DETERMINATION OF THE PERMEABILITY OF GRANULAR SOIL:

TENTATIVE STANDARD METHOD USING A CONSTANT-HEAD PERMEAMETER

OBJECTIVE
To determine the coefficient of permeability.

SCOPE
Permeability refers to the ease with which water can flow through a soil. This property is necessary for
the calculation of seepage through earth dams and the calculation of the rate of settlement of clayey soil
deposits.
This method covers the determination of the coefficient of permeability for the laminar saturated flow of
water through granular soils such as sand and fine gravel containing not more than 10% passing the No.
200 (0.75mm) sieve.
The method is based on measuring the volume of water flowing through a soil specimen in a certain time,
under conditions of constant head, steady state of flow, full saturation of the soil and direct
proportionality between discharge velocity and hydraulic gradient. (Darcys law)
The discharge velocity is measured as the volume of water passing through the specimen per unit time
divided by the cross-sectional area of soil. The coefficient of permeability is determined as the slope of
the curve representing the discharge velocity as a function of the gradient.

APPARATUS

Perspex cylinder with all the connections

Glass tube manometers
Clean water and a sink
De-airing tank with a vacuum pump
Stop watch, balance
Clean gravels and measuring cylinder

METHODOLOGY
Preparation for test
A sieve analysis of the soil to be tested was made. The permeameter connections were checked and the
gaskets were sealed. The cylinder was then placed on the base and tightened down.
The cell was filled with de-aired water and filter gravel was placed at the bottom of the cylinder to a
thickness of about 5cm.
The soil was put in the permeameter and stirred with a rod to settle the soil particles. The soil level was
about 7cm from the top of the cylinder.
The upper filter gravel was placed to a thickness of 5cm and the top plate was put on.

The 4Kg weight was placed on the loading shelf and the height of the specimen measured.
The permeameter inlet was connected to the constant head tank and permeameter was topped up by the
de-aired water, letting the air escape through the bleeder valve.

Test Procedure
The de-airing tank was operated under high volume until it was filled with de-aired water.
The constant head tank was filled with de-aired water and disconnected from the vacuum. The connection
to the constant head tank was opened until water overflowed from the latter tank.
The permeameter inlet and outlet was opened and the level of the outlet was adjusted to give a mean head
loss (

.The mean temperature was then measured and recorded.

The permeameter outlet was then used to start filling the measuring cylinder while starting the stopwatch
simultaneously. When enough water was collected, the water was stopped and the time (t) and the volume
of water (v) recorded.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

MANOMETER READING (cm)
TIME(secs)
120
240
360
480

WATER
DISCHARGED
(cm3)
30
41
61
81

Y = mx + c
Y = -0.0001x + 0.0022

TEMPERATURE(0C)

H1

H2

H3

19
19
19
19

94.3
93.7
93.2
92.6

83.7
79.2
71.9
63.7

65.5
59.0
42.0
22.8

Value of k = 10-4
K20 = Kt

Kt = 10-4
t = 0.01030

20 = 0.01005

K20 = 10-4

= 1.0249 10-4

DISCUSSION
After correction, the coefficient of permeability was found to be 1.0249 10-4. The value of
permeability varies from soil to soil with clay having the lowest permeability and sand has the
highest. Repetition of the experiment severally can give more accurate results of the coefficient
of permeability. A more permeable soil has a higher rate of seepage. This fact is important during
the construction of dams. Dams are normally constructed using soils with the lowest rate of
seepage.
Probable sources of error during the determination of the value of K include poorly calibrated
instruments, parallax error when reading the values of head, delays in starting and stopping the
stopwatch, air trapped in sample or sample not 100% saturated, soil was washed from the
sample, some of the head loss occurred in the apparatus rather than in the sample, sample
disturbed by flowing water at inlet and difficulty of accurately measuring heads relative to tail
water and significant figures.
CONCLUSION
The objective of the experiment was met as the coefficient of permeability was able to be
determined.
REFERENCES
Geotechnical engineering principles and practices, V. N. S. Murthy

FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

OBJECTIVE
To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample, using falling head method.
SCOPE
This is the method of measuring the permeability of a soil sample using a falling head
permeameter, which is an instrument in which water is passed through a soil sample and the
hydraulic gradient and quantity of water flowing into the sample are measured. This instrument
is used for measuring the permeability of clays, silts and fine sands.
Permeability is defined as the rate of flow of water under laminar conditions through a unit
cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow through a porous medium under unit
hydraulic gradient and under standard temperature conditions. The principle behind the test is
Darcys law for laminar flow. The rate of discharge is proportional to (i x A).
q= KiA
Where;
q= Discharge per unit time.
A=Total area of c/s of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow.
i=hydraulic gradient.
k=Darcys coefficient of permeability (The mean velocity of flow that will occur through the
cross-sectional area under unit hydraulic gradient)
APPARATUS

Standard compaction mould

Stand with screw
Stop watch
Burette
Soaking tank
Meter Rule
Washing bottle

METHOD
The sample was trimmed in the mould and weighed and the moisture content determined. The
mould was then mounted into the cage with the gauge on the top and bottom and the top screwed
down. The mould was then placed in a soaking tank which was slowly filled with air free

distilled water. The air-free distilled water was carefully placed in the tank so that it was not
aerated by agitation as the tank was filled.
Since the vacuum in the sample draws air from the sample and pulls air-free water up to the
sample completely saturating it, the operation was carried out slowly to avoid air entrapment.
The saturated sample was then connected up through the tubing filled with air-free distilled water
to the burette which was also filled with air-free distilled water.
At the beginning of the test, water was allowed to fall through the sample and the time required
for it to pass was recorded. The burette was refilled with water and the test was repeated many
times, each time being recorded.
ANALYSIS
The coefficient of permeability is obtained from the formula

Where K = Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)

a = Cross-sectional area of manometer tube (sq.cm)
L = Length of sample under test (cm)
A = Cross-sectional area of sample (sq.cm)
H1 = Initial head of water (cm)
H2 = Head of water in cm indicated at the end of a particular period of time
t2 = Time corresponding to H2 (sec)
t1 = Start time (sec)
2.3026 = conversion factor, log to log10

Slope =

TIME IN SEC
0
5
10
15
20

HEAD (CM)
90.5
86.3
83.0
80.2
77.6

LOG H
1.95
1.94
1.92
1.90
1.89

Slope = 0.0033
a = 0.95cm2
A = 78.50cm2
L = 10.4cm

K = 9.568 10-4 cm/sec

DISCUSSION
The coefficient of permeability was found to be 9.568 10-4 cm/sec. Probable sources of error
during the determination of the value of K include poorly calibrated instruments, parallax error
when reading the values of head, delays in starting and stopping the stopwatch, air trapped in
sample or sample not 100% saturated, soil was washed from the sample, some of the head loss
occurred in the apparatus rather than in the sample, sample disturbed by flowing water at inlet
and difficulty of accurately measuring heads relative to tail water and significant figures.
Repetition of the experiment severally can give more accurate results of the coefficient of
permeability.

Whereas the falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low discharge,
the constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soils with a reasonable discharge in
a given time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity permeability test is recommended.
Permeability tests are used to determine estimation of quantity of underground seepage water
under various hydraulic conditions, quantification of water during pumping for underground
construction, stability analysis of slopes, earth dams and earth retaining structures and to find out
the rate of consolidation and settlement of structures.
CONCLUSION
The experiment was successful as the coefficient of permeability was determined conclusively.
REFERENCES
a) Soil Mechanics; T. William Lambe
b) Lab Manual

ONE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION TEST

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE
Consolidation is the process of time-dependent settlement of saturated clayey soil when
subjected to an increased loading. The amount of water that escapes depends on the size of the
load and compressibility of the soil. The rate at which it escapes depends on the coefficient of
permeability, thickness and compressibility of the soil.
This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally
confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the
measured data, the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted. This
data is useful in determining the compression index, the recompression index and the
preconsolidation pressure (or maximum past pressure) of the soil. In addition, the data obtained
can also be used to determine the coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of secondary
compression of the soil.
This method covers the determination of the magnitude and rate of the consolidation of a
saturated or near-saturated specimen of soil in the form of a disc confined laterally, subjected to
vertical axial pressure, and allowed to drain freely from the top and bottom surfaces.
Significance
The consolidation properties determined from the consolidation test are used to estimate the
magnitude and the rate of both primary and secondary consolidation settlement of a structure or
an earth fill. Estimates of this type are of key importance in the design of engineered structures
and the evaluation of their performance.
APPARATUS

Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water reservoir, and load plate)
Dial gauge (0.002mm/div)
Sample trimming device
Glass plate
Metal straight edge
Stop watch
Moisture can
Filter paper

Fig. 1.0 Cassagrande odometer apparatus.

METHOD
Preparation of test specimen
A short length of the soil sample was extruded from the sample tube by means of the jack and
frame. A consolidation ring of suitable dimensions and metal tray was cleaned and dried. The
ring was then slightly lubricated. The extruded length of the sample was then cut off flash with
the end of the tube.

Type A soils
A representative sample of testing was extruded and cut off, care being taken to ensure that the
two faces of the disc of soil were parallel to each other. The thickness of the disc of the soil was
greater than the height of the consolidation ring.
Using the consolidation ring as a template, the edges of the disc were trimmed off carefully until
the ring slid over the soil. The last fraction of the soil was pared away by cutting the edge of the
ring as it was pushed down slowly and evenly over the sample with no unnatural voids against
the inner face of the ring. The top and bottom surfaces that projected above and below the edges
of the ring were trimmed off until they were level and flush with the top and bottom edges of the
ring.
The thickness of the consolidation specimen was measured and the specimen in its ring was
placed on the metal tray and weighed immediately.
Assembly of apparatus
The bottom porous plate was centered dry in the consolidation cell. The ring complete with the
specimen was placed centrally on top of the porous plate with a filter paper against each face of
the specimen. The filter papers were moist. The top porous plate and the loading cap was placed
centrally on top.
The loading cell was then placed in position on the bed of the loading apparatus and the counterbalanced loading beam was adjusted carefully to a level position with the appropriate load
transmitting member in contact with the loading cap.
The gauge was clamped into position for recording the relative movement between the base of
the consolidation cell and the loading cap. The gauge was arranged in such a way that it allowed
a small amount of swelling for the specimen and the remainder of the range of travel being taken
to allow for compression.
Loading sequence
The loading sequence followed was 50, 100, 200 and 400 (KN/m 2). The initial pressure was
applied to the specimen at a convenient moment (zero seconds) as indicated by the stopwatch
and the compression reading was taken. Further readings of the compression gauge were taken at
suitable intervals of

which helped the plotting of the readings after the application of

pressure. The consolidation cell was filled with water immediately after the application of
pressure.
The specimen began to swell and the pressure was increased to the next higher value. When the
swelling continued the pressure was increased and compression readings were taken at the time
intervals. The compression gauge readings were then plotted versus the square root of elapsed
times.
The pressure was maintained until the plotted readings indicated that primary compression had
taken place and this was after 24hours. At the end of the 24hours readings of time and
compression were made after each load increment.

Unloading
On completion of the compression gauge readings, under the maximum applied pressure the load
was removed from the test specimen and the consolidation cell removed from the apparatus. The
mass of the metal tray was taken and the specimen in its ring was removed from the cell and
taken to the oven to dry. It was dried to a constant mass.
ANALYSIS

Mass of wet soil= 136g

Mass of dry soil= 100g
Moisture content =
The equivalent height of the solid particles, Ho

The voids ratio, e was calculated using the following formula:

Applied
H(mm)
pressure(kN/m2)

H (mm)

0
50
100
200
400

20.0
19.006
18.724
18.426
18.09

0
0.994
0.282
0.298
0.336

Percentage
thickness
(%)
100
95.03
93.62
92.13
90.45

Ho(mm)

Voids
ratio e

9.769
9.769
9.769
9.769
9.769

1.05
0.95
0.92
0.89
0.85

Log of
applied
loading
0
1.699
2.000
2.301
2.602

THE COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATIONS

This was calculated with two approaches,
Square root of time fitting method
Logarithm of time fitting method
a) Square root of time fitting method
GRAPHS OF DIAL GAUGE READINGS AGAINST SQUAREROOT OF TIME

T90 = 29.16
mm2/min

T90 = 14.44

T90 = 8.41

T90 = 21.16

b) The logarithm of time fitting method:

The two straight portions of the laboratory graph when the compression gauge readings are
plotted against the log of time were extended to intersect to give the point of 100% primary
compression.
The corrected zero point was located by marking off the difference in ordinates between any two
points in the initial portion of the curve with the times in the ratio of 1 to 4 , and laying off an
equal distance above the upper point.
With then zero and 100% points known, the 50% primary compression point can be located with
its time, t50 (min).
The consolidation coefficient was computed from the following equation:

GRAPHS OF DIAL GAUGE READINGS AGAINST LOGARITHM OF TIME

The calculation sheet for the coefficients of consolidation and compression ratios is attached
at the back
DISCUSSION
Dry density

g/cm3

Bulk density
=

g/cm3

The consolidation tests give a directive on various consolidation properties that can be used to
determine the rates of primary and secondary settlement in a building and also to determine the

most appropriate foundation designs that can be used for a given building. The possible errors
that would cause inaccurate determinations of consolidation characteristics include specimen not
completely filling the ring, friction between specimen and consolidation ring specimen
disturbance during trimming, inappropriate load increment factor amongst others.
CONCLUSION
The experiment was successful as the rates of consolidation for the different loadings were
determined and also their respective coefficients of consolidation.
REFERENCES
a) Engineering Properties of Soils Based on Laboratory Testing; Prof. Krishna Reddy, UIC
b) D W Taylor, Research on the Consolidation of Clays, Serial 82