Natalia Tiffany Charles

2014837682
MUE733: Learning perception in Music Education
1.0

INTRODUCTION
Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral

change or potential behavioral change. As we learn we alter the way we perceive our
environment, the way interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefor the way we interact, or
behave. So basically learning theory is about how we obtain, retain and recall the knowledge
that we have form our environment or within ourselves.
2.0

BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism focuses on the observable human behavior. John B. Watson (1878-1958)

defines learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect
relationship. Behaviorism is observable and basically results from both from the environment
and within ourselves. Learning occurs when new behavior or changes in behaviors are
acquired as the result of an individuals response to stimuli. There are three principles that
influence the change of behavior the first principles is the influence of the external
environment that help shaping of the individuals behavior. Secondly, the environment
presents an antecedent that stimuli behavior. Thirdly whether the behavior occurs again is
dependent on the consequence that follows it.
2.1

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Ivan Pavlov developed Classical conditioning when he doing research about the

digestive patterns in dogs. In his experiment, he put the meat powder in mouth of dog that
had tubes inserted in certain organs to measure the respond of the dogs body. What he found
from that experiment was it support the ideas that we develop responses to certain stimuli that
are not naturally occurring. He discovered that we make associations, which cause us to
generalize our responses to one stimulus onto neutral stimuli it is paired with. There are three

common phenomena in classical conditioning such as generalization, discrimination and

extinction.
In orchestra classroom, the students are presented the stimulus at the very beginning.
They start to develop specific responses after presented the stimulus, within a few months the
students start to perfect their response. When the students are getting ready to perform, they
are in a resting position. When the conductor come in, they give a signal when the song will
commence and when the conductors lift their baton (stimulus) the students lift their
instrument (response).
There are three common phenomena that occur in classical conditioning which are
generalization, discrimination and extinction. It is the process of unlearning a learned
response because of the removal of the original source of learning. This process occurs when
the conditioning stimulus repeatedly presented without the unconditional stimulus.

2.2

OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning is developed by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) it can be define as

learning due to the natural consequences of our actions for instance, if we study really hard,
we will get a good marks. Operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an
organism performs purposely in order to produce outcome that we want. According to
Skinner the voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the
immediate presence of a reward or punishment.in operant conditioning, the learning principle
is that new learning will occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are
abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement. Besides that the basic element of operant
conditioning is antecedents, behavior and consequences.
2.3

REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the probability that behavior will occur
and punishment is a consequence that decreases the probability a behavior will occur.
Reinforcement term means to strengthen refers to any stimulus which strengthens or increase
the probability of specific responses (Skinner 1938). Punishment is an unpleasant stimulus
that added to the environment after certain behavior occurs and it is to decreases the same
behavior occurring again. There are four types of reinforcement, which are positive, negative,
punishment and extinction. The positive reinforcement adds stimuli to the environment in
order to increase the response such as giving praise or rewards, it will adding something to
the to make sure the person change the behavior to be better than before. For example when
the vocal student able to memorize three songs within a week, the teacher will bring the
student to watch concert. Negative reinforcement taking something negative away from the
environment to increase the responses for example when the student did not practice before
class, the teacher will scold the student. Positive punishment adding something aversive
following a response in order to decrease a behavior. For example, when the student fail in
music theory subject, the teacher adds more homework to the student.
2.4

SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT
Schedule of reinforcement embodied fixed-ratio schedule, variable-ratio schedule,

fixed-interval schedule and variable-interval schedule. In fixed ration schedule, the

reinforcement will be given after a certain number of responses are made. For variable-ration
schedule, the reinforcement happens after a varying number of responses rather than a fixed
number. Fixed-interval schedule, is a schedule whereby reinforcements is given at recognized
time interval. Variable-interval schedule is a schedule where the time between reinforcement
varies around some average rather than being fixed, usually causing a behavior to be
maintained consistently.
3.0

LEARNING STYLES

Learning styles can be examined at four levels, which are personality, information
processing, social interaction and instructional method.
3.1

PERSONALITY
The Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) system embodied four pairs of qualities to

characterize people according to sixteen types. Each of these types has a primary orientation
toward the world, one which affects their ability to learn and work. The four pairs is
extroverts or introverts, sensor or intuition, thinkers and feelers, judgers and perceivers.
Teachers can use this model to create educational setting.
3.2

INFORMATION PROCESSING
Kolbs learning styles model classifies students as having a preference for concrete

experience or abstract conceptualization. There are four types of learners in classification

scheme such as: type 1, a characteristic question is why? (Concrete, reflective) type 2
characteristic question is what?(Abstract, reflective) type 3 characteristic question is
how? (Abstract, active) and type 4 characteristic question is what if? (Concrete active).
3.3

SOCIAL INTERACTION
There are four stages in William Perry model in development that individuals go

through during their college years. In first stage, which is dualism stage, the student tends to
divide the world into right or wrong, true or false, and good or bad dichotomies. The students
view the teacher as right and that the students role is to give the teacher back what they have
received. In second stage or multiplicity stage, students have come to realize that other than a
few dualistic areas, most knowledge is matter of opinion and therefore, any opinion is
knowledgeable. The student role is to offer their ideas. In stage 3 contextual relativism stages,
the student recognizes that there are disciplinary guidelines for choosing among various
opinions. They accept that it is the students role to apply the skills and knowledge base of the
academic field. In forth stage, commitment within the contextual relativism stage, student

connect their disciplinary skills to new setting and see the need to apply knowledge and skills
to setting outside the classroom.
3.4

INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
There are two models in instructional method, which are Dunn and Dunn: A school-

based approach and Felder-Silverman Learning style model. Dunn and Dunn model is based
on the observed distinct differences in the way students respond to instructional materials for
example some like to learn alone, by group with teachers. Dunn and Dunn identified five key
variables, or dimensions, that affect a students learning style. The five key is environmental
stimulus, emotional stimulus, sociological stimulus, physiological stimulus and psychological
stimulus.
3.5

TEACHING STYLES

Galton, Simon and Croll (1980) define teaching style as a set of teaching tactics. It refers to
the method and approaches that used by educators in presenting materials to the student.
Moallem (2001) suggested four basic types of teaching styles, which are, formal authority an
approach which is instructor-centered. Secondly, demonstrator or personal model, the
instructor models are demonstrates what is expected as in the context of skills and processes.
Thirdly is facilitator, the instructor focuses on activities and facilitates. Fourthly is delegator,
a student-centered approach where the instructor delegates and places control and
responsibility for learning be it for individual or groups of students.
3.6

STRATERGIES

For strategies, the educators have to be aware of the students needs, capacity, potential and
learning styles preferences to arrange stratergies.
4.0

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Cognitive learning developed as a reaction to behaviorism, which views the learners

and their behaviors as a product of the incoming environment stimuli. There are two

fundamental provided by George Miller in this perspective, firstly short-term memory (can
hold 5-9 chunk of meaningful information) and secondly the human mind function like
computer (taking information, process it stores and locates it and generates responses to it).
Cognitive learning also study about the process of thoughts that underline learning or
information and learning is a knowledge that stored in memory. The central theme in
cognitive theories is the mental processing of information such as acquisition, organization,
coding, rehearsal, storage, retrieval and forgetting.
4.1

KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge is the product or outcome of the learning it may also bring a new

knowledge. The knowledge that we have will determines how great the extent that we will
pay attention to, perceive, learn, remember, and forget. In cognitive perspective, knowledge is
define to emphasizes the understanding of concepts and theories in different subject matters
domains and general cognitive abilities, such as reasoning, planning, solving problems and
comprehending language. There are two types of knowledge, which are domain specific
knowledge (relates to a particular task or subject) and general knowledge (applies to different
situation such as how to read). The other way to categorize knowledge is by declarative
knowledge (knowing that), procedural knowledge (knowing how), and conditional
knowledge (knowing when and why). The information of processing model of knowledge
involves encoding such as gathering information, storage such as holding the information,
and retrieval such as getting at the information when it needed.
4.1.1 INFORMATION PROCESSING OF MODEL KNOWLEDGE
In this process human will store the information and then use it when needed. Atkinson
and Shriffin (1968) proposed that information is processed and store in three stages which are
Sensory memory (STSS), Short-term memory (STM) and Long-Term memory (LTM).
4.2

SENSORY MEMORY

Sensory memory relates about the information that we get from our environment
through our senses. There is a lot of information that we get from our environment such as
sounds, light smell and etcetera. Human body has a special sensory receptor cells that
transduce this external energy to something our brain can understand and this process will
create a memory. Sensory memory contains a brief but accurate representation of physical
stimuli to which a person is exposed.
4.3

SHORT TERM MEMORY

The capacity of processing information in STM is 5 to 9 chunk information that can be

processed in one time. Organization and rehearsal are two major concepts in retaining
information in STM. In STM forgetting, interference and decay on information is involved. It
also called as working memory and the duration of information is short such as memories
remain is a short-term storage 15 to 29/30 seconds unless the information is repeated and
stored at long-term memory. There are two types of rehearsal that will help the information
stored in long-term memory. Firstly keep repeating the information in our mind. Secondly,
elaborative rehearsal involves connecting the information that we are trying to remember with
what we already know with information from long-term memory.
4.4

LONG TERM MEMORY

LTM can be called as preconscious memory or unconscious memory. Access of LTM is

requiring time and effort. There are three categories that included in LTM which are semantic
memory, episodic memory and procedural memory. There are several learning process that
will improve our long-term memory such as elaboration, organization and context.
4.5

FORGET
Forgetting information occur when the information is not making it to LTM and the

information decays after a long time. Perception refers to the process detecting a stimulus and
assigning meaning to it which means perception is constructed based on both objective reality

and our existing knowledge. Concept formation is a set of rules that defines the categories by
which we group similar events, ideas or object. A schema is the pattern or guide or
understanding events.
4.6

PERCEPTION
Gestalt principles of perception refer to the process of detecting a stimulus and transfer

meaning to it. Bottom up processing and top down processing are two kinds of explanation in
processing theory for how we recognize patterns and give meaning to sensory.
4.7

CONCEPT FORMATION

This is a set of rules that define the category by which group similar events, ideas or object.
The principles that lend themselves to concept development are: name and define concept to
be learned, identify relevant and irrelevant attributes, give example and non examples, use
both the inductive and deductive and name distinctive attributes.
4.8

SCHEMES
A schema is a pattern or guide to understand an event, concept or skills. It tells what

features are close to the category and what to expect

4.9

CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism emphasize on the active role of the learners in build their own

understanding and making sense of information. Jean Piaget devised a model describing how
humans making sense of their world by gathering and organizing information. In Piagets
observation human cognitive development progressively change from child to adult stages.
There are four factors that influence human change thinking, which are biological maturation,
activities, social transmission and equilibration. In these influence we responds through two
tendencies such as organization (continually process of arranging information) and
adaptation, which include assimilation (trying to learn something new by fitting into what
they already know) and accommodation (creating a new one as response to new formation).

4.10 FOUR STAGE OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

There are four stages of cognitive development by Piaget, which are sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational and formal, operational. In sensorimotor stage we just
learn about how to differentiates self from object. For preoperational, we learn how to use
language and represent objects by images and words for instants differentiate color and shape.
In concrete operational stage we can think logically about objects and events and after that in
formal operational we can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypothesis
systematically. However there is a limitation in Piagets theory such as underestimating
childrens cognitive abilities.
4.11 LEV VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Psychologist Lev Vygotsky has another perspective about cognitive development.
Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social
development. According to him, our culture influences our cognitive development. In his
writing there is two themes that explain how social process form leaning and thinking such as
the social sources of thinking. He suggested that childrens cognitive development is fostered
by interactions with other people who are more capable or advanced in their thinking such as
parents and teachers. Another theme is the role of tools in learning and development. The two
implication of Vigotskys theory for teachers are, assisted learning for instance teacher can
assist learning with adapting materials or problems to students current level, demonstrating
skills or thoughts processes. Another implication is the zone of proximal development in this
phase; the children can master a task if the teacher gives the appropriate help and support
4.12 IMPLICATION OF VYGOTSKYS THEORY FOR TEACHERS
5.0

MOTIVATION

Motivation is a purpose or a goal-directed behavior of the organism to a set of action tied to a

stimulus-response association (Leornard, 2002). In learning paradigm of constructivism,

motivation is closely related to the active learning of the learner, who is by nature
intrinsically self motivated to learn. The student is driven to complete successfully the
learning activity typically because of a desire to please the teacher and to receive a good
grade (Leornard, 2002). Motivation is described as a state that energizes, directs and sustains
behavior. Motivation involves goals and requires activity. Goals provide the impetus for and
the direction of action. While action entails effort, persistence in order to sustain activity for a
long period of time.
In motivation, level of achievement is affected by choice, effort and persistence. The
higher these indexes, the higher the motivation and the more likely task achievement will
occur.
There are several theories of Motivation. The first theory is intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation engages in an activity for its own sake and they feel enjoy
with the task that they do and it is not depend on rewards or other external reason. Extrinsic
motivation is to engage in an activity as means to an end and it depends on reward, praise,
recognition and punishment. Flow theory proposed by Csikszentmihalyi describe the
experiences of intrinsically motivated people, those who were engaged in an activity chosen
for its own sake (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975,1997). Teachers encourage flow and intrinsic
motivation by creating an environment that fosters enjoyable learning experiences. Selfefficacy theory by Albert Bandura belief in a persons ability to succeed. The individuals
self-efficacy plays a role in how a person approaches tasks. High self-efficacy is
characterized by being confident that one will accomplish a particular goal. Whereas low selfefficacy characterized by being uncertain that the goal can be accomplished. They tend to
avoids challenging tasks. Self-regulation theory is a kind of meta-cognitive strategy and
related to the choice of appropriate learning strategies. Expectancy-value theory developed

by Atkinson (1960). This theory attempts to explain peoples choice of achievement tasks.
They believe on how well they will do and extent of value towards the activity.

6.0

CONCLUSION
Learning perception in music education is so important in order to understand the

teaching and learning environment. To provide excellent teaching materials it is important to

know the student behaviors, personality and learning styles.

7.0 REFERENCE
Galton M.J, Simon. B, Croll. P. (1980). Inside the Primary Classroom. Education
Elemantary.
Geremek. A, Greenlee. M, Magnussen. S (2014). Perception Beyond Gestalt: Progress in
Vision Research.
Zimmerman, B.J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 25, 82-91.