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Design and Construction of LowRise Buildings for High Winds and

Hurricanes
Rima Taher, PhD, PE, M. ASCE
New Jersey Institute of Technology

Contents

Introduction
Hurricanes and Tornadoes
Wind Pressure Distribution on a Building
General Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures
Types of Building Failures
Post-Disaster Investigations
Wind Engineering Research
Wind Design Procedure
Lateral Load Resisting Systems
Structural and Construction Guidelines for the Design of Low-Rise
Buildings
References
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Introduction
Damages

from various windstorm events represent losses


of several billions of dollars in the United States every year.

Damages

from Hurricane Katrina were estimated at $81


billion. 1836 people were reported dead in the US in 2005
during this hurricane and the subsequent related floods.

Hurricane

Sandy was the most destructive tropical storm of


the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season and the second costliest
hurricane in US history. Preliminary estimates assessed
damages from this hurricane at about $75 billion. At least
285 people were killed along its path in 7 countries.

Hurricanes and Tornadoes

Hurricanes are tropical cyclones


with wind speeds of 74 mi/h
(119 km/h) or more.

A hurricane is generally a mass


of rotating winds of very high
velocity. It is characterized by
the rising of warm air near the
center and the sinking of cooler
air outside. Its overall life varies
from a few hours to two weeks.

The Saffir/Simpson scale is


used to classify hurricanes .
Scale numbers range from 1 to
5. Intensity 5 applies to
maximum sustained winds of
155 mi/h (249 km/h) or more,
and a potential of storm-surge
of 18 ft (5.5 m) or more.

Hurricane Sandy
Early Morning, October 30, 2012
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)
Environmental Visualization Laboratory
Department of Commerce

www.nnvl.noaa.gov

A tornado is a violent rotating column of air.

Compared to a hurricane, a tornado generally


affects a smaller area with wind speeds that
could exceed hurricane winds.

The Fujita Scale (F-Scale) was originally used


to classify tornadoes. It was developed by
Theodore Fujita of the University of Chicago
in 1971 and it classifies tornadoes into 6
damage categories from F0 (least destructive)
to F5 (most destructive).

The Enhanced Fujita Scale replaced the Fujita


Scale in 2007 in all tornado damage surveys
in the US. It provides additional damage

indicators and a better correlation


between appearance of damage and
wind speed.

Image of a Tornado
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)
National Climatic Data Center
Department of Commerce
www.ncdc.noaa.gov
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Wind Pressure Distribution on a


Building

The wind pressure distribution


on the surfaces of a building is
generally complex.
To simplify the pattern of wind
pressure distribution, we can
say that wind forces acting on a
building take the form of:
Inward or positive pressure on a
windward wall
Negative pressure or suction on
a leeward wall
Uplift or negative pressure on
the roof
Drag forces on side walls

Wind Pressure Distribution

Positive

pressures generally decrease near the edges


of the windward walls.
Negative pressures normally increase near the edges
of a leeward wall and decrease near the walls center.
Corners are normally subject to large outward
pressures.
A flat roof generally experiences an outward pressure.
Wind pressures on a pitched roof depend on various
factors such as the pitch of the roof, and the building
dimensions.
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General Wind Effects on Buildings


and Structures
Wind

effects on buildings and structures depend on different


factors such as:

Wind conditions: magnitude and direction of winds

Gust effects

Size and shape of the structure and the stiffness of surfaces

Strength of connections

Site conditions and the environment

Ground form, landscaping and adjacent structures that may


create a sheltering or funneling effect
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Wind speed and the resulting


pressure generally increase
with height. Wind speed is
lower near the ground due to
friction.

The actual behavior of a


structure can be studied by
subjecting a reduced scale
model of the structure to
situations similar to real winds
in a wind tunnel. Wind tunnel
test results have been very
helpful and have provided a
basis for the design procedures
currently used.

Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel at


Texas Tech University
Wind Science & Engineering Research Center

A structure

exposed to a hurricane is generally


subjected to a combination of high wind loads,
flooding, and surge, in addition to battering effects
caused by water and airborne debris.

The

lateral wind pressure on a structure has on


overturning or sliding effect on it.

The

failure of some building components such as a


connection or an unreinforced masonry wall, can
lead to a progressive failure of the main structural
elements.

The

flowing flood water can have a very damaging


effect on the foundation.
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Types of Building Failures

There are three general types of


building failures: uplift failure,
overturning failure and sliding or
shearing failure.

Uplift failure is due to vertical


forces that become greater than
the weight of the building and
the strength of the soil or
attachment to the foundation
system. It often occurs at wide
overhangs or roof porches
which are often subject to
greater uplift wind pressures. An
improper fastening between the
roof sheathing and the building
frame is often the cause of roof
failure in wood-framed homes.

Uplift Failure

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An overturning failure takes


place when the moments of the
active forces of wind or wave
exceed the stabilizing resisting
moment due to the passive
forces of the buildings weight
and anchorage to the
foundation. In this case, the
building rotates off its
foundation, about a pivot point
along one side of the building,
or the foundation rotates out of
the ground. The risk of this type
of failure is high in lightweight
structures such as
manufactured homes and
garages.

Overturning Failure

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A sliding or shearing failure occurs


when the resultant of the
horizontal forces becomes larger
than the strength of the foundation
or the friction forces between the
soil and the base of the
foundation. The foundation could
slide, and members transferring
loads to the foundation could also
fail in shear resistance. In
buildings supported on piles,
sliding failure could occur if wood
piles snap. It could also result from
erosion and scour causing the
removal of the soil around
foundations and piles which is
necessary to resist sliding.

Shear or Sliding Failure

A building becomes unstable and collapses when structural


members fail, or are no longer aligned and able to transfer loads
adequately from one element to the other.

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Post-Disaster Investigations

Many post-disaster
investigations of major
windstorm events were
conducted over the past two to
three decades.

In the United States, most of


these investigations were led by
FEMA (Federal Emergency
Management Agency).

These investigations are


important because they
constitute lessons to learn from.
They show the various patterns
of failures, and explain the
reasons behind them. They also
point to the areas of strength
and weaknesses in design and
construction.

New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina


National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)
National Hurricane Center
Department of Commerce
www.nhc.noaa.gov
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Some of the most important findings


of post-disaster investigations of
homes and structures are:

Loss of roofing resulting in water


damage to the interior of a building

Tile roofs suffer greatly and loose tile


becomes heavy airborne missiles
causing further damage to adjacent
structures

Failure of gable end walls is common

Failure of connections is common


including anchor bolt pullout and weld
failures

Failure of siding

Hip roofs generally perform better


than gable roofs

Roof Damage from Hurricane Andrew


National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)
National Hurricane Center
Department of Commerce
www.nhc.noaa.gov

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Wind Engineering Research

The Wind Engineering Research Council (WERC) was established in


1966 and was headquartered at Northwestern University. Its mission
was to facilitate communication between wind researchers and
coordinate research activities.

The present American Association for Wind Engineering (AAWE) was


created in 1995, after a name change from the WERC.

The US National Wind Engineering Conferences are organized every 4


years by the AAWE, in cooperation with the ASCE technical committees.

The International Wind Engineering Forum (IWEF) was created to


improve communications on an international level. It was originally
founded by the US and Japan.

Some important progress has been made in wind engineering research


in the past few decades.

In the area of wind effects on buildings, the basic research methodology


consists of modeling using atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels.
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Eiffel

was the first engineer to use an assumed wind load on


a major structure (Eiffel Tower) in 1889.

Aerodynamics

began to appear with the advent of airplanes.

In

aeronautics, wind flow is studied at a higher altitudes


(above the boundary layer) where wind is relatively uniform
with very little turbulence.

In

the design of buildings and structures, wind flow must be


studied at a lower altitude where wind flow exhibits some
turbulence. Therefore aeronautical wind tunnels are not
suitable for buildings.

Boundary

layer wind tunnels are generally used to study


wind effects on building models.
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The first major boundary layer wind


tunnel was built at Colorado State
University in 1961.
Boundary layer wind tunnels are available
and used for research purposes at
different universities and research
centers. They are also available for
commercial purposes.
Cermac Peterka Peterson was the first
commercial firm in the US to offer wind
modeling services to architects and
engineers.
Studying wind effects on structures using
wind tunnel testing mainly started in the
Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel at
early 1960s. The Boundary Layer Wind
Texas Tech University
Tunnel Laboratory at the University of
Western Ontario in Canada, directed by Wind Science & Engineering Research Center
Dr. A. G. Davenport, pioneered the study
in this area and helped develop research
methodologies in this field.
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Early research in this area often dealt with low-rise buildings and
gable roofs (Stathopoulos 1979).

After studying gable roofs (2 slopes), researchers started to focus


their attention on hip roofs (4 slopes). Gable roofs are more
common in construction than hip roofs and cost less. Hip roofs
generally perform better than gable roofs under wind loads
(Hessig 1986), (Meecham 1989) and (Davenport et al. 1991).

The influence of roof slopes were also studied by different


researchers such as at the Cyclone Structural Testing Station,
James Cook University (Reardon and Xu 1997).

A great deal of wind research is being carried out at Texas Tech


University, including wind tunnel tests and full-scale tests.
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Other important wind related studies are taking place at the


Natural Hazards Modeling Laboratory at the University of Notre
Dame, the Wind Simulation and Testing Laboratory at Iowa
State University, the NASA Ames Research Center, and by the
Environmental Aerodynamics Group at the Department of
Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering at the University of
California, Davis, California.

In Japan, the Wind Engineering Research Center at Tokyo


Polytechnic University (TPU) is one of the leaders in wind
engineering research. In France, researchers at the
Department of Aerodynamics and Climatic Engineering at
CSTB, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Btiment at
Nantes, are some of the leaders in wind engineering research
and have carried out some important studies in wind
engineering and wind effects on buildings and structures.
Researchers at this center developed a new concept for a
cyclonic home (Gandemer and Hlary-Moreau 1999).
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Wind Design Procedure

Wind pressures used to design regular buildings and structures are


calculated based on the International Building Code (IBC 2012) and
the methods outlined in the ASCE 7- 2010 Standard Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.

A simplified method of analysis of the wind loading is given which


provides some equations for calculating the wind pressure on a
building surface function of various factors such as wind speed,
building height, exposure category, building dimensions, roof slope,
occupancy category, site conditions

A US Basic Wind Speed Map is also given in the ASCE 7- Standard.


The minimum basic wind speed on this map is 85 mph (38 m/s).

Generally, for structures of more than 400 ft in height, and buildings


subject to dynamic effects, such as those with a height-to-width ratio
of more than 5 or those sensitive to wind excited oscillations, more
complex calculations are required and wind tunnel testing is often
involved.
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Lateral Load Resisting Systems

There three general types of structural lateral load resisting systems:


1.
Moment Resisting Frames
2.
Braced Frames
3.
Shear Walls

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1- Moment-Resisting Frames
These frames absorb
energy and resist lateral
forces by flexure and
bending action.
2- Braced Frames
Bracing is used to absorb
the energy by developing
axial tension and
compression in the bracing
elements.

Concept of the Moment-Resisting Frame

Braced Frame Concentric Chevron Bracing


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3- Shear Walls
A shear wall resist lateral
loads by developing shear
within its plane. Shear
walls must be properly
placed in a balanced
fashion and should be
continuous to the
foundation. They are often
located around a
buildings perimeter or its
central core.

Shear Wall

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Structural and Construction Guidelines


for the Design of Low-Rise Buildings
Roof Forms
The following represents some of the most important wind
research findings and conclusions based on wind tunnel
tests of models of homes of various shapes and roof forms.
For more information, refer to the research publications on
the list of references and to the study by CSTB (HlaryMoreau 1999) and (Taher 2007).
- Wind research generally shows that multiple-panel roofs
have reduced wind loads compared to a gable roof. It is
therefore better to design homes with hip roofs instead of
gable roofs. For best results, a roof slope of about 30is
recommended.
- Roof overhangs are generally subject to large uplift forces
which could in some cases trigger a roof failure. CSTB
researchers suggest limiting the length of overhangs to
about 20 inches (50 cm).
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- Roof eaves and edges are generally subject to


greater wind pressures. Some simple edge treatment
systems can help reduce these localized pressures.
CSTB researchers suggested the two types of edge
treatment systems shown in the figures below.

A) Horizontal Grid

B) Vertical Notched Frieze

Edge Treatment Systems Recommended by CSTB, France

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A- A horizontal grid 20 to 24 in. wide (50 to 60 cm) similar to sun-visor louvers


placed along the perimeter of the home and attached to the vertical structure
(not to the roof).
B- A notched frieze installed at the level of the gutters along the perimeter of
the structure which would act as a vortex generator.
Wind tunnel testing showed that the use of these systems can reduce
localized wind pressures by a factor of 1.5 to 2. Systems are not to be used
simultaneously as their effects are not cumulative.

A) Horizontal Grid

B) Vertical Notched Frieze

Edge Treatment Systems Recommended by CSTB, France


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- The maximum
negative wind
pressure on a roof
generally occurs near
the ridge. Providing an
opening or some
openings near the
ridge can significantly
help reduce the wind
loads there.

Roof Openings near the Roof


Ridge (CSTB)

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Porch roofs are generally vulnerable. The systems illustrated in the


figures below were tested and shown to help reduce wind pressures
on porch roofs:

A- The porch roof is divided into 3 equal panels that are rotated to
make an angle of 40 with the horizontal.
B- The porch roof consists of small vertical panels 6 to 8 inches (15 to
20 cm). The system operates in two positions: closed for normal
conditions and open for hurricane conditions.

A- Rotated Roof Panels

B- Small Vertical Panels

Porch Roof Systems Designed to Reduce Wind Pressures (CSTB)


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Structural

System and Construction Methods

1- Foundation
Elevating a structure on an open foundation
reduces the risk of damage from flooding.
Soil conditions are important for foundation
design. Sand is a common soil type in most
coastal hurricane prone regions. In severe
storms, the scour depth in sandy soils can be
several feet. It is therefore necessary to
increase the penetration depths of piles into the
ground.
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Piles

must be braced to
better resist lateral forces.
Knee or diagonal bracing
could be used.

Horizontal

bracing or
grade beams could also
be used to increase pile
resistance. They consist of
horizontal members
placed around the
perimeter of the home,
and connecting piles at
ground level.

Knee Bracing

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Diagonal Bracing

Truss Bracing

Truss

bracing is also an option, and is generally


recommended when the house is elevated more
than 3 m (10 ft), or for high wind speeds.
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2- Wood Framing and Connections


In wood framed buildings, it is recommended to
use pressure treated lumber in coastal areas
prone to hurricanes and flooding for better
protection from decay, salt air and water.
For structures at risk from storm water forces,
span the primary beams in the direction of the
flow.
Plywood is recommended for roof sheathing and
subflooring. For a higher pullout resistance, the
use of deformed shank nails is recommended
(FEMA 2000).
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Plywood

is also
recommended for the
sheathing of exterior
walls and it should
span the total height
from joists to top
plates, covering the
bottom plate for better
resistance against
lateral loads.
Coastal Construction Manual (FEMA)
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Connections

are
generally vulnerable
and a great deal of
attention must be paid
to the design of
various connections.

Connection

failures
can lead to a
progressive collapse.

Example of a Top Plate to Wall Stud


Connection
Costal Construction Manual (FEMA)
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Hurricane Clips between Beams and Joists


Costal Construction Manual (FEMA)

Roof Metal Straps


Costal Construction Manual (FEMA)

Use hurricane clips and ties or metal straps to connect the roof
framing to the wall structure.

The use of hurricane clips between beams and joists is also


recommended.
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3- Exterior Walls
Siding

and panel systems must be well attached.


Vinyl siding tends to have more blow off problems
than other types of siding.

4- Decks, Covered Porches and Stairs

Must be structurally independent and carefully


attached to the main home. Lower the deck surface to
prevent entry of wind-driven water. For stairs, use
open-riser stairs, anchor stringers to piles, or use
retractable stairs.
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5- Masonry Structures
Masonry structures are generally resilient to
damage from strong winds. Special attention
must be paid to certain issues and especially to
roof construction and its attachment to the main
frame. A well-constructed masonry structure with
firm foundations could normally survive floods
better than lightweight wood buildings and earth
structures.
Masonry must be reinforced to provide a stronger
frame, and exterior walls must be connected to
provide continuity.
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The

quality of mortar is important. A strong mortar mix will


better resist the forces. It is equally important to use strong
masonry units. The use of strong mortar with weak masonry
units could make the masonry wall more prone to cracking
which could be dangerous in some cases.

Connections

between walls should be strong. This could be


achieved by using bond beams containing horizontal
reinforcement at the top of the walls, at floor levels or other
levels, to tie the walls together and increase their lateral
resistance.

Corners

could be made stronger by adding reinforcing bars


in the horizontal mortar joints. The most common cause of
failure in masonry buildings is the separation of walls at
corners, due to inadequate connections between walls. This
separation often leads to the independent movement of
these walls causing their failure.

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The

strength of a masonry
building could be greatly
improved by tying the wall
tops together by a
continuous ring or bond
beam. This ring must, in
turn, be well connected to
the walls, and to the
adjacent roof or floor.

In

tall walls, another bond


beam is recommended at
the lintel level. Tall walls
should also have a limited
wall height-to-width ratio in
order to avoid slenderness
problems.

Two-Story Masonry Wall with Wood


Floor and Roof Framing
Coastal Construction Manual - FEMA
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6- Doors, Windows and Skylights


Should be strong enough to resist wind pressures.
Problems: corrosion, water leakage.
Use aluminum or painted galvanized steel doors, within
3,000 ft (914 m) from ocean (FEMA 2000).
Use hurricane shutters ( different designs are available
from APA).

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7- Roof Coverings
Tile

roofs are brittle and vulnerable.


The resistance of metal panels and shingles varies.
There is limited data on slate in hurricane areas.
Wood shingles and shakes are good, if well attached.
Asphalt shingles with self-seal tabs are good with
proper fastening and adequate underlayment (FEMA
2000).

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8- Breakaway Walls
Are designed to fail under specific wind and water loads to
allow flood waters to flow and prevent the build up of
hydrostatic pressures which can lead to collapses.
Metal or synthetic screening can be used as well as wood
or plastic lattice.
Breakaway walls can also be designed as solid walls.

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References

Davenport, A. G., Meecham, D., and Surry, D. (1991). The


magnitude and distribution of wind induced pressures on hip and
gable roofs. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics , 38, 257-272.

FEMA, Federal Emergency Management Agency, (2000).


Coastal Construction Manual, 3rd Edition, Washington, D.C.

Gandemer, J., and Hlary-Moreau, S. (1999). Wind loads and


architectural design Application to tropical cyclonic dwelling.
Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Wind
Engineering, Wind Engineering into the 21st Century,
Copenhagen, Denmark, Larsen, Larose, and Liversey, eds.,
Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1401-1408.

Hessig, M. L. (!986). A wind tunnel study of roof loads on


common residential structures. Masters thesis, Clemson
University.
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Meecham,

D. (1988). Wind action on hip and gable roofs.


Masters thesis University of Western Ontario, Ontario,
Canada.

Reardon,

G. F., and Xu, Y. L. (1997). Effects of roof slope


on wind pressures of a hip roof. Proceedings of the 4th
Asia-Pacific Symposium on Wind Engineering, Gold Coast,
Australia, 147-150.

Stathopoulos,

T. (1979). Turbulent wind action on low-rise


buildings. Ph. D. thesis, University of Western Ontario,
Ontario, Canada.

Taher,

R. (2007). Design of low-rise buildings for extreme


wind events. Journal of Architectural Engineering of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, March, 54-62.
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