15.Steampressure=300psigsatgasturbine
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power=8000kW.
Duetohighergaspressuredropof1.3in.WC:
8000
1.3x8000x0.07x=$14,560
100x4
ThusthenetbenefitofusingdesignAoverBis$(33,240+46,48014,560)=$65,160peryear.
IftheadditionalcostofdesignAoverBduetoitssizeis,say,$50,000,thepaybackofusingdesignA
islessthan1year.However,iftheHRSGoperatesforlessthan,say,3000h/year,thepaybackwillbe
longerandhastobereviewed.
8.41Q:
Whatissteaming,andwhyisitlikelyingasturbineHRSGsandnotinconventionalfossilfuelfired
boilers?
A:
WhentheeconomizerinaboilerorHRSGstartsgeneratingsteam,particularlywithdownwardflowof
water,problemscanariseintheformofwaterhammer,vibration,etc.Withupwardwaterflowdesign,
acertainamountofsteaming,3
5%,canbetoleratedbecausethebubbleshaveanaturaltendencytogo
upwardalongwiththewater.However,steamingshouldgenerallybeavoided.
Table8.31TypicalExhaustGasFlow,Temperature
CharacteristicsofaGasTurbine
Ambienttemp,F
20.0
40.0
59.0
80.0
100.0 120
Poweroutput,kW
38,15038,60035,02030,82027,36024,040
Heatrate,Btu/kWh
9384 9442 9649 9960 10,25710,598
Waterflowratelb/h 16,52017,23015,59013,24010,5406990
Turbineinlettemp,F1304 1363 1363 1363 1363 1363
Exhausttemp,F
734
780
797
820
843
870
Exhaustflow,lb/s
312
304
286
264
244
225
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Fuel:naturalgaselevation:sealevelrelativehumidity60%
inletloss4in.H2Oexhaustloss15in.H2Ospeed:3600rpm
outputterminal:generator.
Tounderstandwhytheeconomizerislikelytosteam,weshouldfirstlookatthecharacteristicsofagas
turbineasafunctionofambienttemperatureandload(seeTables8.31and1.4).
Insingleshaftmachines,whicharewidelyused,astheambienttempera
tureorloaddecreases,the
exhaustgastemperaturedecreases.Thevariationinmassflowismarginalcomparedtofossilfuelfired
boilers,whilethesteamorwaterflowdropsoffsignificantly.(Theeffectofmassflowincreaseinmost
casesdoesnotoffsettheeffectoflowerexhaustgastemperature.)Theenergytransferringabilityof
theeconomizer,whichisgovernedbythegassideheattransfercoefficient,doesnotchangemuchwith
gasturbineloadorambienttemperaturehencenearlythesamedutyistransferredwithasmallerwater
flowthroughtheeconomizer,whichresultsinawaterexittemperatureapproachingsaturation
temperatureasseeninQ8.35.Henceweshoulddesigntheeconomizersuchthatitdoesnotsteamin
thelowestunfiredambientcase,whichwillensurethatsteamingdoesnotoccuratotherambient
conditions.Afewotherstepsmayalsobetaken,suchasdesigningtheeconomizer[8]witha
horizontalgasflowwithhorizontaltubes(Fig.8.17).Thisensuresthatthelastfewrowsofthe
economizer,whicharelikelytosteam,haveaverticalflowofsteamwatermixture.
Inconventionalfossilfuelfiredboilersthegasflowdecreasesinproportiontothewaterflow,andthe
energytransferringabilityoftheeconomizerisalsoloweratlowerloads.Thereforesteamingisnota
concernintheseboilersusuallytheapproachpointincreasesatlowerloadsinfiredboilers,whereasit
isaconcerninHRSGs.
Theothermeasuresthatmaybeconsideredtominimizesteaminginaneconomizerare
FIgure8.17Horizontalgasfloweconomizer.
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Increasethewaterflowthroughtheeconomizerduringtheseconditionsbyincreasingtheblowdown
flow.Thissolutionworksonlyifsmallamountsofsteamareformedandtheperiodofoperationinthis
modeissmall.Blowdownresultsinawasteofenergy.
Increasingtheinletgastemperatureeitherbysupplementaryfiringorbyincreasingtheturbineload
helpstogeneratemoresteamandthusmorewaterflowthroughtheeconomizer,whichwillprevent
steaming.AswesawinChapter1,theeconomizersteamsatlowloadsoftheturbine.
ExhaustgasescanbebypassedaroundtheHRSGduringsuchsteamingconditions.Thisminimizesthe
amountofenergytransferredattheeconomizeraswellastheevaporator.Gascanalsobebypassed
aroundtheeconomizer,mitigatingthesteamingconcerns.
Watercanalsobebypassedaroundtheeconomizerduringsteamingconditions,butthisisnotagood
solution.Whenthegasturbineloadpicksup,itwillbedifficulttoputthewaterbackintothe
economizerwhilethetubesarehot.Thecoldwaterinsidehottubescanflashandcausevibrationand
thermalstressesandcanevendamagetheeconomizertub.
Q:
Whyarewatertubeboilersgenerallypreferredtofiretubeboilersforgasturbineexhaustapplications?
A:
Firetubeboilersrequirealotofsurfaceareatoreducethetemperatureofgasleavingtheevaporatorto
within1525Fofsaturationtemperature(pinchpoint).Theyhavelowerheattransfercoefficientsthan
thoseofbaretubewatertubeboilers(seeQ8.10),whichdonotcomparewellwithfinnedtubeboilers.
Watertubeboilerscanuseextendedsurfacestoreducethepinchpointto1525Fintheunfiredmode
andhencebecompact.Thetubeswillbeverylongiffiretubeboilersareusedhencethegaspressure
dropwillbehigher.(Afiretubeboilercanbemadeintoatwopassboilertoreducethelength
however,thiswillincreasetheshelldiameterandthelaborcost,becausetwicethenumberoftubes
willhavetobeweldedtothetubesheets.)Thefiretubeboilerwillhavetobeevenlargerifthesame
gaspressuredropistobemaintained.Table8.32comparestheperformanceofwatertubeandfiretube
boilersforthesamedutyandpressuredrop.
Itcanbeseenfromthetablefootnotesthatthewatertubeboilerisverycompact.Ifthegasflowisvery
small,saylessthan50,000lb/h,thenafiretubeboilermaybeconsidered.
Table8.32WaterTubevs.FireTubeBoilerforGas
TurbineExhaust
WatertubeaFiretubeb
Gasflow,lb/h
100,000
100,000
Inlettemp,F
900
900
Exittemp,F
373
373
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Duty,MMBtu/h
13.72
13.72
Gaspressuredrop,in.WC2.75
2.75
Feedwatertemp,F
220
220
Steampressure,psig
125
125
Steamflow,lb/h
13,500
13,500
Surfacearea,ft2
12,315
9798
AWatertubeboiler:2x0.105in.tubes,20wide,18
deep,6ftlong,with
5serratedfins/in.,0.75in.high,0.05in.thick.
BFiretubeboiler:14001.5x0.105in.tubes,21ft
long.
Q:
Doestheadditionof10%surfaceareatoaboilerincreaseitsdutyby10%?
A:
No.Theadditionalsurfaceareaincreasesthedutyonlyslightly.Theincreasedtemperaturedropacross
theboilerandthetemperatureriseofwaterorsteam(ifsinglephase)duetothehigherdutyresultsina
lowerlogmeantemperaturedifference.Thisresultsinlowertransferredduty,evenassumingthatthe
overallheattransfercoefficientUremainsunchanged.Ifthelargersurfacearearesultsinlowergas
velocities,theincreaseindutywillbemarginalasUisfurtherreduced.
Asanexample,considertheperformanceofafiretubeboilerwith10%and20%increaseinsurface
areaasshowninTable8.33.Ascanbeseen,a10%increaseinsurfaceareaincreasesthedutybyonly
3%,anda20%increaseinsurfaceareaincreasesthedutybyonly6%.Similartrendsmaybeshown
forwatertubeboilers,superheaters,economizers,etc.
8.44aQ:
Howdoweestimatethetimerequiredtoheataboiler?
A:
Aboilercantakealongtimetoheatup,dependingontheinitialtemperatureofthesystem,massof
steel,andamountofwaterstored.Thefollowingproceduregivesaquickestimateofthetimerequired
towarmupaboiler.Themethodologyisapplicabletoeitherfiretubeorwatertubeboilers.
Table8.33BoilerPerformancewithIncreasedSurfaceAreaa
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No.of
Case tubes
Length SurfaceDuty(MM
Btu/h)
(ft)
(ft2)
Exitgastemp
(F)
390
16
2839
20.53
567
390
17.6
3123
21.16
533
390
19.2
3407
21.68
505
AGasflow=70,000lb/hinletgastemperature=1600F.Gas
analysis(vol%):CO2=7,H2O=12,N2=75,O2=6steam
pressure=125psigsaturated.Tubes:2x0.120carbonsteel.
GasatatemperatureofTgjenterstheunit,whichisinitiallyatatemperatureoft1(boththewaterand
theboilertubes).Thefollowingenergybalanceequationcanthenbewrittenneglectingheatlosses:
Dt
(81)
Mc=WgCpgx(TglTg2)=UADT
Where
Mc=waterequivalentoftheboiler
=massofsteelxspecificheatofsteel+massofwaterxspecificheatofwater(Weightoftheboiler
tubes,drum,casing,etc.,isincludedinthesteelweight.)dt/dz=rateofchangeoftemperature,F/h
Wg=gasflow,lb/hCpg=gasspecificheat,Btu/lbF1Tg2=enteringandexitboilergas
temperature,FU=overallheattransfercoefficient,Btu/ft2hFA=surfacearea,ft2DT=logmean
temperaturedifference,F
_(Tg1t)~(Tg2t)
Ln[(Tgjt)/(Tg2t)]
T=temperatureofthewater/steaminboiler,FFromEq.(81)wehave
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UA
(82)
Ln
C
RgPg
TgitTg2t
Or
TGitTgit
(83)
Tt4G1_______tL.G1
TG2_têUA=WgCpg_t^K
SubstitutingEq.(83)intoEq.(81),weget
K1K
McDZ=WgCpg(Tgit)
Or
K
VgCpgK1
Gp^dz
Mc
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Dt
Toestimatethetimetoheatuptheboilerfromaninitialtemperaturet1tot2,wehave
tointegratedtbetweenthelimitst1andt2.
(84)
=WgCpgx(K~1)z(85}
Tgit
12McKy5
Theaboveequationcanbeusedtoestimatethetimerequiredtoheattheboilerfroma
temperatureoftjtot2,usingfluegasesenteringatTgX.However,inorderto
generatesteam,wemustfirstbringtheboilertotheboilingpointatatmospheric
pressureandslowlyraisethesteampressurethroughmanipulationofventvalves,
drains,etcthefirsttermofEq.(81)wouldinvolvethetermforsteamgenerationand
flowinadditiontometalheating.
Example
Awatertubewasteheatboilerofweight50,000lbandcontaining30,000lbofwaterisinitiallyata
temperatureof100F.130,000lboffluegasesat1400Fentertheunit.Assumethefollowing:
Gasspecificheat=0.3Btu/lbF
Steelspecificheat=0.12Btu/lbF
Surfaceareaofboiler=21,000ft2
Overallheattransfercoefficient=8Btu/ft2hF
Estimatethetimerequiredtobringtheboilerto212F.
Solution.
U8x21,000
=4.3
VgCpg130,000x0.3
K=e43=74
Mc=50,000x0.12+30,000x1=36,000
TOCo"15"hz,1400100_130,000x0.373
Ln=0.09=xz
140021236,00074
orz=0.084h=5.1min.
OnecoulddevelopacomputerprogramtosolveEq.(81)toincludesteamgenerationandpressure
raisingterms.Inreallifeboileroperation,theprocedureiscorrectedbyfactorsbasedonoperatingdata
ofsimilarunits.
Itcanalsobenotedthat,ingeneral,firetubeboilerswiththesamecapacityaswatertubeboilerswould
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havealargerwaterequivalentandhencethestartuptimeforfiretubeboilerswouldbelonger.
Q:
AssumingthatthesuperheaterinQ8.19cisdry,howlongdoesittaketoheatthemetalfrom80Fto
900F?Assumethatthegassideheattransfercoefficientis12Btu/ft2hF.Gasflowandtemperature
arethesameasbefore.Theweightofthesuperheateris5700lb.150,000lb/hofexhaustgasesenter
thesuperheaterat1030F.
A:
GCp(K1)z
Tg1t1
Tg1t2
McxK
LetususeEq.(85),t1W
Ln
UA
ExpLwcJ=exp
Mc=5700x0.12=684
,103080150,000x0.286x0.76z
Ln==27z=1.99
12x2022
=1.76
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150,000x0.286
Or
10309001.76x684
Z=0.0737h=4.5min
Thisisanestimateonlybutgivesanideaofhowfastthemetalgetsheatedup.Thisisimportantingas
turbineplantswithoutagasbypasssystem.Alargequantityofexhaustgasescanincreasethemetal
temperaturesquickly.Henceiffrequentstartupsandshutdownsareplanned,astressanalysisis
requiredtoensurethatcriticalcomponentsarenotsubjectedtounduestressesduetoquickchangesin
tubewallorheadertemperatures.
Bythesametoken,thesuperheatertubescoolfastwhentheexhaustgasisshutoffcomparedto,say,
evaporatortubes,whicharestillhotduetotheinventoryofhotsaturatedliquid.Thiscanleadto
condensationofsteamwhentheHRSGisrestarted,leadingtoblockageofflowinsidethesuperheater
tubesunlessadequatedrainsareprovided.
8.44c
Q:
Alargemassofmetalandwaterinventoryinaboilerresultsinalongerstartupperiod,buttheresidual
energyinthemetalalsohelpstorespondtoloadchangesfasterwhentheheatinputtotheboilerisshut
off.Drumlevelfluctuationsalsoare
Smoothedoutbyalargewaterinventory.Inordertounderstandthedynamics,letuslookatan
evaporatorinawasteheatboilerwiththefollowingdata:
Gasflow=350,000lb/hGasinlettemp=1000FGasexittemp=510FSteampressure=600psigsat
Feedwatertemp=222F
Tubes:2x0.105,30tubes/row,20deep,12ftlongwith4.5x0.75x
0.05in.serratedfinsSteamdrum=54in.,muddrum=36inbothare13ftlong.Boilergener
ates
45,000lb/hofsteam.
Weightofsteelincludingdrums=75,000lbWeightofwaterinevaporator=18,000lbVolumeof
steamspace=115ft3Feedwatertemperature=220F
Energytransferredbygastoevaporator=45.9MMBtu/h
Whathappenstothesteampressureandsteamgenerationwhentheheatinputandthefeedwatersupply
areturnedoff?
A:
Thebasicequationforenergytransfertoanevaporatoris
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Q=Wshfg+(hihf)Wf+[wmCp+Wwdpjdp(86a)
Where
Wm=massofmetal,lbWs=steamgenerated,lb/hWf=feedwaterflow,lb/h
Ww=amountofwaterinventoryinboilersystemincludingdrums,tubes,pipes,lb
Dh/dp=changeofenthalpytochangeinpressure,Btu/lbpsidT/dp=changeofsaturationtemperature
tochangeinpressure,F/psiQ=energytransferredtoevaporator,Btu/hdp/dz=rateofpressure
change,psi/h
Nowassumingthatthevolumeofspacebetweenthedrumlevelandthevalve=Vft3,wecanwritethe
followingexpressionforchangeinpressureusingtheperfectgaslaw:
PV=C=pV/m
Where
C=aconstant
M=massofsteam,lb,involumeV
Or
PVCm
=corp=
F=PpV(W,W,)(86b)
Where
P=pressure,psiaWs,Wi=steamgeneratedandsteamwithdrawn,lb/h
Forsteamat600630psia,wehavefromthesteamtablesthatthesaturationtemperature=486Fand
492F,respectively.
Enthalpyofwater=471.6and477.9Btu/lbAveragelatentheathg=730Btu/lbSpecificvolume=
0.75ft3/lb
Hence
Dh477.9471.6
=0.21Btu/lbpsi
Dp30
DT492486
=0.2F/psi
Dp30
WhenQ=0andWf=0,wehavefromEq.(86)that
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Wsx730+(75,000x0.12x0.2+18,000x0.21)dp=0
Dz
Dp615x0.75.
Dp=115(WsW)=4x(WsW)
Or,combiningthiswiththepreviousequation,
Wsx730+(5580)x4x(WsW,)=0orWs=43,570lb/hUsingEq.(87),
Dp=4x(43,57045,000)=5720psi/hor1.59psi/sdz
Thepressuredecaywillbeabout1.59psi/sifthissituationcontinueswithoutcorrectingfeedbacksuch
asmatchingheatinputandfeedwaterflow.
Thesecalculations,thoughsimplistic,giveanideaofwhathappenswhen,forexample,theturbine
exhaustgasisswitchedoff.InfreshairfiredHRSGs,thereisasmalltimedelay,ontheorderofa
minute,beforethefreshairfired
burnercancomeonandfiretofullcapacity.Thesteampressuredecayduringthisperiodcanbe
evaluatedbythisprocedure.
8.44d
Q:
Letusassumethattheboilerisoperatingat45,000lb/handsuddenlythedemandgoesto50,000lb/h.
Case1:Whathappenstothesteampressureifwemaintainthesameheat
Inputtotheevaporatorandthefeedwatersupply?
Case2:Whathappensifthefeedwateriscutoffbutheatinputremains
Thesame?
A:
Case1:Q=45.0x106Btu/hWf=45,000lb/hWl=50,000lb/h.First
Letuscomputethesteamgeneration.UsingEq.(86a),h1=471.6Btu/lbandhf=189.5Btu/lbFrom
Eq.(86a),
45,0x(471.6189.6)+Wsx730+5580dp=Q
Dz
Also,dp/dz=4(Ws50,000),
Simplifying,
12.69x106+Wsx730+5580x4(Ws50,000)=45.9x106Ws=49,857lb/h
Thus,
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Dp=4x(49,85750,000)=572psi/h=0.159psi/sdz
Case2:Wf=0andQ=45.9MMBtu/h.Usingtheaboveequations,
Wsx730+5580x4(Ws50,000)=45.9x106,orWs=50,405lb/h
^=1620psi/h=0.45psi/sdz
Thepressureactuallyincreases,becausethecoolingeffectofthefeedwaterisnotsensed.
Inpractice,controlsrespondfastandrestorethebalanceamongheatinput,feedwaterflow,andsteam
generationtomatchthedemand.Ifwecannotadjusttheheatinput,asinunfiredwasteheatboilers,the
pressurewillslideasshownifwewithdrawmoresteamthancanbesuppliedbytheboiler.
Q:
DiscusstheparametersinfluencingthetestresultsofanHRSGduringperfor
mancetesting.
A:
ThemainvariablesaffectingtheperformanceofanHRSGarethegasflow,inletgastemperature,gas
analysis,andsteamparameters.AssumingthatanHRSGhasbeendesignedforagivensetofgas
conditions,inrealityseveraloftheparameterscouldbedifferentatthetimeoftesting.Inthecaseofa
gasturbineHRSGinparticular,ambienttemperaturealsoinfluencestheexhaustgascondi
tions.The
HRSGcould,asaresult,bereceivingadifferentgasflowatadifferenttemperature,inwhichcasethe
steamproductionwouldbedifferentfromthatpredicted.
Eveniftheambienttemperatureandthegasturbineloadweretoremainthesame,itisdifficultto
ensurethattheHRSGwouldreceivethedesigngasflowatthedesigntemperature.Thisisdueto
instrumenterrors.Typically,inlargeducts,thegasmeasurementcouldbeoffby35%andthegas
temperaturescoulddifferby1020FaccordingtoASMEPowerTestCode4.4.Asaresultitis
possiblethattheHRSGwouldreceive5%lessflowat10Flowergastemperaturethandesign
conditions,eventhoughtheinstrumentsrecordeddesignconditions.Asaresult,theHRSGsteam
generationandsteamtemperaturewouldbelessthanpredictedthroughnofaultoftheHRSGdesign.
Figure8.18Showstheper
formanceofanHRSGdesignedfor500,000lb/hgasflowat900Fsteam
generationis57,000lb/hat650psigand750F.ThegraphshowshowthesameHRSGbehaveswhen
themassflowchangesfrom485,000to515,000lb/hwhiletheexhausttemperaturevariesfrom880F
to902F.Thesteamtemperaturefallsto741Fwith880Fgastemperature,whereasitis758Fat
920F.Thesteamflowincreasesfrom52,900to60,900lb/hasthegasmassflowincreases.Thusthe
figureshowsthemapofperformanceoftheHRSGforpossibleinstrumentalerrorvariationsonly.
HenceHRSGdesignersandplantusersshouldmutuallyagreeuponpossiblevariationsingas
parametersandtheirinfluenceonHRSGperformancebeforeconductingsuchtests.
8.45b
Q:
Basedonoperatingdata,canwedeterminewhetheranHRSGisoperatingwell?
FIgure8.18HRSGperformanceasafunctionofgasflowandtemperature.
A:
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Itispossibletoevaluatetheoperatingdataforpossibledeviationsfrompredictedorguaranteeddataas
shownbelow.AnHRSGsupplierhasguaranteedcertaindataforhisHRSGinhisproposal,whichare
shownalongsidethemeasureddatainTable8.34.Howarethesedatatobereconciled?
Notethattheactualgasflowisdifficulttomeasureandisnotshown.However,usinganenergy
balance,onecanobtainthegasflowbasedonenergy
Table8.34ProposedandActualHRSGPerformance
Data
ProposalguaranteeActualdata
Gasflow,lb/h
550,000
Exhaustgastemp,F1000
970
Exitgastemp,F
372
380
Steampressure,psig 600
500
Steamtemp,F
700
690
Feedwatertemp,F 230
230
Blowdown,%
Steamflow,lb/h
79,400
68,700
Absorbedbysteamandthedifferencebetweengastemperaturesattheinletandexit.Notethatthe
operatingsteampressureislowerthanthatcalledforinthedesign.
Fromtheenergybalance,wehaveWgx(h,ho)x0.99=WsAh
Whereh,,horefertotheenthalpyofgasattheinletandexitoftheHRSGcorrespondingtothegas
temperaturesmeasured.Thesteamflow,Ws,andtheenthalpyabsorbedbysteam,Ah,areknownfrom
steamtables.HenceWg,thegasflow,canbecalculated.Itcanbeshowntobe501,300lb/h.
NowusingtheHRSGSprogram,onecansimulatethedesignmodeusingtheproposaldataasshownin
Fig.8.19a.Then,usingthecalculatedgasflowandtheinlettemperature,runtheHRSGSprogramin
theoffdesignmodeatthelowersteampressure.TheresultsareshowninFig.8.19b.Itmaybeseen
that69,520lb/hofsteamshouldhavebeengeneratedat690Fandtheexitgastemperatureshouldbe
364F,whereaswemeasuredonly68,700lb/handexitgasat380F.Hencemoreanalysisisrequired,
butthereisaprimafacieconcernwiththeHRSGperformance.
8.46Q:
Estimatetheboilingheattransfercoefficientinsidetubesforwaterandthetubewalltemperaturerise
foragivenheatfluxandsteampressure.
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A:
Subcooledboilingheattransfercoefficientinsidetubesforwatercanbeestimatedbythefollowing
equations.
AccordingtoCollier[13],
AT=0.072eP/1260q05(87a)
AccordingtoJensandLottes[13],
AT=1.9eP/900q025(87b)
Where
AT=differencebetweensaturationtemperatureandtubewalltemperature,F
P=steampressure,psiaq=heatfluxinsidetubes,Btu/ft2h
371
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230
Suphtrtwploeoni
Figure8.19aSimulationofHRSGdesigndata.
SuphtrlEvapl
Figure8.19bSimulationofHRSGoperatingdata.
Theheattransfercoefficientisthengivenbyh,=q/AT
Example
Whatistheboilingheattransfercoefficientinsidethetubes,andwhatisthetubewalltemperatureif
theheatfluxinsideboilertubesis60,000Btu/ft2handsteampressure=1200psia?
Solution.UsingColliersequation,
AT=0.072xe1200/1260x60,0005=6.8Fh,=60,000/6.8=8817Btu/ft2hF
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UsingJensandLottessequation,
AT=1.9xe120^900x60,00025=7.8Fh,=60,000/7.8=7650Btu/ft2hF
Theaboveexpressionsassumethatthetubesurfacewhereboilingoccursissmoothandclean.
8.47a
Q:
Whatistherelationshipamongcriticalheatflux,steampressure,quality,andflowinwatertube
boilers?
A:
Severalvariablesinfluencethecriticalheatfluxorthedeparturefromnucleateboiling(DNB)
condition.Theseare
Steampressure
MassvelocityofmixinginsidethetubesSteamquality
TuberoughnessandcleanlinessTubesizeandorientation
CorrelationssuchastheMacbethcorrelationareavailableintheliterature[13].
TheMacbethcorrelationis
Qc=0.00633x106xh/gd1(Gi/106)051x(1x)(88a)
Where
Hjg=latentheatofsteam,Btu/lbG,=massvelocityinsidetubes,lb/ft2hx=steamquality,expressed
asafractiond,=tubeinnerdiameter,in.
Example
Estimatethecriticalheatfluxunderthefollowingconditions:
Steampressure=1000psiaTubeinnerdiameter=1.5in.
Massvelocity=600,000lb/ft2hSteamquality=0.20
Qc=0.00633x106x650x1.5001x0.6051x(10.2)=2.43x106Btu/ft2h
Inreallifeboilers,theallowableheatfluxtoavoidDNBismuchlower,say20
30%lower,thanthe
valuesobtainedbylaboratorytestsundercontrolledconditionsduetofactorssuchasroughnessof
tubes,waterquality,andsafetyconsiderations.Boilersuppliershavetheirowndataanddesignboilers
accord
ingly.
8.47b
Q:
Howisthecriticalheatfluxqcdeterminedinpoolboilingsituationsasinfiretubeboilers?
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A:
Severalcorrelationsareavailableintheliterature,butonlytwowillbe
cited.Motsinkisuggeststhesimpleequation[13]
(88b)
WherePs,Pcarethesteampressureandcriticalpressure,bothinpsia.
Where
A=surfacetensionp=densityhg=latentheat
G,g0=accelerationduetogravityandconversionfactorginforceunitsallinmetricunits.
Example
Determinethecriticalheatfluxforsteamat400psiaunderpoolboilingconditions.
Solution.Thefollowingdatacanbeobtainedfromsteamtables:Saturationtemperatureat400psia=
445FDensityofliquid=51lb/cuft(827kg/m3)
Densityofvapor=0.86lb/cuft(13.8kg/m3)
Latentheatofvaporization=780Btu/lb(433kcal/kg)
FromTable8.26atasaturationtemperatureof445F,surfacetensionis
0.0021lbf/ft(0.31kgf/m).
G=9.8x36002m/h2g0=9.8x36002kgm/Kgfh2
Substitutinginto(88b):
/400/400
Qr=803x3208xx1
HcV320VV3208/
=1.102MMBtu/ft2h
UsingEq.(88c),
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Qc=13.8x433x0.13x(0.0031x813x9.823600425Z827405
(13.8)/V827+13.8,
=2.95x106kcal/m2=1.083MMBtu/ft2h
Again,Asbefore,factorssuchassurfaceroughness,waterquality,scaleforma
tion,andbundle
configurationplayarole,andforconservativeestimates,boilerdesignersuseavaluethatis2030%of
thesevalues.
8.47c
Q:
Estimatethecriticalheatfluxforatubebundleofafiretubeboilerwiththefollowingdata:
TubeOD=2in.
Numberoftubes=590Length=29.5ft
Tubespacing=2.75in.,triangularSurfacearea=9113ft2Tubebundlediameter78in.
Theheatfluxforatubebundleisobtainedbycorrectingtheheatfluxforpoolboilingobtainedfrom
Q8.47b.
FirstcomputeafactorC=DbL/A
Where
Db=bundlediameter,ftL=lengthoftubes,ftA=surfaceareaofbundle,ft2C=78x29.5=0.021
12x9113
ThecorrectionfactorFisobtainedfromthecorrelation
LogF=0.8452+0.994logC
ForC=0.021,logF=0.8224,orF=0.15.
Hence,
Correctedheatflux=1.083x106x0.15=162,500Btu/ft2hTypicallyavaluesuchas7080%ofthis
isusedfortubebundles.
Q:
Discussthesimplifiedapproachtodesigningfiretubeboilers.
A:
Engineersoftenmustestimatethesizeofheattransferequipmentsuchasheatexchangers,gascoolers,
boilers,andeconomizersforpreliminarycostingandtocheckspacerequirements.Withtheapproach
presentedhere,onecanquicklydetermineoneormoreconfigurationstoaccomplishacertainamount
ofheattransfer.Onecanalsosizeequipmentsoastolimitthepressuredropwithoutperforming
lengthycalculations.Lifecyclecostingcanthenbeappliedtoselecttheoptimumdesign.
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Twosituationswillbediscussed[8].
1.Thetubesideheattransfercoefficientgovernstheoverallheattransfer.Examples:Firetubeboilers
gascoolersheatexchangersinwhichamediumsuchasairorfluegasflowsonthetubesideanda
fluidwithahighheattransfercoefficientflowsontheoutside.Phasechangescanalsooccuronthe
outsideofthetubes.
2.Theshellsidegoverns.Examples:Watertubeboilers,steamairexchangers,andgasliquidheat
transferequipment.SeeQ8.49.
TubeSideTransferGoverns
Inafiretubeboiler,gasflowsinsidethetubesandasteamwatermixtureflowsontheoutside.Thegas
heattransfercoefficientissmall,about1020Btu/ft2hF,comparedtotheoutsidecoefficientof2000
3000Btu/ft2hF.Themetalresis
tanceisalsosmallhencethegassidecoefficientgovernstheoverall
coefficientandthesizeoftheequipment.
Theenergytransferredisgivenby
TOCo"15"hzQ=UAAT=WCx(TT2)(89)
TheoverallheattransfercoefficientisobtainedfromEq.(4),
1do1ddodo
=1ln+ff+ff
Uhdih024Kmdiidi0
BecausetheinsidecoefficientgovernsU,wecanrewriteEq.(4)asfollows(neglectinglowerorder
resistances,suchasho,metalresistance,andfoulingfactors,whichcontributetoabout5%ofU):
U=0.95hid(90)
ido
ThevalueofthetubesidecoefficientisobtainedfromthefamiliarDittusBoelterequation,Eq.(8),
Nu=0.023Re08Pr04
Where
Nu=h^,Re=15.2f
12k
Thefluidtransportpropertiesareevaluatedatthebulktemperature.
SubstitutingEqs.(8)(11)intoEq.(90)andsimplifying,wehavethefollowingexpression[Eq.(12)]:
H,=2.44w8F1/d,18
Where
TOCo"15"hzF=(Cp/m)04^6(91)
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CombiningEqs.(89)(91)wehave,aftersubstitutingA=3.14diLN/12andforflowpertubew=
Wj/N,
QLN02
=0.606x^DT(92)
ATW08d,08
Thissimpleequationrelatesseveralimportantvariables.GivenQ,AT,W,,andF1,onecantry
combinationsofL,d,,andNtoarriveatasuitableconfiguration.Also,forgiventhermaldata,
LN02/d08isconstantinEq.(92).
F1isshowninTable8.35Forfluegasandair.Forothergases,F1canbecomputedfromEq.(91).
Whenaphasechangeoccurs,asinaboiler,ATiswrittenas
TOCo"15"hzAT=(T1~ts)~(T2~ts)(93)
M(Tts)(T2ts)]1
CombiningEqs.(92)and(93)andsimplifying,wearriveattheexpression
T_tL
Ln=0.606x1xN02x0208(94)
T2tsqW02d,08v
Factor1/CpisalsogiveninTable8.35.
Equation(94)relatesthemajorgeometricparameterstothermalperfor
mance.Usingthismethod,one
neednotevaluateheattransfercoefficients.
TAble8.35
FlueGasa
FactorsFi/Cp,Fz/Cp,Fz,AndF3forAirand
Temp(F) F1/Cp
F2
F2=CpF3
Air
100
0.6660
0.0897
0.3730 0.5920
200
0.6870
0.0952
0.3945 0.6146
300
0.7068
0.i006
0.4140 0.6350
400
0.7225
0.i056
0.4308 0.6528
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600
0.7446
0.1150
0.4591 0.6810
1000
0.7680
0.i220
0.4890 0.6930
1200
0.7760
0.1318
0.5030 0.7030
0.1353
0.7150
Fluegasa
200
0.6590
0.0954
0.3698 0.5851
300
0.6780
0.1015
0.3890 0.6059
400
0.6920
0.1071
0.4041 0.6208
600
0.7i40
0.1170
0.4300 0.6457
800
0.7300
0.1264
0.4498 0.6632
1000
0.7390
0.1340
0.4636 0.6735
1200
0.7480
0.1413
0.4773 0.6849
AFluegasisassumedtohave12%watervaporby
volume.
GasPressureDrop
Nowconsidergaspressuredrop.Theequationthatrelatesthegeometrytotubesidepressuredropin
in.H2Ois
2
TOCo"15"hz_5./V
APi=9.3x105fxIN(L+5di)xd5
2(95)
=9.3x105x(W)K2V
Where
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K2=f(L+5di)/df(96)
CombiningEqs.(94)(96)andeliminatingN,
T_tv01
Lns=0.24xxK10T(97)
T2tsCp1AP1v
Where
K1=(L+5di)1Lf1/d,13(98)
di(in.)
L(ft)1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.252.502.753.00
8
7.09 5.33 4.22 3.46 2.92 2.522.201.951.75
10
8.99 6.75 5.34 4.38 3.70 3.172.782.462.21
12
10.928.20 6.48 5.31 4.48 3.853.362.982.67
14
12.899.66 7.63 6.25 5.27 4.533.953.503.14
16
14.8811.148.80 7.21 6.07 5.214.554.023.61
18
16.8912.659.98 8.17 6.88 5.915.154.564.10
20
18.9214.1611.179.14 7.70 6.605.765.104.56
22
20.9815.7012.3810.128.52 7.316.375.645.05
24
23.0517.2413.5911.119.35 8.026.996.195.54
26
25.1318.8014.8112.1110.198.747.616.746.03
28
27.2420.3716.0513.1111.009.468.747.306.52
Table8.37ValuesofK2asaFunctionofTubeDiameterand
Length
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Di(in.)
L(ft)1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
0.29900.10270.04280.04240.01090.00620.00370.00240.0016
10
0.34500.11710.04840.02290.01210.00690.00410.00270.0018
12
0.39100.13150.05390.02520.01340.00750.00450.00290.0019
14
0.43700.14600.05950.02770.01460.00820.00490.00310.0021
16
0.48300.16030.06500.03020.01580.00880.00530.00330.0022
20
0.57500.18920.07600.03500.01830.01010.00600.00380.0025
22
0.62100.20360.08160.03750.01950.01080.00640.00400.0027
24
0.66700.21800.08700.04000.02070.01140.00670.00420.0028
26
0.71300.23200.09260.04230.02190.01210.00710.00450.0030
28
0.75900.24690.09820.04470.02310.02170.00750.00470.0031
KandK2appearinTables8.36and8.37respectively,asafunctionoftubeIDandlength.Inthe
turbulentrange,thefrictionfactorforcolddrawntubesisafunctionofinnerdiameter.
UsingEq.(97),onecanquicklyfigurethetubediameterandlengththatlimittubepressuredroptoa
desiredvalue.AnytwoofthethreevariablesN,L,andd,determinethermalperformanceaswellas
gaspressuredrop.Letusdiscusstheconventionaldesignprocedure:
1.Assumew,calculateN.
2.CalculateU,usingEqs.(4)and(90).
3.CalculateLafterobtainingAfromEq.(89).
4.CalculateAP,fromEq.(95).
Ifthegeometryorpressuredropobtainedisunsuitable,repeatsteps14.Thisprocedureislengthy.
Someexampleswillillustratethesimplifiedapproach.Theprecedingequationsarevalidforsingle
passdesign.However,withminorchangesonecanderivetherelationshipsformultipassunits(e.g.,
uselength=L/2fortwopassunits).
Example1
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Afiretubewasteheatboilerwillcool66,000lb/hoffluegasfrom1160Fto440F.Saturation
temperatureis350F.Molecularweightis28.5,andgaspressureisatmospheric.IfListobelimitedto
20ftduetolayout,determineNandAP,fortwotubesizes:(1)2x1.77in.(2in.OD,1.77in.ID)and
(2)1.75x1.521in.
Solution.UseEq.(92)tofindN.Use2in.tubes.1/CpfromTable8.35is0.73forfluegasatthe
averagegastemperatureof0.5x(1160+440)=800F.
20
2.197=0.606x0.73xN02x
(66,0)02x(1.77)08
=0.6089N02,N=611
ComputeAP,usingEq.(95).FromTable8.37,K2is0.035.Computethe
gasspecificvolume.
Density(p)=28.5x
V=32.25ft3/lb
SubstitutingintoEq.(95),wehave
5/66,0002
AP,=9.3x105x(611jx0.035x32.25
=1.23in.H2O
Repeattheexercisewith1.75in.tubeslengthremainsat20ft.FromEq.(92)wenotethatforthesame
thermalperformanceandgasflow,N^L/d08=
aconstant.Theaboveconceptcomesinhandywhenonewantstoquicklyfiguretheeffectofgeometry
onperformance.Hence,
0220220
6110x08=Nx08
(1.77)0.8(1.521)08
N=333
Withsmallertubes,oneneedsfewertubesforthesameduty.Thisisduetoahigherheattransfer
coefficienthowever,thegaspressuredropwouldbehigher.FromTable8.37,K2=0.076for1.521in.
tubes.FromEq.(95),
5/66,0002
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AP,=9.3x10xIx0.076x32.25
333
=8.95in.H2O
Example2
Sizetheheatexchangerfor2.0in.tubeswithapressuredropof3.0in.H2O.Forthesamethermal
performance,determinethegeometry.
So/wfton.Theconventionalapproachwouldtakeseveraltrialstoarriveattherightcombination.
However,withEq.(97),onecandeterminethegeometryrathereasily:
1160350F,Ky1
In=2.197=0.24xx^r
440350CpAP,01
FroMTable8.35,F1/Cp=0.73AP,=3,v=32.25.Then
1160350,i
Ln440350=2.197=0.24K1x(32.25)
XI?=0.222K1
K1=9.89
FromTable8.36,wecanobtainseveralcombinationsoftubediameterandlengththathavethesame
K1valueandwouldyieldthesamethermalperfor
manceandpressuredrop.Forthe1.77in.IDtube,L
is21.75ft.UseEq.(92)tocalculatethenumberoftubes.
N02
2.197=0.606x0.73x21.75x
(66,0).2x(1.77)0.8N=402
Thus,severalalternativetubegeometriescanbearrivedatforthesameperformance,usingthe
precedingapproach.Onesavesalotoftimebynotcalculatingheattransfercoefficientsandgas
properties.
LifeCycleCosting
Suchtechniquesdeterminetheoptimumdesign,givenseveralalternatives.Here,themajoroperating
costisfrommovingthegasthroughthesystem,andtheinstalledcostisthatoftheequipmentand
auxiliariessuchasthefan.Thelife
cyclecostisthesumofthecapitalizedcostofoperationandthe
installedcost:
LCC=CCo+IcThecapitalizedcostofoperationis
1YT
Cco=CaY
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1Y
WhereY=(1+e)/(1+i).
Theannualcostofoperatingthefanisestimatedas
Ca=0.001xPHCe
DPi
PZ
WherethefanpowerconsumptioninkWis
P=1.9x10~6xWfx
TheaboveprocedureisusedtoevaluateLCC.ThealternativewiththelowestLCCisusuallychosenif
thegeometryisacceptable.(Ceiscostofelectricity.)andHisthenumberofhoursofoperationper
year.
8.49Q:
Discussthesimplifiedapproachtodesigningwatertubeboilers.
A:
Whenevergasflowsoutsideatubebundleasinwatertubeboilers,economi
zers,andheatexchangers
withhighheattransfercoefficientsonthetubesidetheoverallcoefficientisgovernedbythegas
sideresistance.Assumingthattheotherresistancescontributeabout5%tothetotal,andneglectingthe
effectofnonluminoustransfercoefficients,onemaywritetheexpressionforUas
U=0.95ho(99a)
Wheretheoutsidecoefficient,ho,isobtainedfrom
Nu=0.35Re06Pr03(99b)
XThOdOr,GdT>
Nu=^7,Re=^j,Pr=
12k12mk
G=12
O
NwL(Srd0)
Equation(99)isvalidforbothinline(squareorrectangularpitch)andstaggered(triangularpitch)
arrangements.Forbaretubes,thedifferenceinh0betweenin
lineandstaggeredarrangementsat
Reynoldsnumbersandpitchesfoundinpracticeis35%.Forfinnedtubes,thevariationissignificant.
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SubstitutingEqs.(17)(21)intoEq.(99a)and(99b)andsimplifying,
TOCo"15"hzh0=0.945G0.6F2/d004(100)
U=0.9G06F2/d4(101)
Where
F=k07(cp/m)03(102)
F2isgiveninTable8.35.Gastransportpropertiesarecomputedatthefilmtemperature.
A=pdNwNdL/12
CombiningtheabovewithEq.(89)andsimplifyinggives
G/AT=UA=p0.9G0.6F2d0NwNdL/12dA
=0.235FG0.6NwNdLd.6
Q4l4n
Q=1.36F2W6NLNd6AT2o(ST=doI)06
SubstitutingforGfromEq.(21),
Q=1.36F2W6^6(13)
Theaboveequationrelatesthermalperformancetogeometry.Whenthereisaphasechange,asina
boiler,furthersimplificationleadsto
*=2^1x(104)
Ifthetubediameterandpitchareknown,onecanestimateNdorGforadesired
Thermalperformance.
Letusnowaccountforgaspressuredrop.Theequationthatrelatesthegas
PressuredroptoGisEq.(28)ofChapter7:
APo=9.3x1010xG2foP
Forinlinearrangements,thefrictionfactorisobtainedfromEq.(29)ofChapter7:
0.15
F=Re
Where
0.08SL/dO
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X=0.044+
(ST/do1)43+113do/SLAnotherformofEq.(28)ofChapter7is
VNj^V^x
A1.85
(105)
APo=1.34x10
N185L185do15(STdo)1
SubstitutingforfinEq.(28)ofChapter7andcombiningwithEq.(104)wecanrelateDPoto
performanceinasingleequation:
DPo=4.78x101xG225(STdo)
~~X
T1
Xln
(106)
DO75F3P
Where
015
(107)
F3=(F2/C>
F3isgiveninTable8.35.WithEq.(107),onecaneasilycalculatethegeometryforagiventubebank
soastolimitthepressuredroptoadesiredvalue.Anexamplewillillustratetheversatilityofthe
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technique.
Example
Inawatertubeboiler,66,000lb/hoffluegasiscooledfrom1160Fto440F.Saturationtemperature
is350F.Tubeoutsidediameteris2in.,andaninlinearrangementisusedwithST=SL=4in.
Determineasuitableconfigurationtolimitthegaspressureto3in.H2O.
LetususeEq.(106).Filmtemperatureis0.5x(800+350)=575F.InterpolatingfromTable8.35at
475F,F3=0.643.Gasdensityat800Fis0.031lb/ft3fromExample1.3
DPo=4.78x101xG225(42)
,T11603501xln
440350(0.044+0.08x2)
X2075x0.643x0.031=128x1010xG225=3
Hence,G=5200lb/ft2h.FromEq.(21)onecanchoosedifferentcombinationsofNwandL:
NwL=66,000x12/(2x5200)=76
IfNw=8,thenL=9.5ft.
CalculateNdfromEq.(104):
In
=2.197
116350
44350
CpG04(Srd01)d04
2.197=2.82x0.426Nd/(5200a4x1x204)orNd=74Thus,theentiregeometryhasbeenarrivedat.
8.50Q:
Howisthebundlediameterofheatexchangersorfiretubeboilersdetermined?A:
Tubesofheatexchangersandfiretubeboilersaretypicallyarrangedinsquareortriangularpitch(Fig.
8.20).Theratiooftubepitchtodiametercouldrangefrom1.25to2dependingonthetubesizeandthe
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manufacturerspastpractice.
Lookingatthetriangularpitcharrangement,weseethathafofatubeareaislocatedwithinthetriangle,
whoseareaisgivenby
Areaoftriangle=0.5x0.866p2=0.433_p2
IfthereareNtubesinthebundle,then
Totalareaoccupied=0.866Np2
IfthebundlediameterisD,then3.14xD2/4=areaofbundle=0.866Np2,or
D=1.05^5(108)
Similarly,forthesquarepitch,theareaoccupiedbyonetube=^2.Hencebundlearea=3.14xD2/4=
N^2,or
D=1.128^5(109)
Inpractice,asmallclearanceisaddedtotheabovenumberformanufacturingpurposes.
FIgure8.20Square(top)andtriangular(bottom)pitchforboiler/exchangertubes.
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Example
If500tubesof2in.diameterarelocatedinafiretubeboilershellatatriangularpitchof3in.,the
bundlediameterwouldbe
D=1.05x3x5005=70.5in.
Ifthepitchweresquare,thebundlediameterwouldbe
D=1.128x3x500.5=75.7in.
Sometimestubeshavetobelocatedwithinagivensectorofacircle.Insuchcases,itishelpfultoknow
theareaofasectorofacirclegIvenitsheightanddiameter.Table8.38givesthefactorC,whichwhen
multipliedbyD2givesthesectorarea.
Example
Findtheareaofasectorofheight10in.anddiameter24in.
Solution.Forh/D=10/24=0.4167,CfromTable8.38=0.309.Hence,Area=CxD2=0.309x24x
24=178in.2
8.51
Q:
Howisthethicknessofinsulationforaflatorcurvedsurfacedetermined?Determinethethicknessof
insulationtolimitthecasingsurfacetemperatureofapipeoperatingfrom800Fto200F,when
Ambienttemperatureta=80F
ThermalconductivityofinsulationKmataveragetemperatureof500F=0.35Btuin./ft2hFPipe
outerdiameterd=12in.
WindvelocityV=264ft/min(3mph)
Emissivityofcasing=0.15(oxidized)
H/D C
H/D C
H/D C
H/D C
H/D C
0.0500.014680.1000.040870.1500.073870.2000.11182
0.0010.000040.0510.015120.1010.041480.1510.074590.2010.11262
0.0020.000120.0520.015560.1020.042080.1520.075310.2020.11343
0.0030.000220.0530.016010.1030.042690.1530.076030.2030.11423
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0.0040.000340.0540.016460.1040.043300.1540.076750.2040.11504
0.0050.000470.0550.016910.1050.043910.1550.077470.2050.11584
0.0060.000620.0560.017370.1060.044520.1560.078190.2060.11665
0.0070.000780.0570.017830.1070.045140.1570.078920.2070.11746
0.0080.000950.0580.018300.1080.045780.1580.079650.2080.11827
0.0090.001130.0590.018770.1090.046380.1590.080380.2090.11908
0.0100.001330.0600.019240.1100.047010.1600.081110.2100.11990
0.0110.001530.0610.019720.1110.047630.1610.081850.2110.12071
0.0120.001750.0620.020200.1120.048260.1620.082580.2120.12153
0.0130.001970.0630.020680.1130.048890.1630.083320.2130.12235
0.0140.002200.0640.021170.1140.049530.1640.084060.2140.12317
0.0150.002440.0650.021660.1150.050160.1650.084800.2150.02399
0.0160.002680.0660.022150.1160.050800.1660.085540.2160.12481
0.0170.002940.0670.022650.1170.051450.1670.086290.2170.12563
0.0180.003200.0680.023150.1180.052090.1680.087040.2180.12646
0.0190.003470.0690.023660.1190.052740.1690.087790.2190.12729
0.0200.003750.0700.024170.1200.053380.1700.088540.2200.12811
0.0210.004030.0710.024680.1210.054040.1710.089290.2210.12894
0.0220.004320.0720.025200.1220.054690.1720.090040.2220.12977
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0.0230.004620.0730.025710.1230.055350.1730.090800.2230.13060
0.0240.004920.0740.026240.1240.056000.1740.091550.2240.13144(continued)
H/DCh/DCh/D
0.0250.005230
0.0260.005550
0.0270.005870
0.0280.006190
0.0290.006530
0.0300.006870
0.0310.007210
0.0320.007560
0.0330.007910
0.0340.008270
0.0350.008640
0.0360.009010
0.0370.009380
0.0380.009760
0.0390.010150
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0.0400.010540
0.0410.010930
0.0420.011330
0.0430.011730
0.0440.012140
0.0450.012550
0.0460.012970
0.0470.013390
0.0480.013820
0.0490.014250
0.2500.153550
.0750.026760.125
.0760.027290.126
.0770.027820.127
.0780.028360.128
.0790.028890.129
.0800.029430.130
.0810.029980.131
.0820.030530.132
.0830.031080.133
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.0840.031630.134
.0850.032190.135
.0860.032750.136
.0870.033310.137
.0880.033870.138
.0890.034440.139
.0900.035010.140
.0910.035590.141
.0920.036160.142
.0930.036740.143
.0940.037320.144
.0950.037910.145
.0960.038500.146
.0970.039090.147
.0980.039680.148
.0990.040280.149
.3000.198170.350
h/Dh/D
0.056660.1750.092310.2250.13277
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0.057330.1760.093070.2260.13311
0.057990.1770.093840.2270.13395
0.058660.1780.094600.2280.13478
0.059330.1790.095370.2290.13562
0.060000.1800.096130.2300.13646
0.060670.1810.096900.2310.13731
0.061350.1820.097670.2320.13815
0.062030.1830.098450.2330.13900
0.062710.1840.099220.2340.13984
0.063390.1850.100000.2350.14069
0.064070.1860.100770.2360.14154
0.064760.1870.101550.2370.14239
0.065450.1880.102330.2380.14324
0.066140.1890.103120.2390.14409
0.066830.1900.103900.2400.14494
0.067530.1910.104690.2410.14580
0.068220.1920.105470.2920.14666
0.068920.1930.106260.2430.14751
0.069630.1940.107050.2440.14837
0.070330.1950.107840.2450.14923
149/188
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0.071030.1960.108640.2460.15009
0.071740.1970.109430.2470.15095
0.072450.1980.110230.2480.15182
0.073160.1990.111020.2490.15268
0.244980.4000.293370.4500.34278
0.2510.154410
0.2520.155280
0.2530.156150
0.2540.157020
0.2550.157890
0.2560.158760
0.2570.159640
0.2580.165010
0.2590.161390
0.2600.162260
0.2610.163140
0.2620.164020
0.2630.164900
0.2640.165780
150/188
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0.2650.166660
0.2660.167550
0.2670.168430
0.2680.169320
0.2690.170200
0.2700.171090
0.2710.171980
0.2720.172870
0.2730.173760
0.2740.174650
0.2750.175540
0.2760.176440
0.2770.177330
0.2780.178230
3010.199080.351
3020.200000.352
3030.200920.353
3040.201840.354
3050.202760.355
3060.203680.356
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3070.204600.357
3080.205530.358
3090.206450.359
3100.207380.360
3110.208300.361
3120.209230.362
3130.210150.363
3140.211080.364
3150.212010.365
3160.212940.366
3170.213870.367
3180.214800.368
3190.215730.369
3200.216670.370
3210.217600.371
3220.218530.372
3230.219470.373
3240.220400.374
3250.221340.375
152/188
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3260.222280.376
3270.223220.377
3280.224150.378
0.245930.4010.294350.4510.34378
0.246890.4020.295330.4520.34477
0.247840.4030.296310.4530.34577
0.248800.4040.297290.4540.34676
0.249760.4050.298270.4550.34776
0.250710.4060.299260.4560.34876
0.251670.4070.300240.4570.34975
0.252630.4080.301220.4580.35075
0.253590.4090.302200.4590.35175
0.254550.4100.303190.4600.35274
0.255510.4110.304170.4610.35374
0.256470.4120.305160.4620.35474
0.257430.4130.306140.4630.35573
0.258390.4140.307120.4640.35673
0.259360.4150.308110.4650.35773
0.260320.4160.309100.4660.35873
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0.261280.4170.310080.4670.35972
0.262250.4180.311070.4680.36072
0.263210.4190.312050.4690.36172
0.264180.4200.313040.4700.36272
0.265140.4210.314030.4710.36372
0.266110.4220.315020.4720.36471
0.267080.4230.316000.4730.36571
0.268050.4240.316990.4740.36671
0.269010.4250.317980.4750.36771
0.269980.4260.318970.4760.36871
0.270950.4270.319960.4770.36971
0.271920.4280.320950.4780.37071(continued)
H/D C
H/D C
H/D C
H/D C
H/D C
0.2790.179120.3290.225090.3790.272890.4290.321940.4790.37171
0.2800.180020.3300.226030.3800.273860.4300.322930.4800.37270
0.2810.180920.3310.226970.3810.274830.4310.323920.4810.37370
0.2820.181820.3320.227920.3820.275800.4320.324910.4820.37470
0.2830.182720.3330.228860.3830.276780.4330.325900.4830.37570
0.2840.183620.3340.229800.3840.277750.4340.326890.4840.37670
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0.2850.184520.3350.230740.3850.278720.4350.327880.4850.37770
0.2860.185420.3360.231690.3860.279690.4360.328870.4860.37870
0.2870.186330.3370.232630.3870.280670.4370.329870.4870.37970
0.2880.187230.3380.233580.3880.281640.4380.330860.4880.38070
0.2890.188140.3390.234530.3890.282620.4390.331850.4890.38170
0.2900.189050.3400.235470.3900.283590.4400.332840.4900.38270
0.2910.189960.3410.236420.3910.284570.4410.333840.4910.38370
0.2920.190860.3420.237370.3920.285540.4420.334830.4920.38470
0.2930.191770.3430.238320.3930.286520.4430.335820.4930.38570
0.2940.192680.3440.239270.3940.287500.4440.336820.4940.38670
0.2950.193600.3450.240220.3950.288480.4450.337810.4950.38770
0.2960.194510.3460.241170.3960.289450.4460.338800.4960.38870
0.2970.195420.3470.242120.3970.290430.4470.339800.4970.38970
0.2980.196340.3480.243070.3980.291410.4480.340790.4980.39070
0.4990.38170
0.2990.197250.3490.244030.3990.292390.4490.34179
0.5000.39270
Theheatlossqfromthesurfaceisgivenby[7]
Ta+459.6100
+68.968.9J
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Q=0.174s
1/2
125(v
+0.296(tsta)125x
Ts+459.6100
Emaybetakenas0.9foroxidizedsteel,0.05forpolishedaluminum,and0.15foroxidizedaluminum.
Also,
=0.74in.
Le=0.35x
285
WecansolveforLgivenLeanddbyusingEq.(112)andtrialanderror,orwecanuseTable8.39.It
canbeshownthatL=0.75in.Thenextstandardthicknessavailablewillbechosen.Atrialanderror
methodasdiscussednextwillbeneededtosolveforthesurfacetemperaturets.(NotethatListhe
actualthicknessofinsulation.)
D+2L,d+2LLe=ln
(112)
2d
Substitutingts=200,ta=80,V=264,ande=0.15intoEq.(110),wehaveq=0.173x0.15x(6.64
5.44)+0.296
X(660540)125x=285Btu/ft2hFromEq.(111),
800200
0.5
1.25/264+69
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69
Km(tts)
Km(tts)Le
Q=
[(d+2L)/2]xln[(d+2L)/d]
(111)
Wheretisthehotfacetemperature,F,andLeistheequivalentthicknessofinsulationforacurved
surfacesuchasapipeortube.
8.52
Q:
DeterminethesurfacetemperatureofinsulationinQ8.51when1.0in.thickinsulationisusedonthe
pipe.Otherdataareasgivenearlier.
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Tubediam.d(in.)
ThicknessofinsulationL(in.1
0.5
1.5 2.0
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0.691.652.77
4.0 6.809.9013.2 16.7
0.611.392.29
3.305.508.0510.7513.62
0.571.282.08
2.974.947.159.53 12.07
0.561.221.96
2.774.556.608.76 11.10
0.551.181.88
2.654.346.218.24 10.40
0.541.151.82
2.554.165.937.85 9.80
0.531.121.75
2.433.925.557.50 9.15
10
0.521.091.70
2.353.765.296.93 8.57
12
0.521.081.67
2.303.655.116.65 8.31
16
0.521.061.63
2.233.504.866.31 7.83
20
0.511.051.61
2.193.414.706.10 7.52
ALe=dlnd~d2LForexample,ford=3andL=1.5,Le=2.08.
A:
CalculatetheequivalentthicknessLe.FromEq.(112),
12+214
Le=2Y2=108m
Assumethatforthefirsttrialts=150F.LetKmatameantemperatureof(800+150)/2=475Fbe
0.34Btuin./ft2hF.FromEq.(110),
Q=0.173x0.15x(6.145.44)+0.296x(610540)125X=145Btu/ft2h
FromEq.(111),
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8001502
Q=0.34x=205Btu/fth108
Becausethesetwovaluesofqdonotagree,wemustgoforanothertrial.Tryts=170F.Then,from
Eq.(110),
Q=200Btu/ft2h
AndfromEq.(111),q=198Btu/ft2h
Thesetwoarequiteclose.Hencethefinalsurfacetemperatureis170F,andtheheatlossisabout200
Btu/ft2h.
8.53Q:
Ahorizontalflatsurfaceisat10F.Theambientdrybulbtemperatureis80F,andtherelative
humidityis80%.Determinethethicknessoffibrousinsulationthatwillpreventcondensationofwater
vaporonthesurface.UseKm=0.28Btu/fthF.Thewindvelocityiszero.Useasurfaceemissivityof
0.9forthecasing.
A:
Thesurfacetemperaturemustbeabovethedewpointofwatertopreventcondensationofwatervapor.
Q5.10showshowthedewpointcanbecalculated.Thesaturatedvaporpressureat80F,fromthe
steamtablesintheAppendix,is0.51psia.At80%relativehumidity,thevaporpressurewillbe0.8x
0.51=0.408psia.Fromthesteamtables,thiscorrespondstoasaturationtemperatureof73F,whichis
alsothedewpoint.Hencewemustdesigntheinsulationsothecasingtemperatureisabove73F.
FromEq.(110),
Q=0.173x0.9x(5.445.334)
+0.296x(8073)125=10.1Btu/ft2h
Also,fromEq.(111),
K028
Q=(dts)xKmm=(7310)x
(Inthiscaseofaflatsurface,Le=L.)
Notethattheheatflowisfromtheatmospheretothesurface.tdandtsarethedewpointandsurface
temperature,F.SolvingforL,wegetL=1.75in.
Hence,byusingthenextstandardinsulationthicknessavailable,wecan
Ensurethatthecasingisabovethedewpoint.Toobtaintheexactcasing
Temperaturewiththestandardthicknessofinsulation,atrialanderrorprocedureasdiscussedin
Q8.52maybeused.Butthisisnotreallynecessary,becausewehaveprovidedasafedesignthickness.
Q:
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A11in.schedule40pipe1000ftlongcarrieshotwaterat300F.Whatistheheatlossfromitssurface
ifitisnotinsulated(case1)orifithas1in.,2in.,and3in.thickinsulation(case2)?
Thethermalconductivityofinsulationmaybeassumedtobe0.25Btuin./ft2hF.Theambient
temperatureis80F,andthewindvelocityiszero.
A:
Case1.Equation(110)canbeusedtodeterminetheheatloss.Forthebarepipesurface,assumethate
is0.90.Then
Q=0.173x0.9x(7.645.44)
+0.296x(30080)1,25=638Btu/ft2h
Case2.Determinationofthesurfacetemperaturegiventheinsulationthicknessinvolvesatrialand
errorprocedureasdiscussedinQ8.52andwillbedoneindetailforthe1in.case.
Varioussurfacetemperaturesareassumed,andqiscomputedfromEqs.
(110)and(111).Letususeaevalueof0.15.Thefollowingtablegivestheresults
Ofthecalculations.
Ts QfromEq.(110)QfromEq.(111)
11026
34
12037
32
14061
28
Wecandrawagraphoftsversusqwiththesevaluesandobtainthecorrectts.However,weseefrom
thetable,byinterpolation,thatatts=115F,q,frombothequations,isabout33Btu/ft2h.
3.9
Totalheatloss=3.14xx1000x3312
=33,675Btu/h
Similarly,wemaysolveforqwhenthethicknessesare2and3in.ItcanbeshownthatatL=2in.,q=
15Btu/ft2h,andatL=3in.,q=9Btu/ft2h.Also,whenL=2in.,ts=98Fandtotalheatloss=
23,157Btu/h.WhenL=3in.,ts=92Fandtotalloss=18,604Btu/h.s
Q:
Estimatethedropinwatertemperatureof1in.thickinsulationusedinQ8.54a.Thewaterflowis7500
lb/h.
A:
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Thetotalheatlosshasbeenshowntobe33,675Btu/h.Thisislostbythewaterandcanbewrittenas
7500AT,whereATisthedropintemperature,assumingthatthespecificheatis1.Hence
33,675
AT==4.5F
7500
Byequatingtheheatlossfrominsulationtotheheatlostbythefluid,beitair,oil,steam,orwater,one
cancomputethedropintemperatureinthepipeorduct.Thiscalculationisparticularlyimportantwhen
oillinesareinvolved,becauseviscosityisaffected,leadingtopumpingandatomizationproblems.
8.55
Q:
InQ8.54determinetheoptimumthicknessofinsulationwiththefollowingdata.
Costofenergy=$3/MMBtu
Costofoperation=$8000/year
Interestandescalationrates=12%and7%
Lifeoftheplant=15years
Totalcostof1in.thickinsulation,includinglaborandmaterial,=$5200for2in.insulation,$7100
andfor3in.insulation,$10,500
A:
LetuscalculatethecapitalizationfactorFfromQ5.22.
F=107x1(1.7/1.12)15=10.5
1.1211.07/1.12
Letuscalculatetheannualheatloss.
ForL=1in.,
8000
Ca=33,675x3x=
8000
Ca=23,157x3x0^=$555ForL=3in.,
8000
Ca=18,604x3x=$446
CalculatecapitalizedcostCaF.
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ForL=1in.,
CaF=808x10.5=$8484
ForL=2in.,
CaF=555x10.5=$5827
ForL=3in.,
CaF=446x10.5=$4683
Calculatetotalcapitalizedcostorlifecyclecost(LCC):
ForL=1in.,
LCC=8484+5200=$13,684
ForL=2in.,LCC=$12,927andforL=3in.,LCC=$15,183.
Henceweseethattheoptimumthicknessisabout2in.Withhigherthicknesses,thecapitalcost
becomesmorethanthebenefitsfromsavingsinheatloss.Atradeoffwouldbetogofor2in.thick
insulation.
Severalfactorsenterintocalculationsofthistype.Iftheperiodofoperationwereless,probablya
lesserthicknesswouldbeadequate.Ifthecostofenergyweremore,wemighthavetogoforagreater
thickness.Thuseachcasemustbeevaluatedbeforewedecideontheoptimumthickness.Thisexample
givesonlyamethodology,andtheevaluationcanbeasdetailedasdesiredbytheplantengineering
personnel.
Iftherewerenoinsulation,theannualheatlosswouldbe
1.98000
3.14xx1000x638x3x=$760012106
Hencesimplepaybackwitheven1in.thickinsulationis5200/(7600808)=0.76year,or9months.
8.56Q:
Whatisahotcasing?Whatareitsuses?
Wheneverhotgasesarecontainedinaninternallyrefractorylined(orinsulated)duct,thecasing
temperaturecanfallbelowthedewpointofacidgases,whichcanseepthroughtherefractorycracks
andcauseacidcondensation,whichisapotentialproblem.Toavoidthis,someengineerspreferahot
casingdesign,whichensuresthatthecasingorthevesselorductcontainingthegasesismaintained
atahighenoughtemperaturetominimizeorpreventacidcondensa
tion.Atthesametime,thecasingis
alsoexternallyinsulatedtominimizetheheatlossestotheambient(seeFig.8.21).Ahotcasingisa
combinationofinternalplusexternalinsulationusedtomaintainthecasingatahighenough
temperaturetoavoidacidcondensationwhileensuringthattheheatlossestotheatmospherearelow.
Considertheuseofacombinationoftworefractoriesinsidetheboilercasing:4in.ofKS4and2in.of
CBM.Thehotgasesareat1000F.Ambienttemperature=60F,andwindvelocityis100ft/min.
Casingemissivityis0.9.Tokeeptheboilercasinghot,anexternal0.5in.ofmineralfiberisadded.
Determinetheboilercasingtemperature,theoutercasingtemperature,andtheheatloss.
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Onecanperformthecalculationsdiscussedearliertoarriveatthetemperaturesandheatloss.Forthe
sakeofillustratingthepoint,acomputerprintoutoftheresultisshowninFig.8.22.Itcanbeseenthat
theboilercasingisat392F,andtheoutermostcasingisat142F.Theheatlossis180Btu/ft2h.The
boilercasingishotenoughtoavoidacidcondensation,whiletheheatlossesarekeptlow.
Fiber
Figure8.21Arrangementofhotcasing.
Project:HOTCASING
COND1TEMP2COND2
THICKINTEMPFTMP1
0.000.^50.726.20
Casing
Deltbd/nifftib
Cbm
KsM
0.00142.270.00
0.50392.02200.00
2.00800.12200.00
4.001001.42800.00
0.000.000.32400.00
0.57600.00
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6.021600.00
HEATLOSSBTU/ft2h1795997Numberoflayersofinsulation3AMBTEMP70WIND
VELfpm100EMISS.9MAXLOSSBTU/FT2H9330.736
Figure8.22Printoutoncasingtemperatures.
8.57
Q
Whathappensifductsorstackshandlingfluegasesarenotinsulated?Whatwouldthegasorstack
walltemperaturebe?
A:
Thisquestionfacesengineersinvolvedinengineeringofboilerplants.Ifductsandstacksarenot
insulated,theheatlossfromthecasingcanbesubstantial.Also,thestackwalltemperaturecandrop
lowenoughtocauseaciddewpointcorrosion.
Q=0.174sx
Thetemperaturedropacrossthegasfilmisgivenby
LetthefluegasflowbeWlb/hatatemperatureoftg1at
theinlettotheductorstack(Fig.8.23).Theheatloss
fromthecasingwallisgivenbyEq.(110),
Hc=convectiveheattransfercoefficientBtu/ft2hFdo,d,=outerandinnerdiameterofthestack,in.
W0,8C
Hc=2:44xd18
Where,fromEq.(12),
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TheductwalltemperaturedropisgivenbyEq.(111),whichcanberearrangedtogive
Wheretw1,twoaretheinnerandouterwalltemperatures,F.
ThetotalheatlossfromtheductorstackisQ=3.14doxH/12whereHistheheight,ft.Theexitgas
temperatureisthen
(113)
Tg2
DetailA
TTg.2Twi.3Two.4Tc.5To
GasflowTa!
Figure8.23Stackwalltemperature.
Theaboveequationshavetobesolvediteratively.Atrialvaluefortg2isassumed,andthegas
propertiesarecomputedattheaveragegastemperature.Thecasingtemperatureisalsoobtained
throughaniterativeprocess.Thetotalheatlossiscomputedandtg2isagainevaluated.Iftheassumed
andcalculatedtg2valuesagree,theniterationstops.Acomputerprogramcanbedevelopedtoobtain
accurateresults,particularlyifthestackistallandcalculationsarebetterdoneinseveralsegments.
Example
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110,0lb/hoffluegasesat410Fentera48in.IDstackthatis50ftlongand1in.thick.Iftheambient
temperatureis70Fandwindvelocityis125ft/min,determinethecasingtemperature,totalheatloss,
andexitgastemperature.
Fluegaspropertiescanbeassumedtobeasfollowsat400F(orcom
putedfrommethodsdiscussedin
Q8.12ifanalysisisknown):Cp=0.265,m=0.058lb/fth,k=0.0211Btu/fthF.Letthegas
temperaturedropinthestack=20Fhencetheexitgastemperature=390F.
Thegassideheattransfercoefficientis
0.4
0.058)
0
2.44x(110,000)8x()x(0.0211)06=4.5Btu/ft2hF
Letthecasingtemperaturetc(=twowithoutinsulation)be250F.q=0.174x0.9x[(7.1)4(5.3)4]
+0.296x(710530)125x^125+69^
69
=601Btu/ft2h
Gastemperaturedropacrossgasfilm=601/4.5=134F.
Temperaturedropacrossthestackwall=
601x50x^50/18)=2F24x25
Hencestackwalloutertemperature=4001342=264F.
Itcanbeshownthatatacasingorwalltemperatureof256F,theheatlossthroughgasfilmmatches
thelossthroughthestackwall.Theheatloss=629Btu/ft2h,andtotalheatloss=411,400Btu/h.
411,400
Gastemperaturedrop==14F
FF110,000x0.265
Theaveragegastemperature=41014=396F,whichisclosetothe400Fassumed.Witha
computerprogram,onecanfinetunethecalculationstoincludefoulingfactors.
Q:
Whataretheeffectsofwindvelocityandcasingemissivityonheatlossandcasingtemperature?
A:
Usingthemethoddescribedearlier,thecasingtemperatureandheatlossweredeterminedforthecase
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ofaninsulatedsurfaceat600Fusing3in.ofmineralfiberinsulation.(Aluminumcasinghasan
emissivityofabout0.15,andoxidizedsteel,0.9.)TheresultsareshowninTable8.40.
Itcanbeseenthatthewindvelocitydoesnotresultinreductionofheatlossesthoughthecasing
temperatureissignificantlyreduced.Also,theuseofloweremissivitycasingdoesnotaffecttheheat
loss,thoughthecasingtemperatureisincreased,particularlyatlowwindvelocity.
8.59aQ:
Howdoesonecheckheattransferequipmentforpossiblenoiseandvibrationproblems?
A:
AdetailedprocedureisoutlinedinRefs.1and8.Hereonlyabriefreferencetothemethodologywill
bemade.
Wheneverafluidflowsacrossatubebundlesuchasboilertubesinaneconomizer,airheater,or
superheater(seeFig.8.24),vorticesareformedandshedinthewakebeyondthetubes.Thisshedding
onalternatesidesofthetubescausesaharmonicallyvaryingforceonthetubeperpendiculartothe
normalflowofthefluid.Itisaselfexcitedvibration.IfthefrequencyofthevonKarmanvortices,as
theyarecalled,coincideswiththenaturalfrequencyofvibrationofthetubes,resonanceoccursandthe
tubesvibrate,leadingtoleakageanddamage
Table8.40ResultsofInsulationPerformance
Casing
EmissivityWindvel.(fpm)HeatlossCasingtemp(oF)
Aluminum0.15
67
135
Aluminum0.15
1760
71
91
Steel
0.90
70
109
Steel
0.90
1760
70
88
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FIgure8.24Crossflowofgasovertubebundles.(a)Watertubeboilerdesign(b)airheater(c)
superheater.
Atsupports.VortexsheddingismoreprevalentintherangeofReynoldsnumbersfrom300to2x105.
Thisistherangeinwhichmanyboilers,economizers,andsuperheatersoperate.Anothermechanism
associatedwithvortexsheddingisacousticoscillation,whichisnormaltobothfluidflowandtube
length.Thisisobservedonlywithgasesandvapors.Theseoscillationscoupledwithvortexshedding
leadtoresonanceandexcessivenoise.Standingwavesareformedinsidetheduct.
Henceinordertoanalyzetubebundlevibrationandnoise,threefrequen
ciesmustbecomputed:natural
frequencyofvibrationoftubes,vortexsheddingfrequency,andacousticfrequency.Whentheseare
apartbyatleast20%,vibrationandnoisemaybeabsent.Q8.59bQ8.59eshowhowthesevaluesare
computedandevaluated.
8.59bQ:
Howisthenaturalfrequencyofvibrationofatubebundledetermined?
A:
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Thenaturalfrequencyoftransversevibrationsofauniformbeamsupportedateach
endisgivenby
(114a)
Where
C=afactordeterminedbyendconditionsE=Youngsmodulusofelasticity
I=momentofinertia=p(dO"df)/64Me=massperunitlengthoftube,lb/ft(includingashdeposits,
ifany,onthetube)
L=tubelength,ft
Simplifying(114a),wehaveforsteeltubes
(114b)
Wheredoandd,areininches.
Table8.41givesCforvariousendconditions.
ModeOfvibration
Endsupportconditions 1
Bothendsclamped
22.37 61.67
120.9
Oneclamped,onehinged15.42 49.97
104.2
Bothhinged
88.8
9.87 39.48
8.59cQ:
Howistheacousticfrequencycomputed?
A:
FisgivenbyVs/1,whereVs=velocityofsoundatthegastemperatureintheductorshell,ft/s.Itis
givenbytheexpressionVs=(g0vRT)05.Forfluegasesandair,sonicvelocityisobtainedby
substituting32forg0,1.4forv,and1546/MWforR,wherethemolecularweightforfluegasesis
nearly29.Hence,
Vs=49xT05(115)
Wavelengthl=2W/n,whereWistheductwidth,ft,andnisthemodeofvibration.
8.59dQ:
Howisthevortexsheddingfrequencyfdetermined?
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A:
FisobtainedfromtheStrouhalnumberS:
S=fed0/12V(116)
Where
D0=tubeouterdiameter,in.
V=gasvelocity,ft/s
Sisavailableintheformofchartsforvarioustubepitchesittypicallyrangesfrom0.2to0.3(seeFig.
8.25)[1].
Q8.59eshowshowatubebundleisanalyzedfornoiseandvibration.
STROU
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HAL
NUMBER
(S)(IN
LINE)
Figure8.25aStrouhalnumberforinlinebank
oftubes.
FIgure8.25bStrouhalnumberforstaggeredbankoftubes.
8.59eQ:
Atubularairheater11.7ftwide,12.5ftdeep,and13.5fthighisusedinaboiler.Carbonsteeltubesof
2in.ODand0.08in.thicknessareusedininlinefashionwithatransversepitchof3.5in.and
longitudinalpitchof3.0in.Theheateris40tubeswide(3.5in.pitch)and60tubesdeep(2.5in.pitch).
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Airflowacrossthe
Tubesis300,000lb/hatanaveragetemperatureof219F.Thetubesarefixedatbothendsintube
sheets.Checkwhetherbundlevibrationsarelikely.Tubemassperunitlength=1.67lb/ft.
A:
Firstcomputefjfe,andf,.L=13.5ft,do=2in.,d,=1.84in.,Me=1.67lb/ft,and,fromTable8.41,C=
22.37.
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UsingEq.(114b),wehave
Fn=90^XP4184^4)05=18.2Hz
(13.5)2(1.67)
Thisisinmode1.Inmode2,C=61.67henceis50.2Hz.(Thefirsttwomodesareimportant.)
Letuscomputef,.SfromFig.8.25ForST/do=3.5/2=1.75andalongitudinalpitchof3.0/2=1.5is
0.33.
FromEq.(1)ofChapter5,p=40/(219+460)=0.059lb/cuft.
Freegasarea=40x(3.52)x13.5/12=67.5lb/ft2h
(13.5isthetubelength,and40tubeswideisusedwithapitchof3.5in.)Henceairvelocityacross
tubesis
V=_____~_________=21ft/s
67.5x3600x0.0591
Hence
,12SV0.33x21
Fe==12x=41.6Hz
D02
Letuscomputefa.T=(219+460)=679R.HenceVs=49x67905=1277ft/s.WidthW=11.7ft,
and1=2x11.7=23.4ft.Formode1orn=1,
Fa1=1277/23.4=54.5Hz
Forn=2,
Fa2=54.5x2=109Hz
Theresultsformodes1and2aresummarizedinTable8.42.Itcanbeseenthatwithoutbafflesthe
frequenciesfaandfearewithin20%ofeachother.Hencenoiseproblemsarelikelytoarise.Ifabaffle
orplateisusedtodividetheductwidthintotworegions,theacousticfrequencyisdoubledasthe
wavelengthorwidthishalved.Thisisapracticalsolutiontoacousticvibrationproblems.
Modeofvibrationn
What
are
theotherchecksfor
ensuringthattubebundle
vibrationsare
41.641.6
minimized?Thevortex
Fn(cpsorHz)fe(cpsorHz)fa(withoutbaffles)fa(withonebaffle)
54.5109 sheddingfrequencies
18.250.2
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oftencoincidewith
109 218 acousticfrequency,and
oftennostandingwaves
developandthe
transversegascolumn
doesnotvibrate.
Resonanceismorethe
exceptionthantherule.
Chenproposeda
dampingcriterionC
basedontubegeometry
asfollows[1]:
8.59f
Q:
(117)
WhereStandSlarethe
transverseand
longitudinalspacingand
disthetubediameter.ThemethodofcalculatingtheStrouhalnumberSisgiveninQ8.59d.Foranin
linebankoftubeswithoutfins,ChenstatedthatCmustexceed600beforeastandingwavedevelops.
AlargevariationinCexistsinpractice.Accordingtoonestudy,inspiralfinnedeconomizersC
reached15,000beforeasonicvibrationdeveloped.IfCislessthan2000,thenvibrationsduetovortex
sheddingmaynotoccur.Vibrationanalysisisnotanexactscience,andalotofitisbasedon
experienceoperatingunitsofsimilardesign.Insomecasesthecalculationsshowedthatthevortex
sheddingandacousticfrequencieswerematchingbutnodamagingvibrationsoccurred.
ASMESec.3AppendixN1330,1995onflowinducedvibrationsuggeststhatifthereduceddamping
factorCexceeds64where
(118)
C=4pmX/pd2
Thenvortexsheddingisunlikelytocausedamage.Thisisduetothelargemassofthesystem
comparedtothelowenergyinthegasstream.InEq.(118),
M=massperunitlengthoftube,lb/ft
X=dampingfactor(typically0.001forsystemswithnointermediatesupportand0.01forsystems
withintermediatesupports)p=gasdensity,lb/ft3d=tubeOD,in.
Table8.43showstheresultsofcalculationsforawasteheatboilerthathasbothbareandfinnedtubes.
Thehighgastemperatureregionattheentrancesectionhasbaretubes,andthecoolersectionhas
finnedtubes.
Coincidenceofvortexsheddingfrequencywiththenaturalfrequencyinthefourthmodeisnota
concern.Duetothelowamplitudesatlowermodes,tubedamageisunlikely.Also,owingtothehigh
valueofC,whichexceeds64,vortexsheddingisunlikelytocausetubedamage.
FluidElasticInstability
Theneedforintermediatetubesupportsisgovernedbyfluidelasticinstabilityconsiderations.ASME
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Sec.3givesanideaofthestabilityoftubebundles.Ifthenondimensionalflowvelocityasafunction
ofmassdampingfactorisabovethecurveshowninFig.8.26,thenintermediatesupportsarerequired
withoutthemfrettingandwearoftubesduetovibrationispossible.Basicallythiscriteriontellsusthat
ifwehaveatalltubebundlewithoutintermediatesupports,itcanoscillateduetothegasflow
intermediatesupportshelptoincreasethenaturalfrequencyofthetubesandthusreducethe
nondimensionalflowvelocity,makingthebundledesignmorestable.Usingthecriterionshowedthat
intermediatesupportsarerequiredevenforshortboilers(under12fthigh).However,basedonmy
experiencedesigningseveralhundredwatertubewasteheatboilersthatarenowinoperation,the
boilersoperatedwellwithoutintermediatesupports,indicatingonceagainthegeneralityofthesetypes
ofanalysis.Onehastoconsideroperationalexperienceofasimilarunitalongwiththesecalculation
proceduresbeforemodifyinganyboilerdesign.
Table8.43DampingFactorsforEvaporatorTubes
Item
Baretube
section
Finnedsection
Gastemperature,F
1600
510
Gasdensity,lb/ft3
0.0188
0.0394
Gasvelocity,ft/s
53.9
25.8
Fins
No
2x0.75x0.075
in.
Tubemass,lb/ft
3.132
7.33
Tubespan,ft
17.33
17.33
StrouhalnumberS
0.25
0.25
Vortexsheddingfrequency,
Hz
80.85
38.66
Dampingfactor
0.01
0.01
FactorC
753
845
Tubenaturalfreq,Hz
8.8,24,48,79
5.7,16,31,51.6
Amplitude,in.
0.0018
0.00167
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5
0T1TT~1
11111
102030405060708090100
Massdamping
Figure8.26Dampingfactorversusnondimensionalflowvelocity.
Example
Inaboilerwithmassperunitlengthm=3.132lb/ft,dampingfactorX=0.001,gasvelocity=87ft/s,
andgasdensityp=0.0188lb/ft3,d=2in.
Massdampingfactor=2pmX=2px3.132x0.001x144/(0.0188x22)
D2p
=37.7
Nondimensionalvelocity=12U/fd,wheref=naturalfrequencyofvibration,HzU=gasvelocity,ft/s
andd=tubeouterdiameter,in.
Basedonpreviouscalculations,f=20.6Hz.Hence
Flowvelocity=87x12/(20.6x2)=25.5
ItcanbeseenfromFig.8.26thatthisisaborderlinecaseandthatanintermediatesupportwouldhave
furtherincreasedthenaturalfrequencyandmadetheflowvelocityfallwithinthestableregion.In
practice,fortalltubebundles,inter
mediatesupportsat1115ftintervalsareused.
8.60Q:
HowarethegaspropertiesCp,m,andkestimatedforagaseousmixture?DetermineCp,m,andkfora
gasmixturehavingthefollowinganalysisat1650Fand14.7psia.
Gas Vol%Cp
N2 80
MW
0.2860.1080.03028
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O2 12
0.2700.1250.04332
SO28
0.2100.1050.04064
Mixturepropertiesareneededtoevaluateheattransfercoefficients.Forfluegasobtainedfromthe
combustionoffossilfuels,intheabsenceoffluegasanalysis,onecanusethedataonair.
A:
Foragaseousmixtureatatmosphericpressure,thefollowingrelationsapply.Forhighgaspressures,
readersarereferredtoRef.1.
Mm=(nSa)
Km=yk(119b)
WMW,TCDiMWxyt
C=PMWxy?(119c)
Where
MW=molecularweight
Y=volumefractionofanyconstituent
Subscriptmstandsformixture.
SubstitutingintoEqs.(119),wehave
0.286x0.8x28+0.27x0.12x32+0.21x0.08x64pm=0.8x28+0.12x32+0.08x64
=0.272Btu/lbF
0.03x281/^x0.80+0.043x321/3x0.12+0.04x641/3x0.08
Km=
281/3x0.80+321/3x0.12+641/3x0.08=0.032Btu/ftF
Mm
0.108xffix0.8+0.125xV32x0.12+0.105xV64x0.08ffix0.8+ffix0.12+p64x0.105=
0.109lb/fth
Q:
Howdogasanalysisandpressureaffectheattransferperformance?
A:
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Thepresenceofgasessuchashydrogenandwatervaporincreasestheheattransfercoefficient
significantly,whichcanaffecttheheatfluxandtheboilersize.Also,ifthegasisathighpressure,say
100psiormore,themassvelocityinsidethetubes(firetubeboilers)oroutsidetheboilertubes(water
tubeboilers)canbemuchhigherbecauseofthehigherdensity,whichalsocontributestothehigher
heattransfercoefficients.Table8.44comparestwogasstreams,reformedgasesfromahydrogenplant
andfluegasesfromcombustionofnaturalgas.
FactorsCandFusedintheestimationofheattransfercoefficientsinsideandoutsidethetubesarealso
giveninTable8.44.Itcanbeseenthattheeffectofgasanalysisisverysignificant.Evenatlowgas
pressuresofreformedgases(50
100psig),thefactorsCandFwouldbeveryclosetothevaluesshown,
within2
5%.
8.62Q:
Howdoesgaspressureaffecttheheattransfercoefficient?
Table8.44EffectofGasAnalysisonHeatTransfer
ReformedgasFluegas
CO2,vol%
5.0
17.45
H2O,vol%
38.0
18.76
N2,vol%
62.27
O2,vol%
1.52
CO,vol%
9.0
H2,vol%
45.0
CH4,vol%
3.0
Gaspressure,psia400
15
Temp,F
1550675
1540700
Cp,Btu/lbF
0.6860.615 0.3200.286
M,lb/fth
0.0870.056 0.1090.070
K,Btu/fthF
0.1090.069 0.0460.028
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FactorCa
0.571
0.225
FactorFa
0.352
0.142
AC=(Cp/m)04k6F=C33k067/m027.
TheeffectofgaspressureonfactorsCandFforsomecommongasesisshowninFigs.8.27AnD8.28.
Itcanbeseenthatthepressureeffectbecomessmallerathighgastemperatures,whileatlow
temperaturesthereisasignificantdifference.Also,thepressureeffectissmallandcanbeignoredupto
agaspressureof200psia.
8.63Q:
Howdoweconvertgasanalysisinpercentbyweighttopercentbyvolume?
A:
Oneofthefrequentcalculationsperformedbyheattransferengineersistheconversionfromweightto
volumebasisandviceversa.Thefollowingexampleshowshowthisisdone.
Example
Agascontains3%CO2,6%H2O,74%N2,and17%O2byweight.Determinethegasanalysisin
volumepercent.
So/wfton.MolesofagasareobtainedbydividingtheweightbythemolecularweightmolesofCO2
=3/44=0.06818.
Thevolumeofeachgas,then,isthemolefractionx100.Percentvolumeof
O2=(0.5312/3.57563)x100=14.86,andsoon.Onecanworkinreverseandconvertfromvolume(or
mole)basistoweightbasis.
Gas W%MWMoles Vol%
CO2 3
44 0.068181.91
H2O 6
18 0.3333 9.32
N2 74 28 2.6429 73.91
O2 17 32 0.5312 14.86
Total
3.57563100
8.64Q:
179/188
02/01/2016
Whatistheeffectofgaspressureandgasanalysisondesignofafiretubewasteheatboiler?Compare
thefollowingtwocases.Incase1,reformedgasina
FIgure8.27Effectofgaspressureonheattransferflowinsidetubes.(FromRef.1.)
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NitrogenHydrogen
Figure8.28Effectofgaspressureonheattransferflowoutsidetubes.(FromRef.1.)
Hydrogenplantiscooledinawasteheatboiler,whereasincase2,fluegasinanincinerationplantis
cooled.Maximumallowableheatfluxis100,000Btu/ft2h.
Case1.Reformedgas.Flow=100,000lb/hgaspressure=300psiggasanalysis(vol%):
CO2=5,H2O=30,N2=0.1,H2=52,CH4=2.9,CO=10.
Case2.Fluegas.Flow=100,000lb/hgaspressure=atmosphericgasanalysis(vol%):
CO2=7,H2O=12,N2=75,O2=6.
Steamisgeneratedat500psigusing230Ffeedwater.Blowdown=2%.Usefoulingfactorsof0.001
onbothgasandsteamsides.Tubesare1.5in.ODand
1.14in.ID.MaterialisT11forreformedgasboilerandcarbonsteelforfluegasboiler.Saturation
temperatureis470F.
A:
181/188
02/01/2016
CalculationsweredoneusingtheprocedurediscussedinQ8.10.TheresultsarepresentedinTable
8.45.Thefollowingpointsmaybenoted:
Theboilerismuchsmallerwhenthegaspressureishigherbecauseofthehighgasdensity.
Theheattransfercoefficientismuchhigherforthereformedgasowingtothepresenceofhydrogen
andwatervapor.Theheatfluxisalsoveryhighcomparedtothatinthefluegasboiler.
Table8.45EffectofGasAnalysisandPressureon
DesignofFireTubeBoiler
Item
ReformedgasFluegas
Gasflow,lb/h
100,000
100,000
Gasinlettemp,F
1650
1650
Gasexittemp,F
650
650
Gaspressure,psia
315
15
Duty,MMBtu/h
70.00
28.85
Steamgeneration,lb/h
69,310
28,570
Gaspressuredrop,in.WC9
Heatflux,Btu/ft2h
92,200
12,300
Surfacearea,ft2
1566
4266
No.oftubes
350
1300
Length,ft
15
11
Heattransfercoeff,U
87
13.4
Maxgasvelocity,ft/s
68
165
Tubewalltemp,F
653
498
182/188
02/01/2016
Waste
gasa
Temp
(C)
Pressure(psig)
N2
NO
H2O
3001000 1
80
10 10
250500 1
81
11 1 7
250850 310
66 9
19 6
2001100 1
70
18 3
3001100 3050
0.5
37
200500 200450
20
100600 1
75
1751000 1
72
10 6
12
Trace
2501350 1
76
10
1501000 1
73
20 2
11
3001450 1.5
55
23
Vol%component
O2SO2SO3CO2COCH4
H2SH2NH3HCL
8 5.5
43
6020
15
A1,Rawsulfurgases2,SO3gasesafterconverter3,nitrousgases4,reformerfluegases5,reformed
gas6,synthesisgas7,gasturbineexhaust8,MSWincineratorexhaust9,chlorinatedplastics
incineration10,fumeorVOCincineratorexhaust11,sulfurcondensereffluent.
Thetubewalltemperatureisalsohigherwithreformedgas.Hencesteamsidefoulingshouldbelowin
theseboilers.
Itisobviousthatgasanalysisandpressureplayasignificantroleinthedesignofboilers.Table8.46
givestheanalysisandgaspressurefortypicalwastegasstreams.
NOMENCLATURE
183/188
02/01/2016
A
AfAtAiAoAw
B
B
C
CP
C1C6
D
D,dte
E
F
Ff
F
G
H
Hc
Hi,ho
Hlf
HN
Ah
Km
K1,K2
184/188
02/01/2016
Surfacearea,ft2
Fin,total,inside,andobstructionsurfaceareas,ft2/ftAreaoftubewall,ft2/ftFactorused
inGrimsonscorrelationFinthickness,in.
Factorusedtoestimateheattransfercoefficient
Specificheat,Btu/lbFsubscriptsg,w,mstandforgas,water,
Andmixture
FactorsusedinheattransferandpressuredropcalculationsforfinnedtubesExchanger
diameter,in.
Tubeouterandinnerdiameter,in.
Escalationfactorusedinlifecyclecostingcalculationsbaseofnaturallogarithm
EfficiencyofHRSGorfins
Frequency,Hzorcpssubscriptsa,e,nstandforacoustic,vortexshedding,andnatural
Foulingfactor,ft2hF/Btusubscriptsiandostandforinsideandoutside
Factorusedintheestimationofoutsideheattransfercoefficientandintheestimationof
capitalizedcostsGasmassvelocity,lb/ft2hFinheight,in.
Convectiveheattransfercoefficient,Btu/ft2hF
Heattransfercoefficientsinsideandoutsidetubes,Btu/ft2hF
Heatlossfactor,fraction
Nonluminousheattransfercoefficient,Btu/ft2hFChangeinenthalpy,Btu/lbInterestrate
Thermalconductivity,Btu/fthForBtuin./ft2hFsubscriptmstandsformixture
Metalthermalconductivity,Btu/fthFConstants
LLength,ftthicknessofinsulation,in.orbeamlength
LeEquivalentthicknessofinsulation,in.
MFactorusedinEq.(47,51)
McWaterequivalent,Btu/F
MeWeightoftube,lb/ft
MWMolecularweight
NNumberoffinsperinch
NConstantusedinGrimsonscorrelationalsonumberoftubes
NuNusseltnumber
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02/01/2016
NTUNumberoftransferunits
PTermusedintemperaturecrosscorrection
Pw,PcPartialpressureofwatervaporandcarbondioxide
PrPrandtlnumber
QEnergytransferred,Btu/hheatflux,Btu/ft2h
QHeatflux,heatloss,Btu/ft2h
QcCriticalheatflux,Btu/ft2h
RThermalresistance,ft2hF/Btusubscriptsz,o,andtstandfor
Inside,outside,andtotalReReynoldsnumber
RmMetalthermalresistance,ft2hF/Btu
SFinclearance,in.Strouhalnumbersurfacearea,ft2
ST,SLTransverseandlongitudinalpitch,in.
TFluidtemperature,Fsubscriptsa,s,bstandforambient,
Surface,finbasetfFintiptemperature,F
TmMetaltemperature,F
TsatSaturationtemperature,F
TAbsolutetemperature,KorRsubscriptsgandwstandforgas
Andwall
ATLogmeantemperaturedifference,F
UOverallheattransfercoefficient,Btu/ft2hF
VFluidvelocity,ft/sorft/min
VsSonicvelocity,ft/s
WFluidflow,lb/hsubscriptsg,s,wstandforgas,steam,and
Water
WFlowpertube,lb/h
XSteamquality,fraction
YVolumefractionofgas
EEffectivenessfactor
Ec,ew,egEmissivityofCO2,water,gasemissivity
186/188
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AsEmissivitycorrectionterm
ZFineffectiveness
MViscosity,lb/fthsubscriptmstandsformixture
Pgasdensity,lb/cuft
Lwavelength,ft
Vratioofspecificheats
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02/01/2016

0.310 0.383 0.498

0.5180.556 0.5050.5540.5190.5560.522 0.562

0.4510.568 0.4600.5620.4520.5680.488 0.568

0.4040.572 0.4160.5680.4820.5560.449 0.570

0.3100.592 0.3560.5800.44 0.5620.421 0.574

StId =1.25StId =1.5 StId =2

0.4180.570 0.2990.6020.2290.6320.198 0.648

0.2900.601 0.3570.5840.3740.5810.286 0.608

166 110 140

165 109 140

725 800 630

535 510 395

9.3 9.8 10 11 11 12 12 131314

7.8 8.4 8.9 9.5 10 11 11 121213

200 300400 500600 700800900100011001200130014001500

225 225224 224223

9.4 9.7 9.9 10 10 11 11 11 12

X Wx) /1(x) K)(x) K1(x)

0.11.0020.05 2.427 9.854

2.02.28 1.5910.114 0.140

Uo,clean 11.2111.218.38 8.38

Uo,dirty 10.546.89 7.56 4.01

Uo,clean 11.2111.218.38 8.38

Uo,dirty 11.0810.088.31 7.73

1000 1000 1000

19.65 18.65 19.65

19,39018,40019,390 16,11019,390 14,400

6.Heatflux,Btu/ft2h9314 8162 35,360 23,08055,790 30,260

Bare Bare (2x0.75

X0.05x 0.157) X0.05x 0.157)

14.Surfacearea,ft2 5024 5024 6642

Fincond.(Btu/ft Finthickness Duty(MM

19.87 22.62 22.44

1017 1016 976

0.075 0.075 0.075 0.075

2965 5825 5223 7106

1095 1115 1069

4.33 0.0694 0.3270.0052

3.75 0.0601 0.3320.00530.04511.36

3.17 0.0508 0.3380.00540.0709.41

2.71 0.0435 0.3440.00550.10 7.88

2.37 0.0381 0.3490.00560.13 6.78

2.08 0.0334 0.3550.00570.15 5.85

1.85 0.0298 0.3600.00580.18 5.13

1.65 0.0266 0.3640.00590.20 4.52

1.49 0.0241 0.3680.00600.22 4.04

1.36 0.0220 0.3720.00600.24 3.65

1.24 0.0202 0.3750.00610.27 3.30

1.14 0.0186 0.3780.00620.29 3.01

1.04 0.0170 0.3810.00630.31 2.72

0.97 0.0159 0.3840.00630.33 2.53

0.90 0.0148 0.3860.00640.35 2.33

0.84 0.0139 0.3890.00640.37 2.16

0.79 0.0131 0.3900.00650.39 2.03

0.74 0.0123 0.3920.00650.41 1.90

0.69 0.0115 0.3930.00650.43 1.76

0.65 0.0109 0.3950.00660.45 1.66

0.62 0.0104 0.3950.00660.47 1.58

0.59 0.0100 0.3960.00660.48 1.51

0.56 0.0095 0.3960.00660.50 1.43

0.53 0.0091 0.3960.00670.51 1.36

0.50 0.0086 0.3960.00670.53 1.28