PREAMBLE HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems, depending on
the temperature and pressure, by dissipating heat. The fundamental modes of heat transfer
are conduction or diffusion, convection and radiation.
Heat transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower
temperature. Heat transfer changes the internal energy of both systems involved according to
the First Law of Thermodynamics. The Second Law of Thermodynamics defines the concept of
thermodynamic entropy, by measurable heat transfer.
Thermal equilibrium is reached when all involved bodies and the surroundings reach the same
temperature. Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a
change in temperature.
Heat is defined in physics as the transfer of thermal energy across a well-defined boundary
around a thermodynamic system. The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of work that a
thermodynamic system can perform. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential, designated by the
letter "H", that is the sum of the internal energy of the system (U) plus the product
of pressure (P) and volume (V). Joule is a unit to quantify energy, work, or the amount of heat.
Heat transfer is a process function (or path function), as opposed to functions of state; therefore,
the amount of heat transferred in a thermodynamic process that changes the state of
a system depends on how that process occurs, not only the net difference between the initial and
final states of the process.
Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is calculated with the heat transfer coefficient,
the proportionality between the heat flux and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of
heat. Heat flux is a quantitative, vectorial representation of the heat flow through a surface.
In engineering contexts, the term heat is taken as synonymous to thermal energy. This usage has
its origin in the historical interpretation of heat as a fluid (caloric) that can be transferred by
various causes, and that is also common in the language of laymen and everyday life.
The transport equations for thermal energy (Fourier's law), mechanical momentum (Newton's
law for fluids), and mass transfer (Fick's laws of diffusion) are similar, and analogies among
these three transport processes have been developed to facilitate prediction of conversion from
any one to the others.
Thermal engineering concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of heat transfer. As
such, heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the economy. Heat transfer is classified

into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes.
The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:

Advection
Advection is the transport mechanism of a fluid substance or conserved property from
one location to another, depending on motion and momentum.
Conduction or diffusion
The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact. Thermal
conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat and evaluated primarily in terms
of Fourier's Law for heat conduction.
Convection
The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion. The
average temperature is a reference for evaluating properties related to convective heat
transfer.
Radiation
The transfer of energy from the movement of charged particles within atoms is converted
to electromagnetic radiation.
Advection
By transferring matter, energyincluding thermal energyis moved by the physical transfer of
a hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a
bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical
example is thermal hydraulics. This can be described by the formula:
where Q is heat flux (W/m), is density (kg/m),
is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/
(kg*K)), T is the change in temperature (K), is velocity (m/s).
Conduction
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms
and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their
energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction
when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to
another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between
solid objects in thermal contact. Fluidsespecially gasesare less conductive. Thermal
contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.
Steady state conduction (see Fourier's law) is a form of conduction that happens when the
temperature difference driving the conduction is constant, so that after an equilibration time,

the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not change any
further. In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount
of heat coming out.
Transient conduction (see Heat equation) occurs when the temperature within an object
changes as a function of time. Analysis of transient systems is more complex and often calls
for the application of approximation theories or numerical analysis by computer.

Convection
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields)
by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire
plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural
convection". All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another
form of convection is forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a
pump, fan or other mechanical means.
Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by
the movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer.
Bulk motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as (for
example) between a solid surface and the fluid.[11] Convection is usually the dominant form
of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat
transfer, convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat conduction
within the fluid (diffusion) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming. [12] The process
of transport by fluid streaming is known as advection, but pure advection is a term that is
generally associated only with mass transport in fluids, such as advection of pebbles in a
river. In the case of heat transfer in fluids, where transport by advection in a fluid is always
also accompanied by transport via heat diffusion (also known as heat conduction) the process
of heat convection is understood to refer to the sum of heat transport by advection and
diffusion/conduction.
Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk fluid motions (streams and currents) are
caused by buoyancy forces that result from density variations due to variations of
temperature in the fluid. Forced convection is a term used when the streams and currents in
the fluid are induced by external meanssuch as fans, stirrers, and pumpscreating an
artificially induced convection current.
Convection-cooling
Convective cooling is sometimes described as Newton's law of cooling:
The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the temperature difference between the body
and its surroundings.

However, by definition, the validity of Newton's law of cooling requires that the rate of heat
loss from convection be a linear function of ("proportional to") the temperature difference
that drives heat transfer, and in convective cooling this is sometimes not the case. In general,
convection is not linearly dependent on temperature gradients, and in some cases is strongly
nonlinear. In these cases, Newton's law does not apply.

Convection vs. conduction

In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection
can be considered to compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving
down by convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be
stopped due to its buoyancy, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so
fast that its driving buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very
low, a large temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong.
The Rayleigh number (
convection.

) is a measure determining the relative strength of conduction and

where

g is acceleration due to gravity,

is the density with

ends,

is the dynamic viscosity,

is the Thermal diffusivity,

is the volume thermal expansivity (sometimes denoted elsewhere),

T is the temperature,

is the kinematic viscosity, and

L is characteristic length.

being the density difference between the lower and upper

Radaiation

Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (solid or fluid). It
is the transfer of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the

same laws. Earth's radiation balance depends on the incoming and the outgoing thermal
radiation, Earth's energy budget. Anthropogenic perturbations in the climate system are
responsible for a positive radiative forcing which reduces the net longwave radiation loss
to space.
Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter as electromagnetic waves, due to the pool
of thermal energy in all matter with a temperature above absolute zero. Thermal radiation
propagates without the presence of matter through the vacuum of space.
Thermal radiation is a direct result of the random movements of atoms and molecules in
matter. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles
(protons and electrons), their movement results in the emission of electromagnetic
radiation, which carries energy away from the surface.
The Stefan-Boltzmann equation, which describes the rate of transfer of radiant energy, is
as follows for an object in a vacuum :
For radiative transfer between two objects, the equation is as follows:
where Q is the heat flux, is the emissivity (unity for a black body), is the StefanBoltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin or Rankine). Radiation
is typically only important for very hot objects, or for objects with a large temperature
difference.
Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power. Unlike
conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can be concentrated
in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating solar
power generation. For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats thePS10 solar
power tower and during the day it can heat water to 285 C (545 F).

Types of phase transition occurring in the four fundamental states of matter, include:

Solid - Deposition, freezing and solid to solid transformation.

Gas - Boiling/evaporation,

recombination/deionization, and sublimation.

Liquid - Condensation and melting/fusion

Plasma - Ionization.

Devices

Heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of heat or thermal

energy to mechanical energy which can then be used to do mechanical work

Thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device and widely used type of temperature

sensor for measurement and control, and can also be used to convert heat into electric power.

Thermoelectric cooler is a solid state electronic device that pumps (transfers) heat from
one side of the device to the other when electric current is passed through it. It is based on
the Peltier effect.

Thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes heat to flow preferentially in
one direction.

Heat exchangers
A heat exchanger is used for more efficient heat transfer or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are
widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and chemical
processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the
hot coolant fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's surface.
Common types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow. In
parallel flow, both fluids move in the same direction while transferring heat; in counter flow, the
fluids move in opposite directions; and in cross flow, the fluids move at right angles to each
other. Common constructions for heat exchanger include shell and tube, double pipe, extruded
finned pipe, spiral fin pipe, u-tube, and stacked plate.
A heat sink is a component that transfers heat generated within a solid material to a fluid
medium, such as air or a liquid. Examples of heat sinks are the heat exchangers used in
refrigeration and air conditioning systems or the radiator in a car. A heat pipe is another heattransfer device that combines thermal conductivity and phase transition to efficiently transfer
heat between two solid interfaces.

Boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid
equals the pressure surrounding the liquid [19][20] and the liquid evaporates resulting in an abrupt
change in vapor volume.
Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a
corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be
said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase
transition.
At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer
rate is controlled by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased,
local boiling occurs and vapor bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and
collapse. This is sub-cooled nucleate boiling, and is a very efficient heat transfer mechanism. At
high bubble generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no longer increases
rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling, or DNB).

At similar standard atmospheric pressure and high temperatures, the hydrodynamically-quieter

regime of film boiling is reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low, but rise
slowly with temperature. Any contact between fluid and the surface that may be seen probably
leads to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor layer ("spontaneous nucleation"). At
higher temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux is reached (the critical heat flux, or CHF).
The Leidenfrost Effect demonstrates how nucleate boiling slows heat transfer due to gas bubbles
on the heater's surface. As mentioned, gas-phase thermal conductivity is much lower than liquidphase thermal conductivity, so the outcome is a kind of "gas thermal barrier".
Condensation
Condensation occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid. During
condensation, the latent heat of vaporization must be released. The amount of the heat is the
same as that absorbed during vaporization at the same fluid pressure.
There are several types of condensation:

Homogeneous condensation, as during a formation of fog.

Condensation in direct contact with subcooled liquid.

Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall of a heat exchanger: This is the most
common mode used in industry:

Filmwise condensation is when a liquid film is formed on the subcooled surface,

and usually occurs when the liquid wets the surface.

Dropwise condensation is when liquid drops are formed on the subcooled surface,
and usually occurs when the liquid does not wet the surface.
Dropwise condensation is difficult to sustain reliably; therefore, industrial equipment is
normally designed to operate in filmwise condensation mode.

Melting
Melting is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to
a liquid. The internal energy of a substance is increased, typically by the application of heat
or pressure, resulting in a rise of its temperature to the melting point, at which the ordering of
ionic or molecular entities in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid
liquefies. An object that has melted completely is molten. Substances in the molten state
generally have reduced viscosity with elevated temperature; an exception to this maxim is

the element sulfur, whose viscosity increases to a point due to polymerization and then
decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state.