Mat

SEELEY
G.
1UDD LIBRARY
LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY
Appleton, Wisconsin
__
CURVES
AND THEIR PROPERTIES
A HANDBOOK ON
CURVES
AND THEIR PROPERTIES
ROBERT
C.
YATES
United States Military Academy
J.
W.
EDWARDS ANN ARBOR
97226
1947
NOTATION
octangular C
olar Coordin
=r. t^r
,-
^ lem
ini
a Tangent and the Rad
Copyright 1947 by R
m Origin to Tangent.
i
i
r,p)
1Lithoprinted by E
/I.
f(s ;(f ) = C
= C
well Intrinsic Egua
rlll
CONTENTS
PREFACE
nephroid
and teacher
lume proposes to supply to student
plane curves. Rather
,n properties of
Pedal Curves
Pedal Equations
U
r
'f Lr!-ormation vhi C h might be found
31
and in engine
useful in the classroom
s
3 aid in the
alphabetical arrangement is
^ Yc
Radial Curves
Roulettes
Semi-Cubic Parabola
Sketching
Spirals
Strophoid
Evolutes, Curve Sketching, and

:s
Trigonometric Functions
Trochoids
readily understandable.
If
....
Witch of Agnesi
bfi
Stropho:
Space Is provided occasionally for the reader to ir

sert notes, proofs, and references of his own and thus
It is with pleasure that the author acknowledges
valuable assistance in the composition of this work.
T. Guard criticized the manuscript and offered
helpful suggestions; Mr. Charles Roth and Mr. William
The Cycloidal curves, including the Astroid,

HISTORY:
by Roemer (1674) In his search for the
;, r e discovered
Double generation was first
be st form for gear teeth.
noticed by Daniel Bernoulli in 1725-
1.
DESCRIPTION:
The
d is
o f f ur
roll
Lmes as la ge-
hypo y loid
Le
Mr. H.
radius four
-oiling upon the ins
fixed circle
(See Epicycloids)
ASTROID
EQUATIONS:
cos
+ y
(f)(3
- a
[:::::::
(f)(3
sin
(Fig.
:ion:
.
METRICAL PROPERTIES:
i
l)
Through
the circle of radius
L = 6a
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Edwards J.- Calculus Macmillan (1892) 337Higher Flare Curves Dublin (1879) 278.
Salmon 'g
Spezielle ebene Kurven , Leipzig (1908).
Wleleitner, H.
nans, Green
_.
_
in
,
dl
(1895) 339-
Section on Epicycloids
herein.
CARDIOID
as an Epicycloid in
described
uc
uc uc=.-i
may be
curve
re uj
the cui
,
Thus t-v,c
,.
1
circle of radius a, or by one of radius
ays: by a
,.., as shown upon a fixed circle of radius a.
I
c
HISTORY: The Cardioid Is a member of the lamiiy
ir
cloidal Curves, first studied by Roemer (1674)
vestigation for the best form of gear teeth.
2.
EQUATIONS:
(x
2 +
2 +
2ax)
r = 2a(l + cos
Epicycloid of
1. DESCRIPTION: The Cardioid is an
cusp: the locus of a point P of a circle rolling
3a)
the outside of another of equal size. (Fig.
9( r
2
)
fx = a(2 cos
y=
r
9R
3.
= 4a 2 (x
B),
= 8p 2
-
+ y
0)
=*(--
scial limacon
(^ )(.a 2
cardioid.
has DT as diameter. Now, PD is parallel

3
arc T'P = arc T'X. Accordingly,

arc TT'X = 2aB = arc TP
64a'
ler
through T, P, D. Since angle DPT = |,
(Origin at
2X
Double Generation: (Pig. Jh) Let

erated by the point P on the rolling ci
Draw ET-, OT'F, and PT' to T. Draw PP t
(Origin at cusp).
s=8a-cos(^).
cos 2t)
a (2slnt-sln2t)>
=4apS
+ sin
r = 2a(l
ci
(Origin at center of fixed circ
parallel.
"
CARDIOID
CARDIOID
he oardioid be pivo ted at the cus P and

rotated' with constant angular ve locity, a pin,
fixed straight lin
harmonic motio n. Thu
OD = b; AO = BD = CP = a; BP = DC =
all times, an;;le
ingle COX.
Any point
a(l + cos 0),
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KeoTO and Paires: Mechanism
= -k (r
McGraw Hill (1931)-
a),
L
fe(r-
a)
il)
=- k 2 (r-
a),
crossed parallelograms, joined
v.
Press,
(1941) 182.
Sketch and -Model
CASSINIAN CURV
CASSINIAN CURVES
If.
GENERAL ITEMS:
a plane paral--'en formed by

of the torus
le l to the axis
its center, of a Rectanrular

(d)
2. EQUATIONS:
[(x -
[Fi
3.
a)
+ y
= C-a,o)
]'[U +
a)
F 2 = (a,o)]
(See Section on Lemniscate)
[yprrbola.
The points P and P' of the linkage shown in
CASSINIAN CURVES
CASSINIAN CURVES
;
(r,6),^
the coordinates of Q and P be (p,0) and
Since 0, D, and Q 1
;ely.
.re always at right
are focal radii (measured from F
This
angles.
(O'q)
!>iY
= (DQ)
(DO)
4a
sin
8.
point
The attached Peaucellier cell inyerts the
P under the property
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dublin (1879) 44,126.
Salmon G. Higher Plane Curves
willson F. N.: Graphics Graphics Press (1909) 74.
Calculus Longmans, Green (1895) 233,533Williamson, B.
Tools , A Mathematical Sketch and Model
Yates, R. C.
Book, L. S. U. Press (1941) 186.
,
..!
.:
;
"
;
;..,:
"
<
Let
Pig
off
perpen-
k ?
rv
9, be Fi,
it pr
^N.
FiC
liar to FiF 2
the circle
if
any radius
Dr IV cx
perpendie uiar CY.
FiX
ana
CATENARY
i.
A = a-s = 2(area triangle PCB)
Sx =
it(ys
+ ax)
CATENARY
HISTORY: Galileo w
the first to inv stigate
in I69I obtained
true form and ga
tt
noulli
re
some of its
4.
properties.
GENERAL ITEMS:
1. DESCRIPTION: Th
perfectly flexible inextensible chain of unifor n densi
al lin
hanging from two s rpports not in the
(b)
Tangents drawn to the curves y =
(c)
The path of B, an involute
(e) It is a plane section of the surface of least area

(a soap film catenoid) spanning two circular disks,
Pig. 11a. (This is the only minimal surface of revolu-
2.
EQUATIONS: If
T cos
<f
= ka
sh(^) = (f)(e
2
)
CATENARY
section of a sail bounded by two
perpendicular to the plane of t
proportional to the
sail 'is normal to the element and
Routh)
square of the velocity, Fig. lib. (See
HISTORY: Causti
Cayley.
ouetelet, Lagrange, and
1.
14th Ed. under "Curves,

Statics
Routh, E. J.: An
p.
310.
Vallis! Edinburgh Trans
the
A ^caustic curve 1 s
envelope of Light ra ys,
emitted from a radia nt
BIBLIOGRAPHY
2nd Ed. (I896)
fl
458,
S,
XIV, 625
afte r re-
refracti on by
Dublin (1879) 287.

."
The
a given curv e f =
caustics by reflect on
and refract! on are
ailed
catacaustic and dia aus-
3.
The instantaneous
motion of S is T. Thus
normals , TQ, _to the ort
is the evolute of the ortho
;er of
ape of
curv
3
locus of P Is the pedal of the reflecting
_sln
respect to S. Thus the orthotomic is a curve
to the pedal with double its linear dimensions.
'
;
;..
,.:,'
With usual x,y ax.

con whose pole is the radiant point.
[radius a, radiant point (c,o)]
E(W
E
a*Kx +
lowing forms:
With the source S at ,

the incident and reflected
with
rays make angles
the normal at T. Thus the
fixed circle 0(a) of
radius a/2 has its arc AB
equal to the arc AP of the
circle through A, P, T of
radius a/4. The point P of
this latter circle generates the Nephroid and the
reflected ray TPQ is its
tangent (AP is perpendicu-
With the source S on the

circle, the incident and
reflected rays makes angle
6/2 with the normal at T.
Thus the fixed circle and
the equal rolling circle
have arcs AB and AP equal.
The point P generates a
Cardioid and TPQ is its ta
gent (AP is perpendicular
to TP).
lar to tp).
(e)
Fig- 15
(f)
These are the bright curves seen on the surface of coff ee in a cup or upon the table inside of a napkin ring.
Caustics by. Refraction ( Dlacausties ) at a Line L

reflectic
ST Is Incident, QT refracted, and S is the
circle drawl
S in L. Produce TQ_to meet the variable
through S, Q, and S in P Let the angles of inciden.
7- 2512
and refraction be 6i and
82
and
PS
H =
PS = SS
tus of
The
en an hyper bo La wi th
.
is
tl
S,
ss/n
PQT a
,"1
(UlUl e,
(Pig
17)
ty
1
the
~mLl "The
-ays PQT
-bola is
THE CIRCLE
DESCRIPTION: A circle is a plane continuous curve all
points are equidistant from a fixed coplanar
of whose
1
point i
d) If the
-efleoted rays are all noi
- 2 = A COS
having
29 + B
2.
EQUATIONS:
(x
h)
+ y
+ (y
BIBLIOGRAPHY
k)
= a
L = 2na
4.
+ Ax + By + C =
2 =
4na
GENERAL ITEMS:
produc
r-cle,
constant; i.e., PA PB
circle divides car:.! line
(since the arc subtended by / BCD plus that
subtended by L BAP Is the entire circumference, triangles PAD and PBC are similar). To evaluate this
constant, p, draw the line through P and the center
2
2
- a
of the circle. Then (P0 - a)(P0 + a) = p = (P0)
:
leal Monthly: 28(1921) 182,187Trans

Dayley A.- "Memoir on Caustics", Philosophical
actions (1856)
Heath, R. S.: Geometrical Optics (1895) 105Salmon G. Higher Plane Curves Dublin (1879) 98.
'
= PD-PC
The quantity p is called the power of the point P with

respect to the circle. If p <, = , > 0, P lies re-
The locus of all points P which have equal power I

respect to two fixed circles is a line called the
Fig. 'l8(b).
point called the radical center , a point having

equal power with respect to each of the circles and
equidistant from them.
Thus to construct the radical axis of two circles,

first draw a third arbitrary circle to intersect the
two. Common chords meet on the required axis.
center
(b) Si militude Any two coplanar circles have
0'' similitude:
the intersections I and E (collinear
with the centers) of lines joining extremities of
parallel diameters.
.
lie
The six centers of similitude of three circles
threes on four straight lines.
nine-point circle of a triangle is its orthocenter.
THE CIRCLE
srseotlng circles and to another memIt Is not to be
La called a train
.
arcs AXB BYC, AZC

(A,B,C c lline ar)
'
Fe
Studied y Archimedes, s me of its

properti s are
1.
jSb + BYC = AZC.
Its a ea eq uals
the area of th
2.
3.
Clrcl
ins
EE^3
(-ert,usin g Aas
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Two concentric circles admit a Stelne
Daus , P H
College G
Johnson, R. A.
Modern
.
angle subtended at the center by each circle of the

train is commensurable with 360, i.e., equal to
113.
CISSOID
HISTORY: Diodes (between 250-100 BC) utilized the
nary Cissoid (a word from the Greek meaning "ivy")
finding two mean proportionals between given length
progression. This is the cube-root problem since

x
=-). Generalizations follow. As early as
1689,
device for the construction of the Cissoid of Diocl
1.
DESCRIPTION: Given
ves y = fl (x), y =
f B (x)
and the fixed point 0. Le

Q and R be the intersect!
of a variable line throug
1
the given curves.
2.
OP = (OR) -
(OQ)
EQUATIONS:
= QR
(1 +
2
)
+ (a + b
(If b = 0:
r = 2a-sin
Cissoid of Diodes)
Let the two given
perpendicular
ordinary Clsso:
secant through
1
rough 0, and the line L

b) distance from 0. The
the locus of P on the variable
such that OP = r = QR.
The generation may be effected by the inte)

of the secant OR and the circle of radius a t!
L at R as this circle rolls upon L. (Fig. 24)
of
Diodes: V(rev. about asymp.)
= 2u a
x(area betw. curve and asymp.
of these
Ilssolds may be generated
Dy the Peaucellier cell
>) A family
The point Q describes a Strophoid (See Strophoid 5e).
r =
(^) S ee 0- 2c-cos
8,
(d)
Tangent Construction
(See Fig. 26) A has the
at B moves in the direction BQ. Normals to AC and BQ

at A and B respectively meet in H the center of rotation. HP is thus normal to the path of P.
b)
The Inverse of the family in (a) is,
center of inversion at
y
in
+ x 2 (l
Ellipse, a Parabola
respectively.
0)
-
4c
2
)
= 2cx,
an Hyperbola if
(See Conies, 17
One of the curves is

(g) The Cissold as a roulette
the locus of the vertex of a parabola which rolls upor
an equal fixed one. The common tangent reflects the
:
Q (Newton). The
fixed point A
moves along CA
while the other
edge of the
square passes
fixed point on
the line BC per-
CONCHOID
(
The Stropn.
j
ire thr
irele.
HISTORY: Nloomedes (about 225 BC) utilized the Cc

shell-like"
in finding
(from the Greek meaning
proportionals between two given, lengths (the cube
,!
ter with re spec

of Dioc
cei
plan
The
k)
Lord).
of 2
of parallel lire
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Conchoid of Nloomedes is the Conchoid of a Line
Hilton, H.
203.
Plane Algebraic Curves, Oxford (1932) 175,
Salmon, G.
I
Hi gher Plane
/'r
Curves
C'
in-
Dublin (1879) 182ff.

Pari:
Aral tique
'+
(1895) II, 115.

L
-J.
;-:-.
Co nell
'i.i
"
I
.'..
(
i4u)
..._.
77-
_.:
CONCHOID
32
2.
r = f(6)
The Conchoid of
= > k,
perpendicular to BC
Let P move along AB
while the edge of the
ruler passes through
0.
The point Q traces
a Conchoid and when
this point falls on BC
the angle is trisected.
solate
êl.y.
the ruler 2k units

apart. Construct BC
parallel to OX such
that OB = k. Draw BA
the figure above
p_c
of an Angle XOY by the
f(8) and
+ k.
Mcomedes (for
ouble
3-
CONCHOID
EQUATIONS:
General: Let the given curve be
origin. The Conchoid is
(c)
(See Pig. 28). The perpenthe perpendicular to OA at

ir of rotation of any point
The Conchoid of Nic
._
dlcular to AX at A meet
in the point H, the cen
of OA. Accordingly, HPi
Mortiz, R. E.: Univ. of Washington Publications, (1923)

[for Conchoids of r = cos(p/q)e].
Hilton, H.: Plane Algebraic Curves Oxford (1932).
,
EXAMPLES: The cone with ve

ing the curve
5.
fx
+ y
z .
+ y
fx
DESCRIPTION:
>rigin containing
The cone with ve
yVUr =0
2.
EQUATIONS: Given two surfaces f(x,y,z)

2
-
Let
P i:
Ux,yi,zi) be on
lay
The cone with vertex at
"
a+
r(-p
P:(x,y,z) a point on the
(:
2]f]_ +
b - k( yi
(x-l) + (y-g) g + g(x-l)(
[g(x-l) + Mr-g)]
-5)+My-g)(
-3)-3-(
2(
z-3) _
1=0
-;)
for all values of

Jale, Neelley: Analytic G-eometry , Ginn (1938) 284.
2. SECTIONS OF A CONE: ConE

of angle p cut by a plane
APFD which makes an angle
HISTORY: The Conies seem to have bee

Menaechmus (a Greek, c .375-325 BC), t
smpt t
Great. They were apparently conceive
nous problems of t
duplicating the cube and squaring the circle Instead
of cutting a single fixed cone with a variable plane,
Menaechmus took a fixed intersecting plane and cones of
varying vertex angle, obtaining from those having angles
<= > 90 the Ellipse, Parabola, and Hyperbola respectively. Apollonius is credited with the definition of
the plane locus given first below. The ingenious Pascal
announced his remarkable theorem on inscribed hexagons
in 1639 before the age of 16.
,
right circular cone
ting plane at F. The element

through P touches the sphere
at B. Then
Let ACBD be the
Then if PC is pe
to this plane,
1. DESCRIPTION: A Conic is the li

dist
moves so that the ratio of 1'
(the focus) divided by
b
line (tl
the plane of fi
(PF)e
constant as
NOTE:
aries (a,
constant). The
a conic according to the
ocus and corresponding dii
ersection of the two plan
(J
It is evident now that the thre
may be had in
(A)
By fixi
(B)
By fixir
g the cone and
varying the
"
tanfandTarbitrary)?
With either ch ice, the intersecting cur\

an Ellipse if a <
a Parabola If a =
an Hyperbola if >
ft
f)
(b
types of conic
38
3.
CONICS
rmly remarkable that these spheres, inscribed
5
and Its cutting plane, should touch this
le foci of the conic - and that the directrices
bersections of cutting plane and plane of the
PARTICULAR TYPE DEMONSTRATIONS:
+ 2Bxy
Ax*"
;
family of lir
I-
s
2
2Bm + Cm )x + 2(D + Em)x + P =
0.
CONICS
he family which cut the curv
family cuts the curve just once.
That is,
fort
Ax
The Hyper
Hi
JUSt
+ 2Bxy + Cy
2Dx + 2Ey + F =
point P:(h,k).
(whose equation
e form of a tangent
conic):
ne
The Ellipse Is the conic for which no line of the family

cuts the curve just once. That is, for which:
_jn
^^nJ^
+ B(hy + kx) + Cky

x + h) + E(y + k)
= o
5. OPTICAL PROPERTY: A simple demonstration of this outstanding feature of the Corics is given here in the case
of the Ellipse. Similar treatments may be presented for
the Hyperbola and Parabola.
The locus of points P for

which FiP + F 2 P = 2a, a constant, is an Ellipse. Let
(1)
to the curve, meet).
+ B(h yi + kxi) + Ckxi + D(xi + h) + E(yi+k) + F

+ B(hy 2 + kx 2
tly,
+ Ckx E + D(x 2 + k) + E(y 2 +k) + F
the polar given by (l) contains these poin
drawn at P. Now P is the

only point of the tangent
line for which FiP + F 2 P is
a minimum. For, consider any
FiQ + F 2 Q
>
Fig. 36
Their equations are satisfied by (h,k) thus:
FiR + F 2 R = 2a =
97826
CONICS
>
ce (not
glvenlhTcon ican iVmrt
necessarily rectangular) and let the conic (Pig. 38b)
ariab
through^/nl
le
in Qi,Q. The locu of Pi

which, with P
ides
s the
Q,iQ 2 harmonic ally
polar of P 2
.
2 QE
are in ha rmoni
Ax
conic
progres-
have intercepts ai,a 2 ; b ,b 2 given as the roots of
Ax 2 + 2Dx + P =
_1_
bi
(
Pi-Pi.)
(P Q 2
and
Cy
.(.|)(i
E=(-|)(^+^)-
+ 2Ey + P =
Prom these
11
/(p 2 Pi)
+ 2Dx + 2Ey + F =
+ 2Bxy + Cy
b2
2D
2E
P
Now the polar of P(0,o) is
x(J-
+i)
Dx + Ey + F =
y(i +^-)
2 = 0.
i).
The family of lines through their interse
This affords a simple and classical cons
point P:
Draw arbitrary secants from P and, by the intersectior

This
of their cross- joins, establish the polar of P.
CONICS
CONICS
46
10. P0INTWISE CONSTRI

GIVE:) POINTS:
Let the five poin
OTION OP A CONIC DETERM NED BY FIVE
be num bered 1,2,3,1',
'
12.
INSCRIBED QUADRILATERALS: The pai
Draw an
arbitrary line through 1

which would me t the conic
in the require
[\/___
',--'
point 3
Y,Z and the Pa cal line.
\</i\
'*^~)/l
~~^
//XT
colline
This if
This meets 2 '3 in X and
finally 2,X me ts the
arbitrary line through

in 5'
V,
laterals inscribed
wo points
Establish the
Furthe
theorem of Pascal.
points are
located in the same way.

Fig.
11.
1+1
CONSTRUCTION OF
TO A CONIC GIVE
ONLY BY
13.
FIVE POINTS:
In labelling the
onslder
and 3
as having
merp ed so that the line 1,3' is

2
sj
the tangent. Points X, Z are

ctete rmined
and the Pascal line
dra. n to meet
1' ,3
in Y.
INSCRIBED TRIANGLES
duces a theorem on
inscribed triangles.
For such triangles,
The
vertices meet their

opposite sides in
three collinear
nlned as in (lo),
Fur
Pascal hexagon pro-
,'
CONICS
14. AEROPLANE DESIGN:
The
16. CONSTRUCTION AND GENERATION: (See also Sket

The following are a few selected from many. Ex
(a)
15.
of them.
To
DUALITY: The Principle of Duality
of the foregoing.
eal's Theorem (1639)
lizes Into the theorer
(1806):
If a hexag on circumsei
lllnear (This is apparent

polarizing the Pascal
.
;on.)
String Methods
CON1CS
(a) Newton's Method: Based upo n the ide
jective pencils, the
of t TO pro
Newton. Two angles o f

constant magnitudes
at A and B
line.
po'rr
The point of
sides describes a
conic through A and
17.
Lrcle or line.
The
LINKAGE DESCRIPTIO N:
cted
1 lie
mechanisms (see TOOLS)

c
For the
>bar linkage
!L
shown, forming a vari-
AB = CD = 2a
AC = BD = 2b
(AD)(BC) =4(a
^Z^^yy^
).
A point P of CD is
selected and OP = r
drawn parallel to AD
and BC OP will remain
parallel to these line
"@
Tig- 52
Let OM =
c,
MT =
z,
wh re M is the midpoin
int
of
CONICS
= 2(BT)cos
= 2(a
z)cc
An Hyperbola
with
r = 2(c + z)cos
if
<
b.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE:
18.
For any curve In rectangular
|i
y8
3/a
and
= y (l
Drdins
If now an inversor OEPFP

Fig. 53 so that
r-p = 2k,
'
be a
where
2
The conic y = 2Ax + Bx , where A is the semi-latus
sctum, is an Ellipse If B < 0, a Parabola if B = 0,
> 0.
Here
i Hyperbola if B
yy'
= A + Bx,
19.
yy" + y'
2
3
y y" = By
ius
= B,
and y 3 y" + y 2 y'
(A + Bx)
= -A
= By
PROJECTION OF NORMAL LENGTH UPON A FOCAL RADIUS:
Pi(l
cos 0) = A,
(A = serai-latus rectum).
2
.
focal radius at K. Draw

the perpendicular at K
to this focal radius
meeting the normal in C
BIBLIOGRAPHY
?
the Parabola, the angles at P and Q a

FiQ = pi. Thus
to a and
PH =
pi
pi-cos
= A = N-cos
a.
Appleton Century (1937)

imetry , D. 0. Heath (1900)
Hall (1936) 207.

Le
(1895)Lmon, G.:
^ o=
Co
(1900).
Geometr jr, McGraw
Hill (1939) 66.

20.
CENTER OP CURVATURE:
D.
=
from (19),
112.
C.
H eath (1923
and Model
Tools, A
"(1941) 174,
"rom (18),
155-
Analy tique, Pari
CUBIC PARABOLA
It is continuous for all values of x, with no
(f)
CUBIC PARABOLA
3a (x
DESCRIPTION: The curve is defined by
3
g
y = Ax + Bx + Cx + D = A(x
a)(x
128,2
2 .2
125
wl
y)l-
Graphical and Mechanical Solutions

Replace x
1.
+ hx + k =
by the
f^l2.
_9_
Only one Cubic Parabola

sd be
drawn for all
GENERAL ITEMS:
(a)
2
The Cubic Parabola has max-mln. points only

3AC > 0.
railroad engi
(a- + ,)*
(l)
1.
3
Is
The Evolute of a y = x
(g)
HISTORY: Studied particularly by Newton and Leibnitz

(1675) who sought a curve whose sv.bnorr.al is inversely
proportional to its ordinate. Monge used the Parabola
of the rational transformation
sj
g+5
CUBIC PARABOLA
CUBIC PARABOLA
This may be replacec
(y=x 3 , y+m(x+l)=oj. Since

the solution of each
cubic here requires only
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.
straightedge may be at-
Tools
The Tri
A Mathematical
Ske
(1941).
tached to the point (-1,0)
modatlng the quantity m.
Given the angle AOB = JO.

;hus
itself.
or the equivalent system:

3
y = 4x , y
3x
a = 0.
Thus, for trisection of

36, draw the line through
(0,a) parallel to the
fixed line L of slope 3This meets the curve
R. C.
L942).
,
oblem
The Pranklir
CURVATURE
DEFINITION: Curvature is
change of the angle of incl
Precisely,
respect to the arc length.
1.
=f
R =
ntl-
tfnu^ff^ (or
2.
'
(or -, 0); at a flex

-), at a cusp, R = 0.
y"
OSCULATING CIRCLE:
a curve is the circle
having
2y
with the curve. That is, the

relations:
(x -
a)
(x -
a)
+ (y
+ (y
p)
vf.,i
4*
(1 + y'
_x
E
)
+ (y
= r
fj)y'
-
fi)y"
The Quintic y
=
=
If the curve be given in polar coordinates, through t

pole and tangent to the polar axis, there is in like
x,y,y',y" belonging to the

curve. These conditions
give:
Fig. 60
r = R,
a=
R-si if,
- 7 + R-cos
<p,
mgle. This is also called the
3.
ge
CURVATURE A r THE ORIGIN (Newton): We consider only

tional algeb
Lgin. Let A be the center of a circle
The Cardioid
r = 1
a s ain at P
pr
x yj. As P app
sculating ci rcle.
Now BP = x is a mean
cos
ori
26
'
c3
26
4.
CURVATURE
CURVATURE
62
CURVATURE IN VARIOUS COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
CURVATURE FOR VARIOUS CURVES:
6.
EQUATION
CHEWS
Hyperbola
^.inse-a*
Catenary
iS
"""""^r*.
Cycloid
=V Say
2S
"
if = y
+y' 2 )
Tractrix
(See Conies, 18)
x=
a(t
e .
o-ln sec
. .
a(eP
1131,
SpIraT
tp
1,
Legate
5.
CUBVATURE AT A SINGULAR POINT: At a singular point of
F - fxy
That is, if F
<
Spir
Astroia
2
"
-o^loids
The slopes y' may be determined (except when y'
exist) from the indeterminate
form
does not
by the approprlat
+l
..^.^
^^
f
if F = 0,
7.
f xxfyy
there is an Isolated point
+ y
Lemniscate)
an
(n+
l)r n "i
(n + l)p
1 3
J(axy) /
. a
p , a sin
bep
GENERAL ITEMS:
(a)
c-tan<j
-""
3r
Ellipse
61.
"olold?
slnt)
OsculatlnR circles
a(1.1. )slnl,
9 , (l-b )-p
CURVATURE
Consider at the origin the
2. (See Evolutes.)
< =>
the length of the
HISTORY: Apparently first conceived by Mersenne and

Galileo Galilei in 1599 and studied by Roberval, Descartes, Pascal, Wallis, the Bernoullis and others. It
enters naturally into a variety of situations and is
justly celebrated. (See hb and 4f.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DESCRIPTION: The Cycloid is the path of a point of

circle rolling upon a fixed line (a roulette). The
Prolate at.d Curtate Cycloids' are formed if P is not c
1.
struction, divide the interval OH (= a) and the

icircle NH into an equal number of parts: 1, 2, 3
Lay off lPi = HI, 2P 2 = HE, etc., as shown.
.
2.
EQUATIONS:
(measured from
= a(l
2
cos t) = 2a-sin (^
CYCLOID
b)
Since
s=4a-
OS ),
ff
c) A Tau ochrone
le problem
.he detern inat ion of the type Oi
(b) L( one aroh ) = 8a
(since R
= 0, R M = 4a)
(Sir Chris
ib j
topher Wren, 1658)

tial point
bra ted by Hi
id later di
ng was fi
in 1687
rotation of P. Thus the tangent at

N) (Descartes).
passes through
ernoulli
Euler, an
Lagrange.
zertical plane to a
(d)
R = 4a-cos
= 4a-sin(|) = 2
(PH)
= 2 ( Normal
mated this result, In 1599 by carefully weighing

pieces of paper cut into the shapes of a cycloidal
4.
GENERAL
(a)
Its evolute is an equal
Cycloid.
(Huygens 1673-
Le
Tt
mass, falling on
heights, will rea
of radius
^s.
The period of
period which is independent of

two balls (particles) of the same
jycloidal arc from different
1
the amplitude.
CYCLOID
68
evolute (or an involute) of a cycloid
a bob B
may be sup-
ported at
J
y/
to de-
W_
1
T&fl \%5r\SS?
x/7
^<L U>^
I
"rairiri
uniform density. At any depth y, v =

2gy" Let
1 layers of the medium be of infinitesimal
iepth and assume that the velocity of the particle
changes at the surface of each layer. If it is to
>ass from P
to Pi to p 2 ... in shortest time, then
iccording to the law of refraction:
.
:i:r;:demo
resistance) would
be constant for all
Thus the curve of descent, (the limit of the polygon

as h approaches zero and the number of layers incroa
accordingly), is such that (Fig. 67):
Fig. 65
ount equal time intervals. Clocks designed upon this

short lived.
P rinclple we re
(
A Brach sLochrone. First

1696, the proble
mination of the p ath along which a partile moves f om one point in a plane to another, sub-
"
YY
'
ject to a specified
force, in the short-
tified as that of a Cy cloid
k/f
f
!
lowing discussion
is essentially the
Jacques Bernoulli.
Solutions were also
66
presented by Leibnit
'Hospital.
For a b dy falling under r-avitj along any curve

b:
a.
cylindrical helix onto a
plane perpendicular to its

axis is a Cycloid, prolate,
(Mon-
tucla, 1799; Guillery, 1847.)
Fls
"
'
The Catacaustic of a cycloidal arch for a set of

parallel ra
perperdicula
to its base is composed of
two Cycloidal arches, (jean Bernoulli 1692.)
(f
Iff
Kg.
1
The parallel projection
(e)
of
curtate, or ordinary.
an equation that may be iden-
d)
y - g. y = gt, y =
~r
r * = v -
any Inst t , the velocity of fall is
(g) The isoptic curve of a Cycloid is a Curtate or

Prolate Cycloid (de La Hire 1704).
(h)
Its radial curve is a Circle.
(i) It is frequently found desirable to. design the

face and flank of teeth in rack gears as Cycloids.
(Pig. 68).
DELTOID
HISTORY: Conceived by Euler in 1745 in
DESCRIPTION: The Deltoid is a J-cusped Hypocycloid.

The rolling circle may be either one- third (a = ya) or
tvo- thirds (2a = Jb) as large as the fixed circle.
1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibl. Math.
,;..
Mi ,.ci a:
.:
(2) vl, p.E

am, McGrai Hill (19^1) 139
iblin (1879) 275.le,
Bibl
Math
(3)
Leipsic (1912) 77-
v2,p
For the double generation, consider the right-hand

figure. Here OE = OT = a, AD = AT = -^ , where
is
center of the fixed circle and A that of the rollir

circle which carries the tracing point P. Draw TP t
T'E, PD and T'O meeting in F. Draw the circumcircle
F, P, and T with center at A'. This circle is tanj
1
diameter FT' extended pass
Thus the radius of this smallest circle is ~
Furthermore, arc TP + arc T'P = arc IT'. Accordingly,

C
ble7Si-folium,
2.
EQUATIONS:
?
cos
(where a = yo)
t+COB
2t)
x +y
(^
p = b-sin
J.
re P.).
on: Since T Is the

ter of rotation of P, TP is normal to
tangent thus passe s through N, the ex
diameter through 1
2 2
+8bx
+ 9s
24bxy +
= 64b
z
Jtf.
intercepted by the
= b( 2 e
= 9b
lt
+ e"
8p
2
.
tangent BC is b
2lt
).
catacau stic for
of parallel
'orthopt ic curve
L = 16b.
A=2ttb 2
<p
=,
-|
R =
-J
double that of the inscribed circle.
4b = length of tangent
4.
it
2 = -8p.
(BC)
nt fi xed at the
3 giv en lines (a
intercepted by the curve.

;e).
GENERAL ITEMS:
It
the
3
(a) It is the envelope of the Simson line of a fixed

triangle (the line formed by the feet of the perpendiculars dropped onto the sides from a variable point
(b)
Its evolute is another Deltoid.
(c)
Kakeya (l) conjectured that it encloses a region

i straight
taking all
io
least
Spiral.
to
][y
+ (x
(e,o)
c)x]
is the family of
= 4b(x
c)y
B,
meet at right
normals to the curve at B, C, and P all meet

point of the circumcircle
the tangent BC be held fixed (as a tangent)
and the Deltoid allowed to move, the locus of the
cusps is a Nephroid. (For an elementary geometrical
proof cf this elegant property, see Nat. Math. Mag.,
XIX (1945) P- 530.
DELTOID
BIBLIOGRAPHY
n Mathematical Monthly v29, (1922)
M. S., v28 (1922) 45Crelle (1865)
guar Jour Math (1866).
,
m. d. Math., v3, p. 166; v4, 7.
din Math. Soc
v23, 80.
,
160.
ENVELOPES
HISTORY: Leibr
Nouv. Ann. (1870).

Times Reprint (1866).
Spezlelle
d, Eduo.
;
Leipsig (1908)
1.
DEFINITION:
f(x, y ,p) = 0,
"erential equa-
p-g;*
X
defines n p's (real or imaginary)

for every point (x,y) in the plane.
F(x,y,c) =
Jf
* >
/-
0,
of the nth degree in c, defines

n c's for each (x,y). Thus attached to each point in the plane
n corresponding slopes. Throughout
Jig. 70
the plane some of these curves
together with their slopes may be r Mil, some Imaginary,
some coincident. The locus of those
nts where there
are two or more equal values of p,
thing, two or more equal values of
s the envelope of
the family of its integral curves.
ch of its points
a curve of the family. The equation of the envelope
satisfies the differential equation
is usually not a
member of the family.
ENVELOPES
a.
double root of
lely)
'roni
either of
the envelope
tl
y = px + g(p)
The method of solution is that of
F(x,y,c) =
J
[Fc (x,y,c)
[fjfx.y.p]
+*(5)
Hence ,
a
aa tec looua, cuspidal and nodal
(1918). For examples, see Cohen,
+ (^f)(^)-
(^H^Qj
and the general so:
tion is obtained from the first factor: 4^ = 0,
J.
= 0, a requirement for an envelope.
TECHNIQUE: A family of curves may be given in terms
nected by a certain relation. The following method is

proper- and is particular y adaptable to forms which ar
homogeneous in the parameters. Thus
Their partial differentials are
yielding:
|
- l6x|
as the envelope.
f a da
and thus
fa
+ f t db =
= Xg a
fb
and
g a da + eb db =
= Agb,
The quantities a, b may be eliminated among the equati

to give the envelope. For example:
line of constant length moving

with its ends upon the coordi-
+ b
= 1.
Their differentials
give (-4) da + ("%)db =
yielding the parabola

3
/x + /y = +1
of lines,
the sum of
and
ENVELOPES
Multiplying the
m g:
given functions
3
x = a , y = b
(b)
EB
:
- 1
3
,
|,.y.
X,
second by
'
7] an Astrc
For the Parabola, a fixed point P Is folded over to

upon a fixed line L(a circle of infinite radius).
P'Q is drawn perpendicular to L and, since PQ = P'Q, the
locus of Q is the Parabola with P as focus, L as directrix, and the crease as a tangent. (The simplicity of
this demonstration should be compared to an analytical
method.)
(See Conies 16.)
P'
axial ellip
Consider co
stant area
5.
jy
79
an Ellipse if P be inside the circle, an Hyperbola if

outside. (Draw CP cutting the crease in Q. Then PQ =
P'Q = u, QC = v. For the Ellipse, u + v = r; for the
Hyperbola u - v = r. The creases are tangents since they
bisect the angles formed by the focal radii.)
by vlrtt
U3ing ordinary wax paper.
GENERAL ITEMS:
te
on
t ie
given
irve;
or
"the e ivelope of circles

to the gi 'en curve; or as
its plane. Fold P over upon the circle

As P moves upon the circle, the
1
f fl ed rad ius tangen
the e ivelope of lines pa allel to th e tangent

given curve and at a con tant distan ce from the
tn
(d The f Lrst posit ve Pedal of a given curve is

he p dal pc
3f circles through
ra ius ve :tor from .he pedal poin as di ameter
(e
11
th
(f
The f Lrst negat ve Pedal is t

agh a poin
radlu 3 vector from the p dal olnt.
If L, M, N are
elope
Linear fu ictio
2
h 2MLly L-o
CO
M2 =
L-N
,1
13
of
tl
lope of the
X ,y,
the
is the
ENVELOPES
PI- and
/elope of a line (or cur^
a curve rolling upon a f
Roulette For example:
HYPO-CYCLOIDS
ial curves were first conceived by Roemer
'i
while studying the best form for gear

<3isand Mersenne had already
(1599)
Lnary Cycloid. The beautiful double genera-
Bernoulli in 1725-
jrs
find forms of the cycloidal

They also occur
Newton in his
see Proctor).
as Caustics
Rectif
/elope arises in the following

ins problem (Pig. 77): Given the
curve P = 0, the point A, hot
The Hypocycloid is generated by a point of a

circle rolling internally
upon a fixed circle.
force. Let'y = o he the line

of zero velocity.
i
time path from A t 3 F =
the Cycloid normal to P =
generated by a circle rolling
upon y = c. However, let the
family of Cycloids normal to
generated by all circles
P =
rolling upon y = c envelope the
curve E = 0. If this envelope
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JS,
G.
Mess. Math ., II (1872).

Clairaut: Mem. Paris Acad Sci., (1754).
:
...
.:..,:!"
::'
86-100.
Glaisher, J. V. L. Mess. Math., XII (1882) 1-14 (exam
Hill, M. J. M.: Proc Lond. Math So. XIX (1888) 561589, ibid., S 2, XVII (1918) 149.
Kells, L. M. Differential Equations McGraw Hill (lj
73ff.
Lagrange: Mem. Berlin Acad Sci., (1774).
Murray, D. A.: Differential Equations , Longmans, Gree
(1955) 40-49.
:
2.
ras given by
DOUBLE GENERATION:
Let the fixed circl
EPI- and HYPO-CHCLOIDS
EPI- and HYPO-CYCLOIDS
82
-rying the
- A'F =
(See Fig. 79.) Draw EI', OT'F,
intersection of TO and FP and draw t
and D. This circle is tangent to the
angle DPT is a right angle. Now sine
T'E, triangles OET' and OFD are isos
,me:
or
(a
(dropping
generate the same curve upon a fixed circle of
radius a. That is, the difference of the radii of fixed

circle and rolling circle gives the radius of a third
circle which will generate the same Hypocycloid.
arc TP,
Hypocycloid
may be generated ir
r difference
J.
EQUATIONS:
stê:
=
(a
(a
b)cos
b)sln
Epicycloid,
Ordinary Cycloid,
Hypocycloid.

6.
l......
A B
85
GENERAL ITEMS:
(a)
The Evolute of any Cycloidal Curve is another of
h-- (^
fori!
'
d9
Btp. These evolutes are thus Cycloi

similar to their involutes with linear dimensions
tered by the factor B. Evolutes of Epicycloids ar
smaller, those of Hypocycloids larger, than the c
themselves).
AB sin
the Epicycloid
an Epi- or Hypocycloid.
the Hypocycloid.
(c) Pedals with respect to the center are the Ros

Curves: r = c-sin(n9). (See Trochoids).
|Bp = a
**
D-(^
^p
R = AB 0OE B9
.
k.
(9
where* has
the valu
wlth the foregol
_g
may he obtained in terms of
(e)
The Epieycl
(f)
Tangent Con
S(
values of
.P,
of the circles.
given
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Edwards, J.: Calculus Macmillan (1892) 337Encyclopaedia Brltanniea 14 th Ed. , "Curves, Special".
Ohrtmann, C. Das Problem der Tautochronen
Proctor, R. A.: The Geometry of Cycloids (I878).
Salmon, G.
Higher Plane Curves Dublin (1879) 278.
Wleleitner, H.: Spezielle ebene Kurven Leipsig (1908).
,
SPECIAL CASES:
Epicycloids:
If
b = a...Cardioid
2b = a.
Hypocycloids:
.Nephroid.
If 2b = a... Line Segment

3b = a... Deltoid
4b = a. ..Astroid.
TP is
.t
[See Am. Math. Monthly (1944) p. 587 for an 3lementary

demonstration of these properties.]
5.
at P. The tangent is accordingly

lling circle passing through N, the
ally opposite T, the point of conta
above.
f om the
us center of rotation of
enter)
A (of segment formed by one arch and the
See Trochoids)
EVOLUTES
KVOLUTES
reputedly originated with
studies on light.
Apollonius (about
i
If (<x,p)
where
is this center.
where R is the radius of

the tangential
curvature,
angle, and (x,y) a point of
the given curve. The quancp
expres
of a single v iriable whi
= -g
R cos
^=^-R=in
cp(d<p/ds)
sin <f( ),
9 (d ? /ds) + cos 9 (f).
(h)
Generally,
!T!
4(c)
f,
= da
+ dp
2
.
EVOLUTES
EVOLUTES
EVOLUTES OF SOME CURVES:

(a)
The Conies
<^0
7^J
The Evolute of
3
The Ellipse:
(~f
+ (2)* 1 Is (|)
The Hyperbola:
(*)*
(|)* = 1 l s
(^
(|f
= 1
(^
= 1
2
2
Ha = Kb = a + b
The Parabola:
= 2ky
Is
(y
:er of
\ /A>^
k)
3
.
If the x-axls Is tangent at the origlr
Curvature of
Ho = Limit
Limit
(^)
[See Curva
A GIVEN
6. NORMALS TO
Ct RVE:
Phe E /olute of a c
the
ntain ng
Fo
ample,
the =arabola y E
where y
mals at
(h,
h,k
normals
rom
+ 2(1
epre sents the
h)y
2k
rdina es
re
o
the
of the noree
three
hus, in ge era
nd a tTthe iffee tyi + y 2 + y 3 =

If we as
this cub
two of tt e thr e no mals
an 1 its deriv ative
ble r
2
3y + 2(1
oin 3ident,
)
= 0, are
h-l+*=.
of the given Parabola: the envelope of its normals. Thi
evolute divides the plane into two regions from which
one or three normals may be drawn to the Parabola. Froir
points on the evolute, two normals may be established.
An elegant theorem is a consequence

2
2
n
The circle x + y + ax + by + e =
2
y = x in points such that
GENERAL NOTE: Where there is symmetry in the

urve with respect to a line (except for points
sculation or double flex) there will correspond
n the evolute (approaching the point of 3ymmeti
If three of these points are feet of

and the
to the Parabola, then y 4 =
volute). This is not sufficient, however.
A theorem involving the Cardioid

by inversion.
f a curve has a cusp of the first kind,
its eve
ca
the Parabola
EVOLUTES
92
7.
INTRINSIC EQUATION OP THE EVOLOTE
Let the given curve be
and
with the points
0'
= f
EXPONENTIAL CURVES
<p)
of
'
HISTORY: The number "e" can be traced back to Napier and

the year 1614 where it entered his system of logarithms.
Strangely enough, Napier conceived his Idea of logarithms
before anything was known of exponents. The notion of a
normally distributed variable originated with DeMolvre
its evolute corresponding to
and P of the given curve.

Then, if a is the arc length
of the evolute:
r=
P"o-d<f
"
In terms of the tangential
angle
p,
(since
<f
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Byerly, W. E
(1879)-
Differential Calculus
Ginn and Co.
Special."
Edwards J.: Calculus Macmillan (1892) 268 ff.
Higher Plane Curves, Dublin (1879) 82 ff.
Salmon, G.
Spezielle ebene Kurven, Leipsig (1908)
Wieleitner, H.
169 ff,
England from Prance, eked out a livelihood by supply-
EXPONENTIAL CURVES
EXPONENTIAL CURVES
2.
GENERAL
95
the maximum possible number of inhabitants regulated, for instance, by the food supply. A
sral form devised to fit observations involves
tion f(t) (which may be periodic, for example):
Ls
k(k i)(k-a)
+
-f(t).*.(n-x)
or
continuously
velocity. That
=
(/Ti/-
In an ideal
>.
ise,
'al
l
(
(^)(1
e'***)
= e"
(or Decay)
pestilence,
populations
of individuals,
.
:curs in controlled
THE PROBABILITY
OR NORMAL,
g
1^ = e-* / J
flies and people.
governing law as
(Fig.
87b).
2
- l), the flex
(a) Since y' = -xy and y" = y(x
1 2
points are (+1, e" / ). (An inscribed rectangle
one side on the x-axis has area = xy = -y'. The
and thus two corr
largest one is given by y" =
are at the flex points.)
EXPONENTIAL CURVES
EXPONENTIAL CURVES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
let
I'
(n)
J.
Putting n =
,
specifically:
;ir-g
y-
yo
-+ (f)U
for simplicity:
+ a)
completely independent of
entering the "slot

separated by nail obThe collection will
stogram
approximating
ber of shot in the
nal to
the coefficien
binomial expan sion.
P.: Mathematl
Mathematical S
FOLIUM OF DESCARTES
.
GENERAL:
(a)
FOLIUM
3F
Its a
DESCARTES
1IST0RY: First dlscussc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
mica
2.
METRICAL
14 th Ed. under
FUNCTIONS WITH DISCONTINUOUS PROPERTIES

may be useful at various times as counter examples to
the more frequent functions having all the regular
1.
FUNCTIONS WITH REMOVABLE DISCONTINUITIES:

hyperbolas
xy = 1 form a
101
.102

3
(c)
WITH NON-REMOVABLE DISCONTINUITIES:
imit
X
y = -j Limit
y =
y-
Limit jl.
(1 + sin
7i
x )t
cut has values +1 or -1 else
The left and right limits are
(b)
y - sin(^)
is not
Limit
y -
Left and right
103

(b)
y = x 3 is undefined for x = 0, but Limit
The function is everywhere discontinuous for x
3.
OTHER TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES:

(a)
x
y = x is undefined for
x = 0, but Limit
y = 1.
105
y = 0.
<
0.
06
A
Tig. 101
(c) By halving the sides

AC and CB of the
isosceles triangle ABC,
and continuing this
process as shown, the
"saw tooth" path between
A and B is produced.
107
Wcr-
with constant length.

curve of this procession
^nate^'measured
?r om A, are of the form

rig. 105
**, K-l,
function
y = S
D^cosfAx)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Edwards, J.: Calculus Macmillan (1892) 235Pure Mathematics, Macmillan (1933)^62^
Hardy, G. H.
Kasner and Newman:
and Schuster (1940)
Osgood, V. F.: Real Variables,
Pierpont, J.: Real Variables G:
,
equilateral triangle is trisected, the middle segment

discarded and an external equilateral triangle built
The limiting curve has finite area, Infinite
there)
shots , Steohert (1938)

The determination of length and area are good
GLISSETTES
HISTORY: The idea of Glissettes in
Si
(c)
If a point A of a rod,
given curve r = f(e), the Gl
Moritz, R. E., U. of Wash

1923, for pictures of man
varieties of this family,
SOME EXAMPLES:
(a) The Glissette of the vertex P of a rigid a
whose sides slide upon two fixed points A and
arc of a circle Furthermore, since P travels
circle, any point Q of AP describes a Limacon
.
(See 4).
If the curve be given by
p = f(9) referred to the car-
ried point P, then
are parametric equations of

the Glissette traced by P.
For example, the Astrold
sin 2<J,
y =
-.
sin
2cp
always through
GLISSETTES
describes an Ellip
envelope of AB
6.
GENERAL ITEMS:
slides on the x,y axes.
>(
=V
+ y^ + 3a -) . a
Tr.
=a*(x 2 + y 2 ).
iter of an Ellipse
xV
)
= (a
rolling
lother determlna
the problem of 011s-
simple cloE
A simple illustration is the

trammel AB sliding upon two
perpendicular lines. I, the
the fixed circle with center
and radius AB. This point
if this smaller circle

rolling internally upon
y )(y
).
A Parabola slides on a straight line toi

point of the line. The locus of t
a fixed
difference
circle while one arm passes through a
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
fixed point F. Hie envelope of the

other arm is a conic with F as focus.
(Hyperbola if F is outside the circle,
Ellipse if inside, Parabola if the

circle is a line.)
(See Conies 16.)
Of disputed origin: either by Mayer or by

Riccati in the 18th century; elaborated upon by Lambert
(who proved the irrationality of n). Further investigated
by Gudermann (1798-I85I), a teacher of Weierstrass. He
complied 7-place tables for logarithms of the hyperbolic
functions in 1832.
:
1.
DESCRIPTION: These functions
^.JlTTl
BIBLIOGRAPHY
y
ican Mathematical Monthly

. H.
ln t,
.
v 52,
384.
Roulettes and Glissettes

i
'
1
'I
''
'''
London (1870).
'.'
"
'
!
\y
12,13 (1937-8,
\^^
/^ '^
/
y
N
yl"
\^
\_
*
/
y. tonh
",'.
TJ,~
;:::::,t:"\
x-
hyperbolic functions
INTERRELATIONS:
(a)
(c)
Inverse Relations
arc cosh x = ln(x +
arc tanh x =
cosh x
Vx
E -
(|)ln[|^]
slnh 2 x = 1;
2
2
csch x = coth x
Differentials and Integrals:
l)
x7
2
<
1;
sechx
1;
Dsh(x + y) = cosh x-c
"/.-
cosn
2
-
Lnh Jx = 4sinh x + 3si
*2 oosh iz
3
REPRESENTATIONS:
!?
1-3-5
,
Thus the Hyperbolic functions are attached to the

Rectangular Hyperbola in the same manner that the
trigonometric functions are attached to the circle.
4.
ANALYTICAL RELATIONS KITH THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:
6.
APPLICATIONS:
1
flexible"
he Catenary, i
hlinl ing ng from
the
two buj
(b) These functi 3ns play a dominan
nt hyperbolic 1
\e solutions of
ponential form o
problems
satisfies the di ffe -ential equatior
role in el
the engin
,
es of
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER OF ROTATION and

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOME TANGENTS
V = V r -cosh x
f&
Ir
.y|-sinh
/yF,
gives the voltage in terms of voltage and
1.
cum
direction
points A,
Let their
Vi and V 2
to Vi and
(1512-159 *) projection
from the center of the sphere onto its tangent cylinder with the N-S line as axis,
..
....-eater's
of motion of any two

B of the body are known.
respective velocities be
Draw the perpendiculars
V at A and B. The cen-
T = gd y,
8,
HA can move toward A or H (since

the body is rigid) and thus all
points must move parallel to Vi
Similarly, all points of HB move
where (x,y) is the projection of the point on the

and 6, resphere whose latitude and longitude are
spectively. Along a rhumb line ,
<P
the inclination of a straight course
(line)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
of Hjp. Functions to Elec. Engr.
Kennelly, A. E. Applic
Problems , McGraw-Hill (1912)Merriman and Woodward: Higher Mathematics , John Wiley
(I896) 107 ff.
Slater, J. C: Microwave Transmission, McGraw-Hill (1942)
:
DEFINITION: A rigid body moving in any manner what
neous center of rotation. This
8 ff.
Ware and Reed: Communication Clrcu:
John Wiley (1942)
ie
If two points of a rig

instantaneous center
of any point P of the
50
.
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER OF ROTATION
EXAMPLES:
?iH and P 2 H at Pi and P g respectively,

(a)
The Ellip
is an Ellip se.* AH
and BH are normals
of A and B lridtbu.
H is the ce iter of
any
point of th
1
to the
perpendicul ir PT is
(See
Trochoids,
5e.)
(d)
(b)
The Con hold*

-
A, the
midpoint of the
The Iso ptic of a cu eve
ngle. Thus HP is normal
xampl
of P. Pc
moves along 'th/fix

line and P x a (exthrough the fixed
point 0. Th point
of PiP 2 pas
through
h
direction
PiPe.
Thus the pe pendioulars OH and AH
locate H th
of rotation The
perpendiculars to
angle. If t -lese tang

the normals
is the cent
body formed by the c
("eeÛsse
ex of a
two of whos e sides
the locu
ngle.
nil
Normals to these tar gen

s of
pass through the cer
the circles arid nak
stant angle
They meet a t H, the
lo
of rotatior
of
of H is ace ordingly a circle
!2
(e)
The point Gllssette of a curve is the loot

a point rigidly attached
INTRINSIC
EQUATK
INTRODUCTION: The choice of reference

ticular curve may be dictated by its
from its properties. Thus, a system o:

coordinates will be selected for cur
Thus HP is normal to the path of
point will be expressed in a polar system with the central point as pole. This is well illustrated In situations involving action under a central force: the path
of the earth about the sun for example. Again, if an
outstanding feature is the distance from a fixed point
upon the tangent to a curve - as in the general problem
of Caustics - a system of pedal c
rig. ii9
selected.
rigidly attached to a curve that
of curves in each of these systems,
The equation
rolls upon a fixed curve. The

point of tangency H is the center
of rotation and HP is normal to
the path of P. This is particu-
larly useful in the trochoids of

a circle:
the Epi- and Hypo-
cycloids and the ordinary Cycloid.
Keown and Faires: Mechanism , McGraw-Hill (1931) Chap.

Niewenglowski, B.: Cours de Geome'trie Analytique I
,
(Paris)
(1894)
347 ff.
Williamson, B.: Calculus
Longmans, Green (1895) 359-
are altered by c ertain transformations. Let a transforit

tion (within a j
system) be such that the measures of length and angle
,
i,
:..
:..:.
'.
'
of singular poir ts, etc., will be invariants. If a curv

can be properly defined in terms of these invariants it
equation would e intrinsic in character and would express qualities of the curve which would not change frc
1
INTRINSIC EQUATIONS
3
INTRINSIC EQUATIONS
WHEWELL EQUATION: The Whewell equation is that

connecting arc length
tial angle
<p,
where
<p
_s
and tangen-
directly from the Whewell equation hy

For example,
sd
1.
is measured
from the tangent to the curve at the

initial point of the arc. It will he
'or
an involute
as the x-axis or, in polar coordi-
initial line. Examples

:
The inclination
<?
depends of
'olloi
is
-/!"<
(b)
vhic
wher
= a.cosh(^).
2
[1
sinh 2 (^)]dx 2
4-
)dx = a-sinh(^), and
|s
func ion
give
ither
by
cp.
Thus
'of
If this point we re selected

perpendicular to the original
volve the cofor example, the Cardioid may

.he equations:
k-coag) or
2. THE CESARO EQUATION: The Cesaro equation relates arc

length and radius of curvature. Such equations are
definitive and follow directly from the Whewell equatic
For example, consider the general family of Cycloidal
The arc length: ds
measured
= a -tan y]
Consid
Here tan
the tangent
= 8a (l
cos
-8a-cos(|) =
-Sa-cos
INTRINSIC EQUATIONS
126
3.
INTRINSIC EQUATIONS OF SOME CURVES:
e =
a.coe 2 9
Cardioid
s-a-cosCf)
Catenary
b =
Circle
s = a-cp
Ciesoid
B = a(
Cycloid
b .
Beltoid
Hypo -cycloids
Equiangular
^
Circle
s.
a-tan
4s
Z
cp
1)
y COB
3?
a-sin
0,*
= 4a
2
+ a
= a
= aB
. a
a
729(B+a)
s
<p
+ E
+ 9B
sec
a-sin
<p
INVERSION
Ceearo Equation
Whewell Equation
Curve
Artroid
= a
a^s+a) 2
+ E
2 3
]
HISTORY: Geometrical inversion seems to be due to

Stelner ("the greatest geometer since Apollonius") who
indicated a knowledge of the subject in 1824. He was
closely followed by Quetelet (1825) who gave some examples. Apparently Independently discovered by Bellavitis
in 1836, by Stubbs and Ingram in 1842-3, and by Lord
Kelvin in 1845. The latter employed the idea with conelec
spici
1.
DEFINITION: Consider the_circle
mutually Inverse with respect to
s.a.(e^-l)
m (s
a)E
2
(0A)(0A) = k
b =
^s!
a-B.E 2
Nephroid
b =
6o-Bin
Iractri*
b -
a-m
Bee
4E
+
+
2
B
. 5 6o
2
. a
coordinates wit
-e-/a
bangular coordinate
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ins, London, 263-
(if this product Is nega

Inverse and lie on opposi
Two curves are it utually

has an inverse b elonging
INVERSION
128
2.
CONSTRUCTION OF INVERSE POINTS:
Fig. 125
For the point A inverse to

then from P the perpendicular to OA. From similar
right triangles
3.
PROPERTIES:
or
()(.*.
(a) As A approaches
definitely.
with
the circle through
center at A, meeting the
circle of inversion in P, Q.
Circles with centers P and Q
meet in A. (For
through
proof, consider the similar
isosceles triangles OAP and
PDA.)
the distance OA increases in-
(b) Points of the circle of inversion are invariant.

(c)
Circles orthogonal
tc
the circle of inversion are
(d)
Angles between two
ci
rves are preserved in magni-
(a
(a)
With center of inversion at
a focus,
family of ovals
+ X)
(b
+ X)
the Con
5.
MECHANICAL INVERSORS:
The Hart Crossed Parall
INVERSION
122
points 0, P, Q, R taken on
a line parallel to the
bases AD and BC* Draw the
circle through D, A, P,
and Q meeting AB in F. By
rhombuses as shown. Its

appearance ended a long
convert circular motion
unanimously agreed Inso

uble. For the Inverslve
property, draw the clrc
through P with center A
Then, by the secant proi
erty of circles,
= a
(BF)(BA) = (BP)<BD).
thus BF is constant. Accordingly, as the mechanist!

is deformed, F is a fixed
point of AB. Again,
(0P)(0Q)= (OF)(0A)
leads to the theory of polars
constant
Moreover,
2
(P0)(PR) =-(0P)(0Q) =b
by virtue of the foregoing

Thus the Hart Cell of four
If directions be assign
7. The process of inversion forms an expeditious

of solving a variety of problems. For example, t
brated problem of Apollonius (see Circles) is tc
Peaucellier arrangement of
eight bars.
ism to describe a circl

center of inversion) as
Since the inverse A of A
Here, the distances BA, BP,
(0P)(0Q) = (od)(oc)
= (a-U-Ka+b)
to the line of fixed points

6.
bar is added to each me Chan

ough the fixed point (the
n in Fig. 130.
:onfiguration is composed
of two parallel lines and
a circle. The circle tan-
elements is easily obtained by straightedge

and compass. The inverse
1
F1 S2
circle of inversion IT*
this circle followed by an alteration of its radius
the length a is the required circle.
)
INVERSION
theorem
n is a he lpful means of generating
cal prope
\C
)f
/
*y/)
"If two opposite angles of a

quadrilateral OABC are supple
tary it is cyclic." Let this
figuration be inverted with r
spect to 0, sending A, B, C 3
circumcire
A", B, V and their
into the line AC. Obviously,
lies on this line. If B be a
moves upon a line. Thus

"The locus of the interse
of circles_on the fixed poin
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.onen, Leipsig (1906)
Oxford (1941)
Hall (1941)
,
Houghton- Mifflin (1929)
HISTORY: The Involute

utilized by Huygens ir
of clocks without penc
1.
DESCRIPTION: An inv
upon the curve. Or, it

string tautly unwound
INVOLUTES
Its inverse with respect to the base circle
spiral tractrix (a curve which i n polar coordir
has constant tangent length).
2. EQUATIONS:
(l)
(j)
It is used frequently in the design of oam_
(k) Concerning its use in the co nstruction of j

teeth, consider its generation b
together with its plane along a line, Fig. 135
of the line on the moving

.
A =
(bounded by OA, OP, AP).
GENERAL ITEMS:
gency always on the c
internal tangent (the
of action) of the two
circles. Accordingly
velocity ratio is transmitl
ntal law of gearing is satisfied. 1 dvant c
le older f orm of cycloidal gear tee h inc
(e) The limit of a succession of involutes of any

giv n curve is a n Equiangular spiral. (See Spirals
Equ Langular
(f)
(g)
(h)
velo city ratio unaffected by

cons
4.
more uniform wear on the teet
rL=rt^Mt-ur
hang.':
asier
In 1891,
of
oir le.
1.
2.
the dome of the Royal Observatory at

nstructed in the form of the surfa
nerated by an arc of an involute of
Soc , v 51, p. 436
(Mo. Not ices Roy. Astr.
The roulette of the center of the attached base
v 28 (1921) 528.
Q. Monthly
Calculus, Ginn (I889) 13314th Ed., under "Curves,
,
Byerly, W. E.
ial case of the Euler Spirals.
Huygens
C:
(1888) 51
Works, la
1
ociete Hollandaise des Scie
*.
Keown and Paires: Mechar ism, McGraw-Hill (1931) 61, 125.
ISOPTIC CURVES
ISOPTIC CURVE
(The Orthoptic of the
Hyperbola is the circle
through the foci of the
corresponding Ellipse and
IISTORY: The origin of the notior

Dbscure. Among contributors to tithe names of Chasles on isoptios
trochoids (18^7) anli la Hlre on *
1.
DESCRIPTION: The locu
the Isoptlc of the given
A special case of Orthoptics is the Pedal o:

with respect to a point. (A carpenter's square
one edge through the fixed point while the othi
forms a tangent to the curve).
tic of
2. ILLUSTRATION: It is well known that the Ortl
the Parabola is its directrix while those of the Central
Conies are a pair of concentric Circles. These are immediate upon eliminating the parameter m between the
equations in the sets of perpendicular tangents that fol-
of the rigid body formed by the

constant angle at-R. Thus HR is
normal to the Isoptic generated
low:
If.
EXAMPLES:
Given Curve
Epicycloid
Sinusoidal Spiral
Two Circles
Parabola
Isoptic Curve
Curtate or Prolate Cycloid

Epitrochoid
Sinusoidal Spiral
Hyperbola (same focus and directrl?)
ISOPTIC CURVES
Orthoptic Curve
Given Curve
Concentr
Two Confocal Conic
HISTORY: This curve was devised by P. J. Kiernan in 1945

to establish a family relationship among the Conchoid
the Cissoid and the Strophoid
"
Hypocycloid
(a-2b)
itslnee
UtoU,,*,,*.
r-n
li
a*
729y
Wx=
l8a xy
^-4.co
*
k
where
3B (|)
a11 cosrfi
3(x + y) . x
x2y
Sinusoid al Spiral: r . ..
Sinusoidal Spiral
3
+ y
2ya
l80x
16
36(x
8lyV + y2
x + y
=0
2
-
2x f + 5y
2
)
+128
2a
NOTE: The a-Isoptlo of the Parabola y = 4ax is the

2
2
Hyperbola tan E a-(a + x) = y - lai and those of the
Ellipse and Hyperbola: (top and bottom signs resp.):
(these include
Isoptics).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Duporcq: L'Inter-m. d. Math (1896) 291Encyclopaedia Britannica UthEd., "Curves, Special."
Hilton, H.: Plane Algebraic Curves, Oxford (1932) 169.
DESCRIPTION: The center B of the circle of radius a

moves along the line BA.
is a fixed point, _c units
distant from AB. A secant is dravn through
and D, the
midpoint of the chord cut from the line DE which is
parallel to AB and b units distant. The locus of Pi and
P 2 , points of intersection of 0D and the circle, is the
Kieroid.
1.
LEMNISCATE OF BERNOULLI
Clssold of
(FiP){F EP) = a
2
(XA)(XB) = a
Thus, take FiP = XB,
LEMNECATE OF BERNOULLI
3.
30 with the
L - 4a(l
2
V (of r
'
2-4-9
2-5
a
2-4-6-13
...)
(elliptic
(g)
Radius of Curvature
oos 26 revolved about
2^(2
(Pig. 141) R
-
polar
thus easily constructed.
=~
P:
The
J2).
projection of R on the radius vector

3r
4.
jp
GENERAL ITEt
(a)
Thus the perpendic Liar
Pedal of a Rectangular Hyperbola
C,
(b)
I
i
the center of
.)
'
re.
Inverse of a Rectangular Hyperbola wit

center. (The asymptotes of the Hyperdistance.
It^J
n = a n cos n6 for
It is the Sinusoidal Spiral: v
It is the locus of flex points of a family of
(See Spirals 2g and Jf
BIBLIOGRAPHY
,.:'-.,-..;:
'.
Phillips, A. V. Llnkwork for the Lemnlseate , Arn.

Math. I (1878) 386.
Wieleitner, H.
Spezielle ebene Kurven Leipsig (IS
Williamson, B.: Plffen
Ca
ulus Longmans, G
:
(I895).
Yates, R. C: Tools A Mathematical Sketch and Moc
Book L. S. U. Press, (1941) 172.
,
a;
BC = CP = 00 =
3ince ns;le 30P =

r
= (BP)
2a
alu;;::,
7;
(OB)
2
2
2
4a sin 8,
LIMACON OF PASCAL
.
(a
LIMACON OF PASCAL
HISTORY: Discovered by Etienne (father of
and discussed by Roosrval in 1650.
1.
nttac led to
circle rolling upon
ri
It is the Peda 1 of a circ e with respect to any

nt is on the circle, the pedal is
Cardioid.) (Po
al description, see
Is, p.
188.)
any
Its Evolute is the Catacat stic

P light.
(0)
It is the Glis
(b)
DESCRTFTION:
It is the C onchoid of a
circle where the fixed
point is on the circle.
1'
GENERAL ITEMS:
ariable triangl 3 which slid

(a)
a circle for
eleote
rfeen
two fixed
The locus of a ly point rig idly a btached to a con

nt angle whose
ides touch
CleS
r of Limacons
ee G-lissett
'nd 4)!
(
(e) It is the Inve se of a con

1 respect
to a
us. (The Inl^rT
cosB +
r2 a-cose + k) =
an Ellipse , Para ola, or Hyper> k).
(See
"
erslonld?!
(f)
It is a specia
(g)
It is part of
(h)
It is the Trise ctrix if k
Folium of Descartes
st-
[x-
1-
k- cos2
4a-c
a
(
+ y2
2a
(origin at
2
)
= k
ingular
+ y
Cartesian Oval
he Orthopti 3 of a Cardioid.
= a. The angle formed
line join! ig (a,o) with any poin
is 38. (Not
ao aunn wh
LIMACON OF PASCAL
LIMACON OF PASCAL
(i)
Tangent Con
i)
he point A of the bar has
Since T is the cent

ortic
attached tc
rolling circle, TP
r gldly
A while the point of the
generated by
fHHr
'&
f the bar itself. The normals to these directions

neet in H, a point of the
irole. Accordingly, HP is
C and F fixed
plane. CHJD is
par= llelogram and P
//v
the
The
aormal to the path of P and

Lts perpendicular there is
%^\/
ed by a circle
under Cardioic
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Edwards, J.: Calculus
Macmillan (I892) 349-
'
;..:-
V;i
_.:l...
,<
.-.
.!
,-,'"'.
L-]
;:
i'r.i
.'
'
I
i:
1
:.
'
!;
..',
'
''
88.
Yates, R. C.
(See Epicycloids.) It may alsc

(k) Double Generation
rolling
be generated by a point attached to a circle
inter nally (centers on the same side of the common
tangent) to a fixed circle half the size of the roll:
Tools, A Mathematical Sketch and Model
V
NEPHROID
HISTORY: Studied by Huyge

in 1692 showed that the Nephroid is the cataDouble generar a cardioid for a luminous cusp.
first discovered by Daniel Bernoulli in I725.
Accordingly, if P were attached tc

- the one of radius a/2 or the one
same Nephroid would be generated.
2. EQUATIONS:
x =
(a = 2b)
b(3cost
-
DESCRIPTION: The Nephroid I a 2-cusped Epicycloid,

The rolling circle may be one- alf (a = 2b) or threehalves (3a = 2b) the radius of the fixed circle.
1.
= 6b-sin(-t;
= 4b-sin(|).
(r/2)
= a
3
.
4.
3
)
4b
= 108a
4b.sin(|).
(a = 2b).
A =
L = 24b.
[sta*(|) + oos*<|)]
3.
4a
= 36b 2
127ib
2
.
GENERAL ITEMS:
Fig. 1U6
For this double generation, let the fixed circle

center
and radius OT = OE = a, and the rolling
center A' and radius A'T' = A'F = a/2, the latter
Ing the tracing point P. Draw ET', OT'P, and PI" t
Let D be the intersection of TO and FP and draw t
circle on T, P, and D. This circle is tangent to
fixed circle since angle DPT = n/2 Now since PD
parallel to T'E, triangles OET' and OFD are isosc
jther Hophroid.
the envelop
of a diameter of the circle
ion:
Df
TD = Ja.
(a curve
of a Cayley Sextio
Since T'
(or T)
is the
rotation of P, the normal is
lerefore PP (or PD)
(Fig. 151
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ueulus
:
Macmillan (1892) 543 ff.

A Treatise on the Cycloid (1878)
Spezielle ebene Kurven Leipsig
PARALLEL CURVES
(l<
HISTORY: Leibnitz was the first to consider Parallel

Curves in 1692-4, prompted no doubt by the Involute
Huygens (1673).
units distan t from P me asured alon

parallel to
the given cu rve. There are two
For some values of

t be
unlike
a Parallel
the given
curve in app
otally dissimilar. Not Ice the pat

of wheels wi
perpendicular to their planes.
GENERAL ITEMS:
1
normals, they
PARALLEL CURVES
PARALLEL CURVES
(d)
All Involutes of a given
:urve are parallel to each
ither
difference
(e
n length
(Fig.
148).
Of
iies
of
allel
E EXA ViPtES
Illu trat 10 n 3 sele ctedfro
foil
(a
Curv es pa rallel to the P

parallel to th
e. (See Salmon'
8 th
(b
Th e Astro idx
the 6
la are o
tral Con
=al
2
9k(x + J
z
)
18
K + 8k
PARALLEL CURVES
3
PARALLEL TO THE ELLIPSE:
PARALLEL CURVES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
is,
Fig. 150
A straight line mechanism is built from two propor tional crossed parallelograms OO'EDO and OO'FAO. The
rhombus on OA and OH is completed to B. Since 00' (here
the plane on which the motion takes place) always bisects angle AOH, the point B travels along the line 00'.
(See Tools, p. 96.) Any point P then describes an Ellipse with semi-axes equal in length to OA + AP and PB.
circle
along th e line 00', the instant aneous center of 1

tion of
ersection C of OA produced ar
perpendl cular to 00 at B. This point C then lie
circle v ith center C and radius twice OA.
The "kite" CAPG is completed with AP = PG and
CA = CG. Two additional crossed parallelograms APMJA
and PMNRP are attached in order to have PM bisect angle
APG and to insure that PM be always directed toward C.
Thus PM is normal to the path of P and any point such as
Q describes a curve parallel to the Ellipse.
Green (1879) 337;
PEDAL CURVES
Conversely, the first negative Pedal Is then the
PEDAL CURVES
HISTORY: The idea of positive and negative pedal curves
occurred first to Colin Maclaurin in. I7I8; the name
'Pedal is due to Terquem. The theory of Caustic Curves
includes Pedals in an important role: the orthotomic is
an enlargement of the pedal of the reflecting curve with
respect to the point source of light (Quetelet, 1822).
(See Caustics.) The notion may be enlarged upon to include loci formed by dropping perpendiculars upon a line
1
RECTANGULAR EQUATIONS: If the given curve be

f(x,y) = 0, the equation of the Pedal with respect to
the origin is the result of eliminating m between the
2.
1 ;in: my +
and its perpendicular roa th
k is determined so that the line is tangent
For example:
The Pedal of the Parabola y
DESCRIPTION: The locus Ci, Pig. 151(a), of the foot

of the perpendicular from a fixed point P (the Pedal
Point) upon the tangent to a given curve C is the First
Positive Pedal of C with respect to the fixed point.
The given curve C is the First Negative Pedal of Ci.
= 2x with re
1.
1_
3
2:-:
3.
POLAR EQUATIONS: If (r
,8
are
the pole:
ms
Fig. 151
1 +
a
(
)(
lsewhere (see Pedal Equations, 5) t

between the tangent to a given curve ar
or r from the pedal point, Fig. 151(b),
corresponding angle for the Pedal Curve,
to the Pedal is also tangent to the cir
iameter. Accordingly, the envelope of tt
imple,
consider the Sinusoidal Spirals
irtl .' Differentiating:
n(^)
= -n-tan ne
PEDAL CURVES
PEDAL CURVES
162
But
e=e 0+ f-
5.
f
nB and thus
"
Given Curve
=r.co S
Nov
rQ
=r.sin
or
-a.oo B a + l )A n 8
<
n6=a
cos
11
Any Point
Circle
1m)
me
another. Sinusoidal Spiral. The

kth positive pedal is thus
ny
\r
= a
nk
cos
nx =
where
^1
'
The
11
where
Cardioid
Parabola
Vertex
Parabola
Eocus
Central Conic
EOCUS
Central Conic
Center
Rectangular Hyperbola
Center
be read directly from this last

Spirals 3, Pedal Equations 6.)
Equiangular Spiral
TIT
Many of the results given in the table
4.
Ti+i)
folloi
(See al
t iat
PEDAL EQUATIONS OF PEDALS: Let the gi

r = f(p) and let Pl
pendicular from the rigin up
tangent to the pedal Then (S
Pedal Equations):
\7V
^\
,x
Kg.
\r*
tt
2 ofil
:
(^
or
= f(r) P
rW<)
= a
Parabola
Parabola
râp "I.
6.)
s
TmSe
See
Yert ex
Conies,
^"ctole
r
A + B-0OS28
Lemniscate
Equiangular Spiral
*;;,
5
:^
Pole
Pole
Parabola
Pole
Sinusoidal Spiral
. ap
. a
eir
=/SF
are formed in
Pole (Cusp)
Ciesoid
per-
-1
Here f p)
uation
rcle is
Pole
f)
Cardioid (p*a .
Astroid: x
(See P edal Equations
Equations of su
fashion.
can
Smusoidal Spiral
Pi by
pedal equati n of th 3 pedal
LI
=y
= f p)-Pi.
alogs r
153
Thus consider the

f(r) =/(IrO. Hene
a Cardioid.
Pi
Thus, replac ng p an
limacon
Thus, dropping sub scripts, the f] rst pedal with re spect
First Positive Pedal
Pedal Point
Circle
n8
a+OAf-
- a.cos
163
SOME CURVES AND THEIR PEDALS:
+1
(n
milai
2r = a-stn28 (Quadri-
Center
Poot of Directrix
teK
HJ^
Bight Strophoid
Strophoid
r::pL.
Tr
Parabola
Cissold
Ordinary Focus
Cardioid
Epi- and Hypocycloids
Cento-
Roses
^clISn
PEDAL CURVES
PEDAL CURVES
(Table Continued)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
oeltlve Pedal
Pedal Point
Given Curre
Deltoid *
Deltoid
Deltoid
Involute of a Circle
Cusp
Simple Folium
Vertex
Double Folium
Center
Trifolium
Archimedian Spiral
Center of Circle
tf.rt.M.A
Origin
fV
= a
11
Origin
^n.i^)
li/d)"
m+n
.
0OBm, Blnn e
n/(n-i)
(x2 + y2)
1/2 a Parabola).
6.
MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS:
(a)
The 4th negat
(b)
The 4th positive pedal of r 8 cos(|)6
= a 9 wit
respect to the pole is a Rectangular Hyperbola

(c)
R'(2r
3
pR) = r where R, R
are radii of
Hilton, H.
Salmon, G.
Wieleitner,
101 etc.
Williamson,
Plane Alg, Curves Oxford (1932) 166 f f

Higher Plane Curves Dublin (1879) 99 f f
Spezielle ebene Kurven, Leipsig (190c
H.
,
B.: Calculus
Longmans, Green (1895) 224
PEDAL EQUATIONS
PEDAL EQUATIONS
1.
DEFINITION: Certain curves have simple equat
selected fixed point and the perpendicular dlst

upon the variable tangent to the curve. Such re
PROM RECTANGULAR TO PEDAL EQUATION: If
the pedal equation may t
and the perpendicular
(f y
r
)o(y-yo) +
_
[*0(fJ o
[(f x
2
)
(fx
+y
(x-x
(fy)o]
or
ere the peda 1 point is tal
Thus
FROM POLAR TO PEDAL EQUATION:
Among the relations: r = f (9
(For example,
dp = (sin
d6/ds = p/r g
T
)dr + r(cos
if)cH
,di|.,
l
ds
(^)(f) -ft
Accordingly, K =
2 =
|^ + f^ =
(-) (|E)
or
origin
and
y,
VW
and thus
P'(|f)/r
* _
_ /P u ar>
ds
3.
Hff)
Nov p = r.sin
+ (f7 )o 2 J
see 6.)
5. PEDAL EQUATIONS OF PEDAL CURVES: Let the pedal equation of a given curve be r = f(p). If Pl be the perpendicular upon the tangent to the first positive pedal of
p(
(see Fig. 155).
'
PEDAL EQUATIONS
PEDAL EQUATIONS
r.
and'
CURVE
Accordingly,
<f
if
and
Parabola (IE =
'f-'^l
same fashion.
EXAMPLES: The Sinusoidal Spirals are
6.
PEDAL EQUATION
POMT
= r-pi.
In this last relation, p and Pl play the same roles as do

r and p respectively for the given curve. Thus the pedal
equation of the first positive pedal of r = f(p) is
\r n
= a11 sin n6
169
corresponding pedal equations are given:
Vertex
ka.)
a (r -p
2 2
E
2
!
=p (r +ita )(p +W )
2 a
)
Ellipse
Eoous
Ellipse
Center
if
Hyperbola
Eoous
^=f
Hyperbola
Center
J^
r
. a
+ b
+1
.
|
?J!
2
Epi- ana Hypocycloids
Astroid
Equiangular (a) Spiral
Deltoid
r"
Curve
6ln28+ae ..O
-a
-:
r.einO + a
-1/2
'"T^T
+1/2
r-cfMi
'-'
rp
Parabola
e,
+ 5P
Center
8p
Pole
P^=rl
+ 9r
= a
p = r-sin a
2
**
Center
- a
+B
Pole
= ar
2:femat's Spiral,
^>
(jW
pa=r2
<"
Edwards, J.: Calculus , Macmillan (1892) 161.

Encyclopaedia Brltannica 14th Ed., under "Cur
,
Dene Kurven (19c
5?
Williamson, B.: Calculus

(See also Spirals, 3 and
+ B
Pole
-7a2
Cardioid
= a
"TOPR-^
p = a
(SaooM
1854)
Pedal
r-^.'.ion
Line
Circle
+2
Reot.Hyperbola
m
= a 9 *
'
= Ar
PURSUIT CURVE
k
-i/k,
.(k+i)/k
PURSUIT CURVE
in 1732.
1.
The special case when
a(3y
DESCRIPTION: One particle travels along a specified

curve while another pursues it,
its motion being always 6.1:ed toward the first particle
l related velocities.
2a)
pursuing pai
3.
GENERAL ITEMS:
travels on a circle.
until 1921 (F. V. Mc
Lcle
(b)
There
where the pursued particl
and A.
S.
Hathaway).
rf a triangle begin simultaneously to

chase one another with equal velocities. The path of
each dog is an Equiangular Spiral. (E Lucas and
Brocard,
H.
1877)
.
irves defined by the differential equaire all rectifiable. It is an interesting
among which
7)
;stablish this from the differential
(coordinates of the pursued particle)
ferential equation of the curve of pursuit.

SPECIAL CASE: Let the particle pursued travel from
rest at the x-axis along the line x = a, Fig. I56. The
pursuer starts at the same time from the origin with
velocity k times the former. Then
2.
ds = k-do3
follows:
dx
or
+ dy
= k
E
2
+ dy
dx
[dy -
= k (a
x)
y'dx +
(dy')
^V^l
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Encyclopaedia Brit
Special
(1908) 135.
Johns Hopkins Un:
,
Luterbacher, J.: Dissertation, Bern (1900).
:
izette
Math
(1930-1) 436.
175, 280.
v 3 (1877)
T
RADIAL CURVES
RADIAL CURVES
HISTORY: The
DEFINITION: Lines are drawn from a selected point

equal and parallel to the radii of curvature of a giv
1.
J.
RADIAL CURVES OF THE CONICS:
Radial of the given curve.

.
ILLUSTRATIONS:
(a)
The radius of curvature of the Cycloid (Fig.
157(a)
(see Cycloid) is (R
R = 2(PH)
= 4a
Thus, if the fixed point be
[Ellipse
Hyperbola: b 2
4.
GENERAL ITEMS:
>
0;
<
0]
RADIAL CURVES
Radial
Curve
Kampyle of Eudoxus
Ordinary Catenary
Straight Line
Catenary of Un.Str.
Kappa Curve
Tractrix
Cycloid
Roses
Epicycloid
Trifolium
Quadrifolium
Astroid
tached to the
plane of a curve which rolls upon a fixed curve (wit
obvious continuity conditions).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 4th Ed.,
"Curves, Special."
Fig. 159
be originally at Oi and
and normal at Oi as axes. Let
let T:(xi,yi) be the point of contact. Also let (u,v) b
0;
and 91 be the angles of the normals as indicated.
Then
3
in(9
cost? +
<Pi)
T i)
u-cos(<p
u-slnfcp
may be expressed In terms of OT, the arc length s. Thes

then are parametric equations of the locus of 0. It Is
not difficult to generalize for any carried point.
Familiar examples of Roulettes of a point are the

Cycloids, the Trochoids, and Involutes.
2.
ROULETTES UPON A LINE:

Consider the Roulette generated
(a) Polar Equation
by the point Q attached to the curve r = f(a), referred to Q as pole (with QOi as initial line), as it
rolls upon the x-axis. Let P be the point of tangency and the point 0i of the curve be originally at
0. The instantaneous center of rotation of Q is P and
:
mgular equation of the roulette
(here the center of the fixed circle) of the Cycloidal

family:
|b P
= A g (r 2
2
)|
where A = a + 2b, and
B = 4b(a + b), as the curve rolls upon the x-axis

(originally a cusp tangent).
ROULETTES
The Cardioid rolls on "top" of the line until
Lengths of Roulettes and Pedal Curves:

[.
Lng
ing the fixed
Let a point rigidly attached to a closed

upon a line generate a Roulette through
tanrer,'.
sd
under one arch of

by a circle of r
Ellipse rolls
Pedal with reaped
3. THE LOCUS OF THE CENTER OP CURVATURE OP A CURVE,

MEASURED AT THE POINT OP CONTACT, AS THE CURVE ROLLS
UPON A LINE:
Let the rolling curve he given by its Whewell
intrinsic equation: 8 = f(f]

Then, if x,y are coordinates
the center of curvature,
are parametric equations of

locus. For example, for the
Cycloidal family,
t^^cos^-,
ordinary Cycloid
and the locus
LINK CARRIED BY A
ROLLING UPON
the carried line
le
neighboring point Pi carry

angle d f. Then if a represents
= QT + TQi = sir
frequently easily
of curvature of rolli
itions of the envelope
For example, consider
circle of radius a. H
ROULETTES
l82
6.
ROULETTES
A CURVE ROLLING UPON AN EQUAL CURVE:
SOME ROULETTES (Continued):

'Oils upo
Eollinf! Curve
spondlng points In contact, the

whole configuration is a reflec
Thus the
(Maclaurin 1720)
Roulette of any carried point C
is a curve similar to the pedal
with respect to Oi (the reflection of 0) with double its
linear dimensions. A simple
illustration is the Cardioid.
(See Caustics.)
.
Parabola
Fixed Curve
Ectual
Carried Element
Eoulette
Vertex
Ordinary Cissoid
Circle
Circle
Any Point
Cycloidal Family
Parabola
Line
Directrix
Catenary
Circle
Circle
Any Line
Catenary
Line
Any Line
Epicycloid
a
^PaâbolT
curvature. They appear in minimal problems (soap films).
7. SOME ROULETTES:
irrangement of
taken equal i
The
smaller side
i parallelog]
fixed to the plane, Fig. 168(a),
intersect on an Ellipse with A and B as foci. The points
C and D are foci of an equal Ellipse tangent to the
fixed one at P, and the action is that of rolling
-Ellipses. (The crossed parallelogram is used as a "quick
,
Boiling
Cur-re
Circle
Fixed Curre
Carried Element
Line
Point of Circle
Roulette
pail
Parana,
Line
Focus
Ellipse
Line
Focus,
Hyperbola
Line
Focus
Line
Pole
Tracts
Line
Center of Circle
Parabola
line
Center
Ellipse
Any Curve
Point of Line
, 4 ual Curve
Any Point
rdi "
Elliptic Cate-
Hyperbolic Cate-
^psr
of
In
cirfi:
Cycloidal
Faulty
Involute
Line
,11*
CU
Any Curve
Cycloid
pTdaf
On the other hand, if a long bar 3C be fixed

plane, Fig. 168(b), the short bars (extended) n
Hyperbola with B and C as foci. Upon this Hyper
rolls an equal one with foci A and D, their poi
pie, Berlir (1932) 225.
Cohn-Vossen: Anscha
Encyclopaedia Brita nTlif "Curve 3, Special , 14th Ed.
.
C.
s,
Scd
Moritz, R. E.: U. of Wash

Curves Formed
Chucks, London (1874).
Wieleitner H. Spezielle
169 ff
v 1 (18* 9).
Publ. (1923).
the Action of ... Geometric
J22
Kurven, Le psig (1908)
alculu s, Longman
20J ff
Yates, R.
If the intersection of the shorter bars extended,

169(b), with wheels attached, move along the lir
the Roulette of D (or A) is the Hyperbolic Catenary.
Here A and D are foci of the Hyperbola which touches
PL.-.
Green (1895)
238.
hemati cal Sketch and Model
SEMI-CUBIC PARABOLA
=
(x-l)(x-2)(x-3)
yi = y
(x-l)(x-
SEMI-CUBIC PARABOLA
HISTORY: ay 2 = x 3 was the first algebraic curve rectifie
(Nell 1659)- Leibnitz in 1687 proposed the problem of
finding the curve down which a particle may descend unde
the force of gravity, falling equal vertical distances
in equal time intervals with initial velocity different
from zero. Huygens announced the solution as a Semi-Cubi
Parabola with a vertical cusp tangent.
DESCRIPTION: The curve is defined by the equation:

y
= Ax
2
+ Bx + Cx + D = A(x
a)(x 2 + bx +
c)
which, from a fancied resemblance to botanical items, is

sometimes called a Calyx and includes forms known as
Tulip, Hyacinth, Convolvulus, Pink, Fucia, Bulbus, etc.,
Slope at
Limit /(x-2)(x-;
x-1
^1\]
and Y-axes different).
GENERAL ITEMS:
I8x)
[54ax + (-fg)r
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SKETCHING
SKETCHING
ALOEBRAIC CURVES: f(x,y) =
SYMMETRY
1.
INTERCEPTS
2.
ADDITION OF ORDINATES:
Here
0.
EXTENT
y2
(B
an Ellipse if B
a
ar<
Parabola if B
AC )x
- 2
(BE
- CD)>. -
E + CF = 0,
2
AC < 0, an Hyperbola if B - AC >

AC = 0. The construction is effects
is often facilitated by the addltl

For example (see also Fig. I8l):
CD
BE
The general equation of second degree
Ax 2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F =
(l
=
may be discussed to 'advantage in the same manner.
Cy =
ve let
Bx
E + /(B
2-
Cy = yi + y E ,
2
AC)x + 2(BE
2
CD)x + E
CF,
CD
2
inclined at Arc tan(^)
BE
AC
SKETCHING
IS
SLOPES AT THE INTERCEPT POINTS AMD TANGENTS AT THE

ORIGIN: Let the given curve pass through (a,0). A line
through this point and a neighboring point (x,y) has
slope:
4.
5.
AUXILIARY AND DIRECTIONAL CURVES:
In the neighborhood of
origin,
donates
and
The quantity e
trols the maxi
given curve follows the
Hyperbola y =
As
quantity
(See also Fig. 92.)
1 approaches
)
m,
the slope of the tangent
SKETCHING
+ d (J) + e( i)
+ fx
flnity". Thus it is as
the curve, generally,
tangent.
That is,
and
f(x,y) =
= 0,
then
y = mx
= a
n
= 0. But if z =
3duees to the preccdln;-. Accordingly,

3
(1) has two infinite roots if
+ y
3xy -
0.
If y * mx + k:
3
(l+m )x
3m(mk-lh
+ 3k( m k-l) x + k
= 0.
For an asymptote
and Jm(mk-l)
=0
or k = -1.
SKETCHING
OBSERVATIONS: Let Pn , Q n be polynomial functions of x,y
of the nth degree, each of which intersects a line in n
points, real or imaginary. Suppose a given polynomial
function can be put into the form:
(y
mx
V,
a).P n _ 1 +
(2y+x)(y
3>
since its simultaneous solution with the curve results

in an equation of degree (n-l). This family of parallel
lines will thus contain the asymptote. In the case of
the Folium just given:
(y + x)(x
xy + y
2
)
Jxy =
0,
y = x for an asymptc
Thus
the three possible asymptotes of a cubic me
curve again in three finite points upon a 1
the four asymptotes of a quartlc meet the
eight further points upon a conic; etc.
Thus equations of
y-mx-k=0in
particular cuts
infinity; the line
twice Thus, generally, this latter line is an asymptc
For example:
.
pecifie
irves. For example, a quartlc wit
asymptotes
x
= 0,
y = 0,
y-x
= 0,
y + x =
meeting the curve again in eight points on the Ellipse

E
2
x
+ 2y = 1, is:
6.
CRITICAL POINTS:
(a)
Maximum- minis
le).
(See Evolutes.)
SINGULAR POINTS: The nature of these points, when

located at the origin, have already been discussed to
7.
Properly defined, such points are those which satisfy
Dint (a,b)
for which (if y"
That is, foi
Isolated
Dde
hermit )
(double point,
SKETCHING
198
Thus, at such a point,
Indeterminate form -
the
slope:
^=
[) has the
Variations In character are exhibited in the examples

which follow (higher singularities, such as a Double
6X1 n '
simpier'ones".
POLYNOMIALS: y = P(x) where P(x) is a polynomial

(such curves are called "parabolic"). These have the
following properties:
8.
tinuous for all values of x;

line x = k cuts the curve in but one point
there are no asymptotes or singularities;

slope at (a,0) is
Limlt[^]
as x - a;
k
is a factor of P(x), the point (a,o) if
if (x-a)
ordinary if k = 1; max-mln. if k is even; a flex if
k is odd ( i 1).
)
SKETCHING
201
2
y = P(x) where P(x) is a polySEMI- POL YNOMINALS:
nomial (such curves are called "semi-parabolic"). In
sketching semi-parabolic
curves, it may be found expedient to sketch the curve
10.
taking the square root of

the ordinates Y. Slopes at
the intercepts should be
checked as Indicated in (4).
slope at (2,0) is
11. EXAMPLES:
(a)
Semi-Polynomi
x(x
= x (x
y
2
y
2
2
3
= x (x
=
x (i
= (l
2
- 1)
- 1)
1)
2 3
)
= x(l
=
-x2
3
)
x(x
3
(
yC!
y
f
f
i)(x
a)
5
(
2
(
SKETCHING
2
)=a 2 x
-x
a(xy + a
y = x(a
x
SOME CURVES AND THEIR NAMES:
2.
y(a + x
[y = 0]
[x+y=0].
)=0
y+y
3
x +y
[x-0].
2
3
2a
= a
=a
x)x
[x + y = 0].
y =
y=0, x+y.O].
[x= 0,
Boydltch Curves (Lissajou)
[x + y =
Alysold (Catenary if a = c): aR =
fx
].
3ee Osgood's Mechanics for figures).

o)(y
c)x
Bullet Nose Curve
aV.
x-a + lV=0.
2
(x-y) (x-2y)(x-3f)
2a(
a (x+y)(x-2y) .
[fo,
^s
-^
= 1
Cartesian Oval: The locus of pointE

i, r E , to two fixed points satisfy tl
+ m-r 2 = a. The central Conies wll]
i
fecial cases.
2
x (x+y)(x-y)
+ ax
x-y)
2 3
=
a y
[x = a, x-y+a= 0,x-y =
x+y+f
U2
y )(y
- i+x
2
-
6x
+ 5x y + Jxy
2y
= 0].
+ 3xy - 1 =
'
Singular Pointa:
(o
a(
-x)
2)
=x3
[OUBp].
= x(x-l)
[Cuep].
:)
[Dout
Osculin-
Folium
2
2x y
xy
+ y
The
[Ol
Sin]
=
yj
2x y + x y
2x
tedPt].
+ 2x
+ 2xy
3X -
id].
the theory of Riemann sur

AMM, v J>k, p 199)
inverse of the Roses; a Cot
30lic Paraboloid, a curve

studies of physical optics
'
SKETCHING
SKETCHING
2o4
SOME CURVES AND THEIR NAMES (Continued):
SOME CURVES AND THEIR NAMES (Continued):

2
2
Kampy le of Eudoxus: a x = b (x + y
Eudoxus to solve the cube root problem.
2
Kappa Curve
y (x
+ y
Trident
used by
2
xy = ax 3 + bx + ex +
d.
Trlsectrlx of Catalan Identical vith the Tsc

an, l'Hospital's Cubic.
:
ha usen Cubl
= a x
2
= a(y
Trlsectrlx of Maclaurin: x(x + y
rve resembling the Folium of Descart
)
Lame Curves
(|)" + (*) = 1.
Pearls of Sluze
11
= k(a
(See Evolutes)
a
x) s -x ,
nt
Rhod ne
Poi
0ll
x). Pear shaped.
Cubi
r ' 0S
3
See this
Spii al:
,,
= x 3 (a
where the expo-
Tschirnh .usen
2
Pirlform: b y
us
pTofMlo 1
Vivian!
of HipT
Ider tical with the Witch rf A S nesi

of t he Horopter.
Cur\ e:
spherical curv 3 x = a. si
projections
Strophold, and Kappa
The
f,
th e Hyperbo a, Le
(Ro es)
olds.
See.
Oc t.
Semi Tr .dent:
xy
= 3b (a
(1933)
x)
2
x(y * + b ) - aby
x(y
2
)
e,
.M.M.: 28 (1921) 141; 38 (1931
BIBLIOGRAPHY
= aby
Echols, W. H.: Calculus Henry Holt (1908) XV.

Frost, P.: Curve Tracing Macmillan (I892).
Hilton, H.: Plane Algebraic Curves Oxford (1932).
,
xy
= m(x
b xy
c
xy
d xy
= (a
+ 2bx + b
-
x)
3
:
Pyramid.
(a- x)(b
(x-a)(x-b)(x-c)
x)
WLc-le:
Urn, Goblet.
Serpentine
A projection of the Horopter
planes taken parallel to its axis.
TrartrijTat aônstant distance from the
Kurve
(b)
C
5
i of
HISTORY: The inve
with the ancient Greeks. The famous Equiangular Spiral
was discovered by Descartes, its properties of selfreproduction by James (Jacob) Bernoulli (1654-1705) who
requested that the curve be engraved upon his tomb with
the phrase "Eadem mutata resurgo" ("I shall arise the
same, though changed").*
polar
(c)
Arc Length
!d)
Its pedal
to
-dT r
(|f)(^f) = (r-cot a) (-5%
a = PT,
aspect
aal).
SPIRALS
the
where
is measured from
_s
us ai:
5ole
equal E
PC i
(e) Evolutt
angle PCO = a. 0C i
first and all succe
/olute
EQUIANGULAR SPIRAL:
(g)
It is, Fig.
of a Loxodrome
holding a fixe
compass), from
(h) Its Catacaustic

source at the pole are Equiangular Spirals
(i) Lengths of radii drawn at equal angles to each

other form a geometric pro gression
.
(a) The curve cuts all radii
If the spiral be rolled along a line,

(j) Roulette
the path of the pole, or of the center of curvature
of the point of contact, is a straight line
:
SPIRALS
(k)
The septa of the Nautili
are Equiangular Spirals. The
(See Byerly.) Accordingly,
.,.ei.e!,
curve seems also to appear
,,
in the arrangement of seeds

in the sunflower, the forma
an Equiangular Spiral
2.
Conan bu
|n
s
tract St Lll
"
.
i
1
lei
th of
bx
1
1
.'..;;:
".'
i
i
|r = ae
THE SPIRALS:
following:
bu lied
l|
inclui
r = ae|
particu-
e ctan t.
He prob-
an nth involute. Then all first In-
(o
+ f)de
= ce +
/f(e)de,
represents the distance measured along
value for
n
|
=*
where
for all successive involutes:
_iVdc.l
Fig.
center. This suggests the descriprolling without slipping

circle, Fig. 187(a). Here OT = AB = a. Let A
art at A', B at 0. Then AT = arc A' T = r = a6 Thus
while A traces
Archimedes
describes the Spiral of
Involute of the Circle. Note that the center of
tation is T. Thus TA and TB, respectively, are
-rmals to the paths of A and B.
.
-/.'- b
co 2 /2!
+ =e /3: +
...+[/ f(e)de,]
SPIRALS
(h)
The ortho-
graphic projection
of a Conical Helix
on a plane per-
pendicular to its
axis is a Spiral
Equiangular Spiral
(Pig. 188).
le) Since r = a G and r = ae, this spiral has found

wide use as a cam, Pig. 187(h) to produce uniform
linear motion. The cam is pivoted at the pole and
kept in contact with a spring device, has uniform
teclprocal (Varignon 1704)

Son
times called Hyperbolic because of its analogy to the
.
(f)
It
Inverse of a Reciprocal Spiral
(g) "The casings of centrifugal pumps

such as the
German supercharger, follow this spiral to allow a
which increases uniformly in volume with each degr
of rotation of the fan blades to be conducted to t
outlet without creating back-pressure." - P. S. Jo
18th Yearbook, N.C.T.M. (1945) 219.
,
initial line.
SPIRALS
SPIRALS
r
21
all circles (cente
"IT.
)
The area bounded
spect to the pole
irve and two radii
^P
of a Parabolic
(c)
Its asymptote
is the initial lin
pole describes a Tractrix.

is a path of a Parti
which variea as the cube of tt
Lemniscate 4h and Spirals 3f
Limit r- sin
e
= a x)
H*
Limit ayC sinB _
distance. (See
(because of its
(d)
(Fermat I636
191
The Ionic
folute
Together
""*
j^*
mmmmm^,
1
the Whorl is made
with the curve

emanating from a circle drawn aboul
3.
11
THE SINUSOIDAL SPIRALS:

= a n sin n8.
n = a n co:
(n a rational number).
laurin in 1718.
ituus (Cotes, 1722).
(a)
(Similar
* = (n + l)r"i ~ (n + l)p
ilch affords a simple geometrical method of contracting the center of curvature.
The areas of all circular
SPIRALS
1.
(a)
it
table
EULER'S SPIRAL: (Also called Clothoi
in integer.
pedals are again
Sinusoidal Spirals,
(f
of an elastic spring.
A body acted upon by a central force inversely
proportional to the (2n + 3) power of its distance

moves upon a Sinusoidal Spiral.
g) i
n
-2
-1
-1/2
-1/3
1/3
Curve
Rectangular Hyperbola
Line
Parabola
Tschirnhausen Cubic
Cayley's Sextic
1/2
Cardloid
Lemniscate
(In connection with this family see also Pedal Equa

tions 6 and Pedal Curves 3)
n
11 " 1
r' = - a sin nf
(h) Tangent Construction: Since r
COTES' SPIRALS:
These are the paths
of a particle subject to a central
5.
?ce proportional
3
the
c
.
The
eluded in the equa-
1.
0:
the Equian gular Spiral;
2.
the Recipr ocal Spiral;
a-
STROPHOID
HISTORY: First conceived b
about 1670.
Barrov
a-c
DESCRIPTION: Given the

curve f(x,y) =
and the
fixed points
and A. Let
K he the intersection
1.
..... in n6
5-?
The figure
(the
inverse of
Roses).
of the Spiral
of a Parabola
The Glissett
Spiral: r-sln 28
able line through 0. The

locus of the points Pi
and P 2 on OK such that
KPi = KP 2 = KA is the
general Strophoid.
2.
SPECIAL CASES: If the
rve f =
American Mathematic al M:.:it,IiJ y v 25, pp. 276-282.

Byerly, W. E.: Calculus , Ginn (1889) 133Edwards, J.: Calculus , Macmillan (1892) 529, etc.
Encyclopaedia Britannlca 14th Ed., under "Curves,
Special."
Spezlelle ebene Kurven Leipsig (I9O8)
Wieleitner, H.
:
247, etc.
Wlllson, F. N.; Graphics
Graphics Press (1909) 65 f f
.7
circle of fixed radius
,*
^~eS
STROPHOID
2 l8
STROPHOID
asymptote) touching it at R. The line AR through the

fixed point A, distant a units from M, meets the circle
in P. The locus of P is the Right Strophoid. For,
(0V)(VB) = (VP)
3-
EQUATIONS:
Fig. 196(a), 197(a):
x(x
2a
and thus BP is perpendicular to OP. Accordingly, angle

KPA = angle KAP, and so
KP = KA,
the situation of Fig.
a)
196(a).
Fig. 197(h):
4.
A (loop, Fig. 196(a)) =
5.
(c)
ED = a-cos 2<f sec
and
AP = AK = 2a-tan e.sitif = 2a-cot 2cfsin
Thus
AP = ED,
<j
(l +
p.
It is the Pedal of a Parabola with respect
It
is a
s pecial
Kierc id.
GENERAL ITEMS:
1
i
This Strophoid, formed when f =
identified as a Cissoid of a line and a circle. Thus,
Fig. 197, drav the fixed circle through A with center
0. Let E and D be the intersections of AP extended wi
the line L and the fixed circle. Then in Fig. 197(a):
Fig. 195(h):
graph ic proje
Vivia ni's Cur ve.
(e)
I he
Carpe nter's
the
ation of the
(see Cis
Ci
).
with one edge passir g

gh the f
point B (Fig. 198)
while
moves along the line
a + x)
TRACTRIX
HISTORY: Studied by Huygens in 1692 and later by Leibni
Jean Bernoulli, Liouvllle, and Beltrami. AI30 called
Tractory and Equl tangential Curve.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Encyclopaedia B
mica
14th Ed., under "Curves,
ionrs de Geometrie Analytlque
Fig. 199
1. DESCRIPTION: It is the path of a particle P pulled by
an inextensible string whose end A moves along a line.
The general Tractrlx is produced if A moves along any
specified curve. This is the track of a toy wagon pulled
along by a child; the track of the back wheel of a
bicycle.
e P:
(x,y) b
along the x -axis. Then,

always towar d A,
'
t-T^
2
|
mce
lng
the
2.
EQUATIONS:
= a -In
METRICAL
se<
PR<
A =
[/"
'
dy (from pa
the circle
she)
(V, = half
t le
(2* = area o
].
volume of th
sphere of
the sphere of radius a)
The Tractrix is utili

See Leslie, Craig.)
f)
The solution of the problem of

(e) Schiele' s Pivot
the proper form of a pivot revolving in a step where
the wear is to be evenly distributed over the face
of the bearing is an arc of the Tractrix. (See Miller
and Lilly.)
:
'
the
irface
g) The mean or Gauss cur
erated by revolving the ci
he arithmetic mean of maximum and minimum curvatur
a point of the surface) is a negative constant
1/a). It is for this reason, together with items
and (d) Par. 3, that the surface is called the
". It forms a useful model in the stud
Wolfe, Eisenhart, G-raustein.)
of geometry. (Se
)
Prom the primary definition (see figure), it is

orthogonal trajectory of a family of circles of
istant radius with centers on a line.
)
TRACTRIX
224
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Craig: Treatise c n Prelections,
Edwards, J.: Calc ulus, Macmillan (1892) 357Eisenhart, L. P. Differential Geometry, Ginn (1909)
Encyclopaedia Bri tannica: 14th Ed. under "Curves,
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Trigonometry seems to have been developed, vi
certain traces of Indian influence, first by the ArabE
about 800 as an aid to the solution of astronomical pi
lems. Prom them the knowledge probably passed to the
Greeks. Johann MUller (e.1464) wrote the first treatiE
De triangulis omnimodis this was followed closely by
other
:
Differential Geometry, Macmillan

(1935).
Leslie: Geometric al Analysis (1821).
Miller and Lilly Mechanics, D. C. Heath (1915) 285.
r Plane Curves, Dublin (1879) 289.
Nor
Wolfe, H. E.
'
'
DESCRIPTION:
\J
/\
vy
/
2.
j:ttlr.
\
\/
/ \
INTERRELATIONS:
(a)
/I
Prom the figure:
(A + B + C =
71)
I\
rr
WS - 1/
The Euler form
(b)
(1
cos Sx)
(3ein x
(cob kx
(1
sin 3x)
(c os3x +
+ 3)
l+oos
2x + 3)
Bin 5 x- 5sin Jx+lC

16
(c os 5x+5c ob 3x+10cos x)
16
(e)
n
2
n + 1
2
sin kx
mf
n + 1
111
sin
(f)
(o)
A Reduction Formula
From the Euler form given In
(b)
3.
c
= 2cos(k-l)x-cosx
cos(k-2)x
= 2sin(k-l)x-cosx
sin(k-2)x
SERIES:
Thus to convert from a power of the sine or cosi

'
n
cos x
=(^~)
n
sln x =
expand and replace
expand and replace
(~r^)
k
k
+"z
-
by 2-c
by 21-
"
315
15
" i+5
"
9^5
"
V725
2835
+
""
,
j.
5x*
277
61 T e
5-
GENERAL ITEMS:
Periodicity All trigonometric func"

periodic. For example:
(a)
15120
360
y = A'sin Bx
*.
JL. +
1- 5'5
*L
has
period:
4r
and
ami
leflned by the differential
Its solution is y = A-eos (Bt +9), in which the

arbitrary constants are
+
5?
"
7x7
5?
"
'
A:
the amplitude of the vibration
the phase-lap:
arc CBCX =
I + I
ill
_1_ + ill5
J_
.^
x2>
DIFFERENTIALS AMD INTEGRALS:
/*
* l-1
--|ox
-cot,
=
|
m|t m f|.
The Sine (or Cosine) curve is the orthogonal pro jection of a cylindrical Helix Fig. 203(a), (a curve
cutting all elements of the cylinder at the same
angle) onto a plane parallel to the axis of the
cylinder (See Cycloid 5e.)
(c)
Fig 203(b). Let the intersecting plar
cylinder:
(z-l)
+ x2 = 1
oils
A worthwhile model of this may be fashioned from

roll of paper. When slicing through the roll, do
flatten it.
s
r
airplane travels on a
great circle around the
earth, the plane of the
arbitrary cylinder circumscribing the earth

in an Ellipse
If the
cylinder be cut and laid
flat as in (d) above,
.
leriod of
Theory
This is exhibited
Fig. 205.
Trigo-
f Prentice-Hall.)
Hurler Development of a given function is the
jsition of fundamental Sine waves of ir.croasir
lency to form successive approximations to the
Lbration. For example, the "step" function
TROCHOIDS
HISTORY: Special Trochoids were first onceived by Diirer
in 1525 and by Roemer in 1674, the lat
with his study of the best form for ge r teeth.
1.
DESCRIPTION: Trochoids are Roulette
the locus of a
curve that roll upon

'ixed curve. The r
1
rer sally applied
md
Epi-
Hypotrochoids
jath of a point r gidly

ittached to a cir le
-oiling upon a fi> ed
2. EQUATIONS:
;os(mt/b)
iln(at/b)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
x = n-cos t + k-cos(nt/b)
y = n-sin t
- .k- S in(nt/b)
and Hypocycloids if k = b)
TROCHOIDS
3.
GENERAL ITEMS:
line (Pig. 208):
(c) The Ellipse is the Hypotrochoid where a = 2b

Consider generation by the point P [Pig. 209(a)]
Draw OP to X. Then, since arc TP equals arc TX, P was
originally at X and P thus lies always on the line OX.
Likewise, the diametrically opposite point Q lies always on 0Y, the line perpendicular to OX. Every point
of the rolling circle accordingly describes a diameter
of the fixed circle. The action here then is equivalent to that of a rod sliding with its ends upon two
perpendicular lines - that is, a Trammel of Archimedes. Anjr point F of the rod describes an Ellipse
whose axes are OX and OY Furthermore, any point G,
rigidly connected with the rolling circle, describes
an Ellipse with the lines traced by the extremities
of the diameter through G as axes (Nasir, about I250)
.
Double Generation
If the small
209(b)
and tr
RX pas ses alwa ys through a
smalle
Consider
diamet er. Sine e SO is a
passes through a
.
is a L
rollin I circle "described
-Hi
Envel Pe Roulette: Any line rigidly

attached to
the rolling circle envelopes a
Circle
(See Llmacon
3k; Roulettes h; Glissettes
5.)
.
(e)
The Rose Curves: r = a cos ne
are Hypotrochoids crenerateri hy

2 ( n + !)
rolling within a fixed
r - a sin
,
nfl
ircte of radius
01 rele
f radius
the diameter PQ envelopes an Astroid
units distant from its center.
'di in 1752
(First noticec
and then by Ridolphi in 1844. See
philosopher, and somnambulist), appointed profes

Mathematics at Bologna by Pope Benedict XIV. Tre
earlier (before 1666) by Fermat and in 1703 by G
Also called the Versiera.
aa
-tip,
VI (1939) 211; VIII (19U)

XLTI U9k6) 57.1
135
a:
= 2(a
Thus in polar co<
e)
=2(a
b)
oo S
^-e.
(f<
'engelly: Theoretical Naval Arc
I
study of ocean waves).
Edwards, J.: Calculus Macmlllan (1892) 343 tt
Lorla, G.
Spezlelle algebralsche und Transzendente
ebene Kurven Lelpsig (1902) II 109
Salmon, G. Higher Plane Curves , Dublin (1879) VII.
Williamson, B.: Calculus Longmans, Green (1895) 3^8 f
,
DESCRIPTION: A sec ant OA through a selecte

on the fixed circle c uts the circle in Q. QP
diameter OK, AP paralle
la
P
The pathof p is the"
1.
WITCH OF AGNESI
3.
(a) Area between the
times the area of the
(b)
0,149,151,152,155,
Centroid of this
s
Vx =
(d)
Flex points occur
.;;..!.
<,i.
(0,f).
(c)
te
....
'
i-
-oduced by doubling the ordinate s of the Witch

irve was studied by J. Gregory in I658 and use
3ibnltz in 1674 in deriving the famous express
Edwards, J.: Calculus , Macmillan (1892) 355Encyclopaedia Britannica 14th Ed., under "Cu
:
noulli: 1,1
1,93,145,152,175,206,22
ant: 108,175
4,223,233,255
2,143,161,165,185,218,2
'
7,66,68,72,79,85,135,139,11*9,
Hathaway: 171
Helix: 69,203,20
?2,155, 155,173, 187, 197,201+,
Helmet:
mential Curros: 93-97;20
Hessian
Lutes: 86-92:2,5,15,16,19,20,
npass Construction: 128
201*
ichold: 51-53:50,108,109,120,
k:
files:
;37, 38,39
36-55:20,78,79,87,88,
99
3>+-3
oat:
237
L12,130, 131, 138,11*0, H9,156,
(eeespiraiB
'
toiler
163, 173,1?, 189, 195, 203
Hippias, Quadrat rix of: 201*

Hippopede of Eud oxus: 203
Hire: 138,175
onal Curves: 190

c
59,57,76,189
Double generation: 81
Duality: 1*8
Durer: 175,233
point: 10,56,87,90,196,198
ilnant:
t.
.ubic: 203,205
Huygene: 15,66,6 7,86,135,152,
of Descartes: 9 8-99;193,
um: 72; (Simple, Double,
Hyacinth: 186
Hyperbola: 56-55 19,27,63,78,
79,88,101,112,115,116,129,130,
"e": 93,9**
159 11+0, 11+1+, 11+9, 157, 163, 161*,

168, 169, 173, 182, 181*, 189, 195,
,
Elastic spring: 215

Ellipse: 36-55:2,19,27,63,78,79,
88 , 109 , 111 , 112 120 , 139 , 11*0
,
11*9,
157, 158,161*, 169, 173, 178,
179, 180, 182, 183,181+, 189, 195,

202, 299, 230,231*
capital's: 203,205
tola: 56-59:89,186,197
Elliptic Catenary: 179,182,181*

tare lopes: 75-80;2,3,15, 50,72,
i
'('3,85,87,91,108,109,110,111,
s: 1,69,81,137,233
no's Lemniscate: 203
112, 135, 139, l'* 1 *, 153, 155,160,
161, 175, 180, 181, 23 1*, 235

180. 161, 181*, 197, 207, 213, 215,
8,139,11*9,216
Epi: 203
Epicycloid: 81-85;
ter of: 5 *, 55,11*5,150,213
20,27,90,192,197,199,200,
1
Cusp:
Cylinder: 229,230
Cycloid: 65-70;l,l*,65, 80,89, 92,
122,125,126,136,137,138,139,
172,17l*,176,177,179,l80,l8l,
126,139,152,163,1
180,182,183
Epitrochoids: (see
Equation of second
188
Equiangular Spiral
Equiangular)
Equitangential Curv
182,183, (see also Epicycloids
Eudoxus, Eippopede
Kampyle of
da Vinci, Leonardo: 170

Deltoid: 71-7'*; Bk ,126 ,lk0 ,16k
Euler: 67,71,82
Euler form: 9>*,ll6,
85,87,125,126,155,156,161+,
176,182,183,208,209,222
Isolated point: 192,197,200,
91,111,112,129,136,138,139,
urve: 17O-I7I
11+0,11+9, 156, 157, 161, 163,161+,
Kakeya: 72
168,169,173,176,162,183,187,
Mercator: 118,230
Kappa Curve:
17!+ ,?0'+,205/222
Minimal Surfaces: 13,183

Monge: 56
Kierold: l)+l-ll+2;29,33,219
Kite: 1 5 8
Morley: 171
Lagrange: 15,67,75
Lambert: 113
Lame' Curve:
Leibnitz:
Motion, line:
81+,
132, 158,210,
23>+
87,l6l+,20l+
Law of Orowth
or Decay)
91+
56,68,155,175,186,
221,238
Multiple point
20,192,197,199,
Peaucelller cell: 10,28,52,131

Pedai Curves: 160-165)5,9,15,29,
Mapler: 93
Hapkin ring: 17
Masir: 23I+
1)+7;9,10,63, 150, 157, 163, 168,
Neil: 186
nephroid: 152-15l+;17,73,8l+,87,
Light rays: 15,86

Limacon of Pascal: 1U8-151;5,7,
16,31,108,110,121,130,139,11+0,
163,231+, 235
Line motion: 8>+, 132,158,210,23)+
Linkages: 6,9,25,51,152,1 K6, 151,
158,183
Liouvllle: 221
175
Nicomedes, Chonchoid of: 31-33;
pin^fSe
Piriform:
201+
108,11+2
node: 192,197,199,200
normal Curve: 95,96
normals: 91
Bhumb line: 118

Hlccati: 113
Rldolphl: 235
Eoberval: 65,66,11+8
Eoemer: 1,81,233
Eooes: 85, 163,17!+, 216,235
Roulettes: 175-185;13,29,6
79, 110, 135, 136, ''07, 212,"
235,235 (see Trochoids)
Points, Singular: 192,199,200,
Polars: l+l,te,l+3,l+l+,133
Polynomial Curves: 61+, 89,
Optics: 1+0,203
19!+, 198
Polynomial Curves, Semi-: 61,87,
Orthogonal trajectory: 223

Orthoptic: 3,73,138,139,11+9
Loria: 186
Osculinf lexion: 198, 195

Maclaurin: 11+3,160, 163,182, 205,
Pedal Equations: l66-l69jl62,

177,213
Hewton: 28,51,56,60,67,68,81,
UrT6
"urves)
Reflection- (see Caustics
65, 72,79, 85,136,138,ll+l+,ll+9,
167,179,182,203,207,209,211+,
Ovals: 131,11+9,203
1-00
202
L^property:
INDEX
2kk
Singular points: 62,192,197,
199,200,202
Sturm: 26
Suardi: 235
Sketching: 188-205:155
Tangent Construction: 3,13,29,
Slope: 191
Blot machine: 96
Sluze, Pearls of: 201+
Snowflake Curve: 106
32, kl, hk ,'*6,6C, 73, 35, 119,139,

H5, 150, 153, l68,21k,222
at origin: 191,192
Tautochrcne: 67,85
i'angeritB
Soap films: 13,183

-06-216
1
Spirals,
Archimedean: 20, 156,16k,
1-59,
Cotes'; 72,169,215,216
Equiangular: 20,63,87,126,
136,163,169,171,173,206,
207,208,209,211,216
Euler: 136,215
Fermat's: (see Spirals, ParaHyperbolic: (see Spirals,
Eeciprocal)
Parabolic: 169,212,213
Poinsot's- 20k
Eeciprocal: 182,210,211,
212,216,222
Sinusoidal: 20,63, 139, IkO,
Ikk,l6l,l62,l63,l68,203,
213,21k
Spiric Lines of Perseus: 20k
21 9
Stubbs: 127
Taylor: 75
-:erquem: 160
:c,~.x s
9,20k
;
137, 17k, 182, 20k, 212

Trains: 2k
Trajectory, orthogonal:
223
Trammel of Archimedes: 3,77,108,

120,23k
Transition curve: 56,215
Trifolium: ( see Folium)
Trigonometric functions: 225-232
Trisection: 33,36,58,205
Trisectrix: lk9, 163,203, 205
Trochoids: 23?-236;120,122,158,
139, lk8, 176, 20k
Trophy: 20k
Tschirnhausen: 15,152,203,203,
21k
Tulip: 186
Varignon: 211
Vibration: 68,230,231,232

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SEELEY

AND THEIR PROPERTIES

United States Military Academy

EDWARDS ANN ARBOR

a Tangent and the Rad

well Intrinsic Egua

Evolutes, Curve Sketching, and

Space Is provided occasionally for the reader to ir

The Cycloidal curves, including the Astroid,

-oiling upon the ins

the circle of radius

has DT as diameter. Now, PD is parallel

arc T'P = arc T'X. Accordingly,

through T, P, D. Since angle DPT = |,

Double Generation: (Pig. Jh) Let

(Origin at center of fixed circ

he oardioid be pivo ted at the cus P and

all times, an;;le

a(l + cos 0),

KeoTO and Paires: Mechanism

McGraw Hill (1931)-

crossed parallelograms, joined

Sketch and -Model

a plane paral--'en formed by

its center, of a Rectanrular

The points P and P' of the linkage shown in

are focal radii (measured from F

the first to inv stigate

true form and ga

Tangents drawn to the curves y =

The path of B, an involute

(e) It is a plane section of the surface of least area

14th Ed. under "Curves,

Vallis! Edinburgh Trans

2nd Ed. (I896)

Dublin (1879) 287.

catacaustic and dia aus-

With usual x,y ax.

With the source S at ,

With the source S on the

Caustics by. Refraction ( Dlacausties ) at a Line L

and refraction be 6i and

leal Monthly: 28(1921) 182,187Trans

The quantity p is called the power of the point P with

The locus of all points P which have equal power I

point called the radical center , a point having

Thus to construct the radical axis of two circles,

nine-point circle of a triangle is its orthocenter.

arcs AXB BYC, AZC

Studied y Archimedes, s me of its

jSb + BYC = AZC.

angle subtended at the center by each circle of the

progression. This is the cube-root problem since

=-). Generalizations follow. As early as

device for the construction of the Cissoid of Diocl

and the fixed point 0. Le

Let the two given

rough 0, and the line L

The generation may be effected by the inte)

Diodes: V(rev. about asymp.)

x(area betw. curve and asymp.

The point Q describes a Strophoid (See Strophoid 5e).

(See Fig. 26) A has the

at B moves in the direction BQ. Normals to AC and BQ