Ground Improvement Techniques

Deep Soil Mixing

in Mine Tailings
for a 8 m
Deep Excavation
Y.W. Yee, V.R. Raju and
H.K. Yandamuri
Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur

Presented by

Keller Grundbau GmbH

Kaiserleistrae 44
D-63067 Offenbach
Tel. +49 69 8051-0
Fax +49 69 8051 244
E-mail: Info@KellerGrundbau.com

www.KellerGrundbau.com

Presented at the 16th Southeast Asian

Geotechnical Conference, 2007, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia

Technical paper 32-57 E

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Deep Soil Mixing in Mine Tailings

for a 8m Deep Excavation
Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju & H. K. Yandamuri
Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ywyee@keller.com.my

Abstract:
Soil improvement using mixing technology has advanced appreciably and can now solve a
broad spectrum of geotechnical problems. The method basically involves the introduction
and mechanical mixing of binder (cement or lime) with the in-situ soils to improve the
strength, deformation and permeability characteristics of the problematic soils. The process
procedure and operating parameters suitable for use in the delivery and mixing of cement in
the ground would depend on the ground conditions such as soil type, density, water content
and the end product required. This paper describes the design and construction methods
carried out to enable an 8m deep excavation in very soft ex-mining slime using Deep Soil
Mixing (DSM) technique for a sewage treatment plant in Kuala Lumpur. It is demonstrated
that cement mixing increased the shear strength of the soil by more than 50 times within a
short period which enable the excavation to be carried out at a steep 45 degrees whilst
excluding groundwater. This procedure proved to be more cost and time effective
compared to the original idea of using sheet piles, anchor tie-backs and grouting. The design
process is explained touching on soil investigation to derive engineering and process
parameters and subsequent computer simulations. The importance of quality control
measures during construction stage are emphasized and available proving methods for the
post construction stage are also discussed.

BACKGROUND

The Sewage Services Department of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government,
Malaysia proposed to construct a Sewage Treatment Plant in Kuala Lumpur. As part of the
treatment process, four (4) numbers of 23m diameter digesters were constructed at
equi-distance from each other (see Fig. 1). Each digester is essentially a 15m high tank with a
coned shaped (45 degree) base buried 8m below ground.
To construct the cone shaped base, it was necessary to firstly, excavate the soil. Being a
former tin mining land, the ground is underlain by very soft slime. Conventional excavation
method would require multiple handling of installing anchored sheet piles and subsequent
removal of soft slime before replacement with competent soil formed at 45 degrees. An
alternative method was realised using deep soil mixing technique which involved treating the

Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju and H. K. Yandamui, Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

soft ground beneath the tank footprint and subsequent excavation of the cone shaped base
without the need of any excavation support system.

Fig.1 Typical view of four digesters

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SITE LOCATION

The site is located off Tasik Titiwangsa in Kuala Lumpur. The site is a former tin mining land
and situated adjacent to private dwellings. Construction works were required to cause
minimal disruption to these surrounding properties, especially with regards to ground
movement and noise pollution. The four digest-ers are located at the north-east corner of
the site. As shown on the aerial view (Fig. 2), the four digesters are arranged at equal
distance from each other and named N1, N2, S1 and S2.
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Deep Soil Mixing in Mine Tailings for a 8m Deep Excavation

Fig.2 Arial view of the site showing location of digesters

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SUBSOIL CONDITIONS

Being a former tin mining area, the site is underlain by highly variable soil conditions. Very
soft slime was found at the foot-prints of 3 of the digesters (N1, S1 and S2) while loose sand
with slime layers was found at one of the digesters (N2). The depth of limestone bedrock
typically varied between 7m and 13m below ground. The groundwater table was about 2m
below ground.
The slime has typically the following characteristics: unit weight 1.5t/m3; moisture content
80% - 100%; liquid limit 70% - 80%; plasticity index 30% - 40%. Geonor vane shear test
showed undrained shear strength (Cu) of between 5kPa and 10kPa. Typical result of dynamic
penetration test (DPT) showing extent of slime (essentially zero blow count) is shown in
Fig. 3.
The loose sand (beneath N2) has typically the following characteristics: unit weight 1.7t/ m3;
moisture content 50%. Typical result of dynamic penetration test (DPT) showing the mixed
soil conditions is shown in Fig. 4, generally less than 10 blows / 10cm. Limited SPT tests
done on the loose sand, which showed SPT N between 3 to 8 blows / 30cm. Table 1
summarises the typical subsoil conditions for the four digesters.

Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju and H. K. Yandamui, Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Fig. 3 Typical result of DPT showing slime below N1, S1 and S2

Digester
Reference
Digesters
N1, S1 and
S2

Typical Subsoil Conditions

Top level

Description

0m
1m

Fill material
Very soft slime
Soft to firm sandy
clay
Weathered limestone
Fill material
Loose silty sand
(with slime layers)
Weathered limestone

8m
7 13m
0m

Digester N2

1m
12m

Table 1 Summary of typical subsoil conditions

Deep Soil Mixing in Mine Tailings for a 8m Deep Excavation

Fig. 4 Typical result of DPT showing loose sand with inter-bedded slime layers below N2
4

GROUND IMPROVEMENT CONCEPT

The objective of ground improvement was to treat the soft ground by improving its strength
and stiffness characteristics such that excavation could be carried out safely. The soil was
also required to be made fairly impermeable to water to reduce risk of piping and ground
loss.
After reviewing many options, it was found that Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) presented the most
technically acceptable and cost effective solution.
The soft soil would be mechanically mixed with cement and the end product would be a stiff
stabilised soil to allow the required 8m deep excavation. A schematic drawing showing the
DSM treated block and geometry of excavation is shown in Fig.5.

Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju and H. K. Yandamui, Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Fig. 5 Schematic of DSM treated block

5

DEEP SOIL MIXING TECHNIQUE

Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) technology was invented almost 30 years ago and is a form of
ground improvement involving the introduction and mechanical mixing of in-situ soft soils
with cementitious compound (CDIT 2002). The compound (which is of-ten referred to as
the binder) can be injected into the ground in dry or wet form. A mixing tool is drilled to
the intended depth and then withdrawn to form individual columns (diameter can range
from 0.5m to 1.5m). The tool is lowered and withdrawn at pre-determined rate of rotation,
rate of penetration and rate of withdrawal while delivering the design binder content at a
specified flow rate and pressure. The end product is an improved soil with undrained shear
strength ranging from 0.1MPa to 6.0MPa, depending on the soil type, mixing process and
binder content. Typical applications of deep soil mixing include foundations of embankment
fill for roads and highways, stabilization of excavations, foundations for structures and
subgrade improvement (Topolnicki 2004; Raju & Abdullah, 2005).
The dry method is more suitable for soft soils with very high moisture content and hence,
it was used at digesters N1, S1 and S2. Typical picture showing dry DSM rig is shown in
Fig. 6.

Deep Soil Mixing in Mine Tailings for a 8m Deep Excavation

Fig. 6.Dry DSM rig

The wet method is more appropriate in mixed soil conditions which are generally stiffer,
with lower water content. Hence, the wet method was adopted at digester N2. Typical
picture showing wet DSM rig is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7.Wet DSM rig

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Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju and H. K. Yandamui, Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

ENGINEERING ANALYSES

The excavation was designed to satisfy the following conditions:

a) A 45 degree slope was to be excavated down to 8m depth below ground.
b) Water seepage into the excavation from the sides and base was required to be minimal.
c) The treated block was to be able to resist flotation forces.
The DSM design (in terms of cement content and mixing parameters) was determined using
theory established by Broms (2004) and in accordance to the design methodology developed
by Swedish Geotechnical Society (SGF Report 4:95E 1997).
Slope stability analyses were carried out employing the composite improved parameters.
The following Fig. 8 shows critical slip circles from the slope stability analyses (Bishop
modified method) to achieve factor of safety above 1.4.

Fig. 8 Typical slope stability analyses

The columns were generally designed to be contiguous (touching columns representing 87%
treatment) in the slime soils to minimise water infiltration i.e. at N1, S1 and S2. In the more
permeable mixed soils of N2, greater precautionary measure was taken by overlapping the
columns (100% treatment).
The DSM block was also designed to be sufficiently massive to overcome potential uplift
forces (see Fig. 9). Besides, the block was checked to be adequately stiff to prevent any shear
type failure. It was also ensured that no tension forces developed within the block using FEM
analyses.

Deep Soil Mixing in Mine Tailings for a 8m Deep Excavation

Fig. 9 Design model against flotation forces

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CONSTRUCTION

The soil beneath the digester footprint was essentially treated to form a massive block with
conical shape geometry. Individual columns of soil were mixed with cement in contiguous
fashion (or with overlap for N2). A typical layout of the treatment scheme is shown in Fig.
10.

Fig.10 Typical Layout showing DSM treatment scheme

As explained in section 5, both the dry and wet methods of installation were used, due to
the variable soil conditions. Basic parameters of wet and dry DSM are summarized in
Table 2.
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Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju and H. K. Yandamui, Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Parameters
Column
diameter
Grid pattern
Grid spacing
Depth of
treatment
Design
undrained
shear
strength (Cu)
Binder type
Volume of
binder
Curing time

Dry DSM

Wet DSM

0.6m

0.87m

Triangular
0.6m

Triangular
0.75m

7 to 13m

10 to 12m

150kPa

150kPa

Dry
cement
(OPC)
150 to 200
kg/m3
About 3 to
4 weeks

Grout slurry
(w/c ratio =
1.0 to 1.5)
150 to 200
kg/m3
About 3 to 4
weeks

Table 2 Summary of dry and wet DSM parameters

Construction was carried out with one dry rig and one wet rig. The mixing tools of dry
and wet DSM is shown in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12, respectively. The DSM works were
commenced in November 2004 and completed in February 2005.

Fig. 11 Process of dryDSM

8

Fig. 12 Process of wet DSM

QUALITY CONTROL AND MONITORING DATA

Numerous quality control measures (pre, during and post construction) were implemented
which included:
a) Additional soil investigation to confirm actual soil conditions prior to commencement of
soil improvement works as high lighted in section 3.
b) Trial columns on site prior to construction of working columns.
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Deep Soil Mixing in Mine Tailings for a 8m Deep Excavation

c) Real-time computerised monitoring of operating process parameters during construction.

d) Post construction testing using Standard Penetration Test (SPT) in the field and horizontal
coring and subsequent un confined compressive strength (UCS) test in a laboratory.
e) Monitoring of lateral displacements using inclinometers during excavation works.
Prior to construction of working columns, trial columns were constructed at designated
locations to confirm operating parameters (cement content, rotation speed, withdrawal rate,
etc.). After allowing for sufficient curing time, the columns were exposed by excavation for
examination. The trial 2.5m deep excavation clearly demonstrated that the previously very
soft / loose soil has been successfully treated to allow a vertical cut (see Fig. 13). The
diameter and consistency of the columns were also proven.
After initial trials, installation of working columns was com-menced with appropriate
operating process parameters. The process parameters were closely monitored during
installation us-ing real time computer and printout. A typical real-time comput-erized
installation record during construction stage is shown in Fig. 14.

Fig. 13. Exposed trial columns and subsequent excavation

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Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju and H. K. Yandamui, Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Fig 14

Typical real-time computerised installation record

After sufficient curing period, selected working columns were cored vertically using
conventional sol investigation rig (see Fig. 15) to recover samples of 50mm to 60mm
diameter. It was ob-served that it was difficult to retrieve continuous intact cores samples,
probably because the columns were relatively low strength. Hence, such coring processes
were mostly useful only for visual examination of samples. Standard Penetration Tests (SPT)
were carried out for some columns and were used to con-firm increase in stiffness of the
soil. Typical results are presented in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15. Vertical coring and SPT result

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Deep Soil Mixing in Mine Tailings for a 8m Deep Excavation

Horizontal coring was found to be more effective in recover-ing continuous intact samples.
After localised excavation, selected working columns were cored horizontally using
hand-held coring machine to recover 100mm diameter samples (see Fig. 16). The solid cored
samples were tested in a laboratory and showed more than acceptable UCS (Unconfined
Compressive Strength) between 1MPa and 3MPa about 1 to 2 months after installation

Fig. 16 Horizontal coring and UCS testing

Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) were attempted but generally gave misleading results. It is
noted that within each column cross section there was strength variability and the CPT
probe was too small to provide representative result for the entire cross section. Such
limitation of the testing method has been observed by others (Larsson 2005).
9

EXCAVATION

Excavation was supposed to have been carried out about one month after installation.
However, this was delayed by 3 months due to other outside factors. Typical exposed DSM
columns dur-ing excavation works are shown in Fig. 17. The intended depth of excavation
was reached safely without incident (see Fig. 18).

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Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju and H. K. Yandamui, Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Fig. 17 Typical exposed DSM columns during excavation

Fig. 18 Completed excavation

Water infiltration into the excavation was minimal for N1, S1 and S2. At digester N2,
localised compaction grouting was im-plemented to arrest water inflow where weathered
rock was found and where mixing had to be terminated prematurely.
Inclinometers were installed to monitor lateral displacement during excavation works which
showed minimal lateral movement in the range of 1mm to 3mm (see Fig. 19).

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Deep Soil Mixing in Mine Tailings for a 8m Deep Excavation

Fig. 19 Results of inclinometer during excavation

8

CONCLUSIONS

Deep Soil Mixing technology has been shown to be effective in the treatment of very soft
mine tailings. The shear strength of the soil was increased by more than 50 times within a
curing period of about 1 to 2 months. The soil treatment enabled 8m deep excavation to be
carried out at a steep 45 degrees slope for four (4) digesters. Water infiltration, within the
high groundwater environment, was largely excluded without the need for any cut-off wall.
The DSM method was proven to be able to provide significant savings in construction cost
and time compared to the conventional method of using sheet piles, anchor tie-backs and
grouting.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Main Contractors, Road Builder Bhd for allowing new
engineering ideas to be implemented in this project. The support provided by the Project
Consultant, Minconsult Sdn. Bhd. is also gratefully acknowledged. Contribution from Kellers
staff has been significant, notably Dr. How Y.C. & Mr. D. Schrader (design), Mr. U.P. Raju
(project management) and Mr. N. Peterzen (site superintendent).

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Y. W. Yee, V. R. Raju and H. K. Yandamui, Keller (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

REFERENCES
nd
Broms, B.B. 2004. Lime and lime/cement columns. Ground Improvement (2 Edition), Edited by
Moseley, M.P. & Kirsch, K. Spon Press: 252330.
Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT). 2002. The Deep Mixing Method
Principle, Design and Construction, A.A. Balkema Publishers, Japan.
Larsson, S. 2005. On the Use of CPT for Quality Assessment of Lime Cement Columns.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Deep Mixing Best Practice and Recent
Ad-vances, Stockholm, Sweden.
Raju, V.R. & Abdullah, A. 2005. Ground Treatment Using Dry Deep Soil Mixing for a Railway
Embankment in Malaysia.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Deep Mixing Best Practice and Recent Advances,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Swedish Geotechnical Society (SGS): SGF Report 4:95E. 1997. Lime and Lime Cement Columns
Guide for Project Planning, Construction and Inspection, Linkoping, Sweden.
nd
Topolnicki, M. 2004. In situ soil mixing. Ground Improvement (2 Edition), Edited by Moseley,
M.P. & Kirsch, K. Spon Press: 331428.

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