Speedofgravity

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inclassicaltheoriesofgravitation,thespeedofgravityisthespeedatwhichchangesinagravitational
fieldpropagate.Thisisthespeedatwhichachangeinthedistributionofenergyandmomentumof
matterresultsinsubsequentalteration,atadistance,ofthegravitationalfieldwhichitproduces.Ina
morephysicallycorrectsense,the"speedofgravity"referstothespeedofagravitationalwave,which
shouldbethesamespeedasthespeedoflight(c).

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Staticfields
3 Newtoniangravitation
4 Laplace
5 Electrodynamicalanalogies
5.1 Earlytheories
5.2 Lorentz
6 Lorentzcovariantmodels
7 Generalrelativity
7.1 Background
7.2 Aberrationoffielddirectioningeneralrelativity,foraweaklyacceleratedobserver
7.3 Formulaicconventions
7.4 Possibleexperimentalmeasurements
8 References
9 Externallinks

Introduction
Thespeedofgravitationalwavesinthegeneraltheoryofrelativityisequaltothespeedoflightin
vacuum,c.[1]Withinthetheoryofspecialrelativity,theconstantcisnotexclusivelyaboutlightinstead
itisthehighestpossiblespeedforanyinteractioninnature.Formally,cisaconversionfactorfor
changingtheunitoftimetotheunitofspace.[2]Thismakesittheonlyspeedwhichdoesnotdepend

eitheronthemotionofanobserverorasourceoflightand/orgravity.Thus,thespeedof"light"isalso
thespeedofgravitationalwavesandanyothermasslessparticle.Suchparticlesincludethegluon
(carrierofthestrongforce),thephotonsthatmakeuplight,andthetheoreticalgravitonswhichmakeup
theassociatedfieldparticlesofgravity(howeveratheoryofthegravitonrequiresatheoryofquantum
gravity).

Staticfields
Thespeedofphysicalchangesinagravitationalorelectromagneticfieldshouldnotbeconfusedwith
"changes"inthebehaviorofstaticfieldsthatareduetopureobservereffects.Thesechangesindirection
ofastaticfield,becauseofrelativisticconsiderations,arethesameforanobserverwhenadistantcharge
ismoving,aswhenanobserver(instead)decidestomovewithrespecttoadistantcharge.Thus,
constantmotionofanobserverwithregardtoastaticchargeanditsextendedstaticfield(eithera
gravitationalorelectricfield)doesnotchangethefield.Forstaticfields,suchastheelectrostaticfield
connectedwithelectriccharge,orthegravitationalfieldconnectedtoamassiveobject,thefieldextends
toinfinity,anddoesnotpropagate.Motionofanobserverdoesnotcausethedirectionofsuchafieldto
change,andbysymmetricalconsiderations,changingtheobserverframesothatthechargeappearstobe
movingataconstantrate,alsodoesnotcausethedirectionofitsfieldtochange,butrequiresthatit
continueto"point"inthedirectionofthecharge,atalldistancesfromthecharge.
Theconsequenceofthisisthatstaticfields(eitherelectricorgravitational)alwayspointdirectlytothe
actualpositionofthebodiesthattheyareconnectedto,withoutanydelaythatisduetoany"signal"
traveling(orpropagating)fromthecharge,overadistancetoanobserver.Thisremainstrueifthe
chargedbodiesandtheirobserversaremadeto"move"(ornot),bysimplychangingreferenceframes.
Thisfactsometimescausesconfusionaboutthe"speed"ofsuchstaticfields,whichsometimesappearto
changeinfinitelyquicklywhenthechangesinthefieldaremereartifactsofthemotionoftheobserver,
orofobservation.
Insuchcases,nothingactuallychangesinfinitelyquickly,savethepointofviewofanobserverofthe
field.Forexample,whenanobserverbeginstomovewithrespecttoastaticfieldthatalreadyextends
overlightyears,itappearsasthough"immediately"theentirefield,alongwithitssource,hasbegun
movingatthespeedoftheobserver.This,ofcourse,includestheextendedpartsofthefield.However,
this"change"intheapparentbehaviorofthefieldsource,alongwithitsdistantfield,doesnotrepresent
anysortofpropagationthatisfasterthanlight.

Newtoniangravitation
IsaacNewton'sformulationofagravitationalforcelawrequiresthateachparticlewithmassrespond
instantaneouslytoeveryotherparticlewithmassirrespectiveofthedistancebetweenthem.Inmodern
terms,NewtoniangravitationisdescribedbythePoissonequation,accordingtowhich,whenthemass
distributionofasystemchanges,itsgravitationalfieldinstantaneouslyadjusts.Thereforethetheory
assumesthespeedofgravitytobeinfinite.Thisassumptionwasadequatetoaccountforallphenomena
withtheobservationalaccuracyofthattime.Itwasnotuntilthe19thcenturythatananomalyin
astronomicalobservationswhichcouldnotbereconciledwiththeNewtoniangravitationalmodelof
instantaneousactionwasnoted:theFrenchastronomerUrbainLeVerrierdeterminedin1859thatthe
ellipticalorbitofMercuryprecessesatasignificantlydifferentratefromthatpredictedbyNewtonian
theory.[3]

Laplace

ThefirstattempttocombineafinitegravitationalspeedwithNewton'stheorywasmadebyLaplacein
1805.BasedonNewton'sforcelawheconsideredamodelinwhichthegravitationalfieldisdefinedasa
radiationfieldorfluid.Changesinthemotionoftheattractingbodyaretransmittedbysomesortof
waves.[4]Therefore,themovementsofthecelestialbodiesshouldbemodifiedintheorderv/c,wherev
istherelativespeedbetweenthebodiesandcisthespeedofgravity.Theeffectofafinitespeedof
gravitygoestozeroascgoestoinfinity,butnotas1/c2asitdoesinmoderntheories.ThisledLaplace
toconcludethatthespeedofgravitationalinteractionsisatleast7106timesthespeedoflight.This
velocitywasusedbymanyinthe19thcenturytocriticizeanymodelbasedonafinitespeedofgravity,
likeelectricalormechanicalexplanationsofgravitation.
Fromamodernpointofview,Laplace'sanalysisisincorrect.NotknowingaboutLorentz'invarianceof
staticfields,LaplaceassumedthatwhenanobjectliketheEarthismovingaroundtheSun,theattraction
oftheEarthwouldnotbetowardtheinstantaneouspositionoftheSun,buttowardwheretheSunhad
beenifitspositionwasretardedusingtherelativevelocity(thisretardationactuallydoeshappenwith
theopticalpositionoftheSun,andiscalledannualsolaraberration).PuttingtheSunimmobileatthe
origin,whentheEarthismovinginanorbitofradiusRwithvelocityvpresumingthatthegravitational
influencemoveswithvelocityc,movestheSun'struepositionaheadofitsopticalposition,byan
amountequaltovR/c,whichisthetraveltimeofgravityfromthesuntotheEarthtimestherelative
velocityofthesunandtheEarth.Thepullofgravity(ifitbehavedlikeawave,suchaslight)wouldthen
bealwaysdisplacedinthedirectionoftheEarth'svelocity,sothattheEarthwouldalwaysbepulled
towardtheopticalpositionoftheSun,ratherthanitsactualposition.Thiswouldcauseapullaheadof
theEarth,whichwouldcausetheorbitoftheEarthtospiraloutward.Suchanoutspiralwouldbe
suppressedbyanamountv/ccomparedtotheforcewhichkeepstheEarthinorbitandsincetheEarth's
orbitisobservedtobestable,Laplace'scmustbeverylarge.Asisnowknown,itmaybeconsideredto
beinfiniteinthelimitofstraightlinemotion,sinceasastaticinfluence,itisinstantaneousatdistance,
whenseenbyobserversatconstanttransversevelocity.Fororbitsinwhichvelocity(directionofspeed)
changesslowly,itisalmostinfinite.
Theattractiontowardanobjectmovingwithasteadyvelocityistowardsitsinstantaneouspositionwith
nodelay,forbothgravityandelectriccharge.Inafieldequationconsistentwithspecialrelativity(i.e.,a
Lorentzinvariantequation),theattractionbetweenstaticchargesmovingwithconstantrelativevelocity,
isalwaystowardtheinstantaneouspositionofthecharge(inthiscase,the"gravitationalcharge"ofthe
Sun),notthetimeretardedpositionoftheSun.Whenanobjectismovinginorbitatasteadyspeedbut
changingvelocityv,theeffectontheorbitisorderv2/c2,andtheeffectpreservesenergyandangular
momentum,sothatorbitsdonotdecay.

Electrodynamicalanalogies
Earlytheories
Attheendofthe19thcentury,manytriedtocombineNewton'sforcelawwiththeestablishedlawsof
electrodynamics,likethoseofWilhelmEduardWeber,CarlFriedrichGauss,BernhardRiemannand
JamesClerkMaxwell.ThosetheoriesarenotinvalidatedbyLaplace'scritique,becausealthoughthey
arebasedonfinitepropagationspeeds,theycontainadditionaltermswhichmaintainthestabilityofthe
planetarysystem.ThosemodelswereusedtoexplaintheperihelionadvanceofMercury,buttheycould
notprovideexactvalues.OneexceptionwasMauriceLvyin1890,whosucceededindoingsoby
combiningthelawsofWeberandRiemann,wherebythespeedofgravityisequaltothespeedoflight.
Sothosehypotheseswererejected.[5][6]

However,amoreimportantvariationofthoseattemptswasthetheoryofPaulGerber,whoderivedin
1898theidenticalformula,whichwasalsoderivedlaterbyEinsteinfortheperihelionadvance.Based
onthatformula,Gerbercalculatedapropagationspeedforgravityof305000km/s,i.e.practicallythe
speedoflight.ButGerber'sderivationoftheformulawasfaulty,i.e.,hisconclusionsdidnotfollow
fromhispremises,andthereforemany(includingEinstein)didnotconsiderittobeameaningful
theoreticaleffort.Additionally,thevalueitpredictedforthedeflectionoflightinthegravitationalfield
ofthesunwastoohighbythefactor3/2.[7][8][9]

Lorentz
In1900HendrikLorentztriedtoexplaingravityonthebasisofhisethertheoryandtheMaxwell
equations.Afterproposing(andrejecting)aLeSagetypemodel,heassumedlikeOttavianoFabrizio
MossottiandJohannKarlFriedrichZllnerthattheattractionofoppositechargedparticlesisstronger
thantherepulsionofequalchargedparticles.Theresultingnetforceisexactlywhatisknownas
universalgravitation,inwhichthespeedofgravityisthatoflight.Thisleadstoaconflictwiththelaw
ofgravitationbyIsaacNewton,inwhichitwasshownbyPierreSimonLaplacethatafinitespeedof
gravityleadstosomesortofaberrationandthereforemakestheorbitsunstable.However,Lorentz
showedthatthetheoryisnotconcernedbyLaplace'scritique,becauseduetothestructureofthe
Maxwellequationsonlyeffectsintheorderv2/c2arise.ButLorentzcalculatedthatthevalueforthe
perihelionadvanceofMercurywasmuchtoolow.Hewrote:[10]
Thespecialformofthesetermsmayperhapsbemodified.Yet,whathasbeensaidis
sufficienttoshowthatgravitationmaybeattributedtoactionswhicharepropagatedwithno
greatervelocitythanthatoflight.
In1908HenriPoincarexaminedthegravitationaltheoryofLorentzandclassifieditascompatiblewith
therelativityprinciple,but(likeLorentz)hecriticizedtheinaccurateindicationoftheperihelion
advanceofMercury.[11]

Lorentzcovariantmodels
HenriPoincararguedin1904thatapropagationspeedofgravitywhichisgreaterthancwould
contradicttheconceptoflocaltime(basedonsynchronizationbylightsignals)andtheprincipleof
relativity.Hewrote:[12]
Whatwouldhappenifwecouldcommunicatebysignalsotherthanthoseoflight,the
velocityofpropagationofwhichdifferedfromthatoflight?If,afterhavingregulatedour
watchesbytheoptimalmethod,wewishedtoverifytheresultbymeansofthesenew
signals,weshouldobservediscrepanciesduetothecommontranslatorymotionofthetwo
stations.Andaresuchsignalsinconceivable,ifwetaketheviewofLaplace,thatuniversal
gravitationistransmittedwithavelocityamilliontimesasgreatasthatoflight?
However,in1905Poincarcalculatedthatchangesinthegravitationalfieldcanpropagatewiththe
speedoflightifitispresupposedthatsuchatheoryisbasedontheLorentztransformation.Hewrote:[13]

Laplaceshowedineffectthatthepropagationiseitherinstantaneousormuchfasterthan
thatoflight.However,Laplaceexaminedthehypothesisoffinitepropagationvelocity
ceterisnonmutatishere,onthecontrary,thishypothesisisconjoinedwithmanyothers,
anditmaybethatbetweenthemamoreorlessperfectcompensationtakesplace.The
applicationoftheLorentztransformationhasalreadyprovideduswithnumerousexamples
ofthis.
SimilarmodelswerealsoproposedbyHermannMinkowski(1907)andArnoldSommerfeld(1910).
However,thoseattemptswerequicklysupersededbyEinstein'stheoryofgeneralrelativity.[14]
Whitehead'stheoryofgravitation(1922)explainsgravitationalredshift,lightbending,perihelionshift
andShapirodelay.[15]

Generalrelativity
Background
Generalrelativitypredictsthatgravitationalradiationshouldexistandpropagateasawaveatlightspeed:
aslowlyevolvingandweakgravitationalfieldwillproduce,accordingtogeneralrelativity,effectslike
thoseofNewtoniangravitation.
Suddenlydisplacingoneoftwogravitoelectricallyinteractingparticleswould,afteradelay
correspondingtolightspeed,causetheothertofeelthedisplacedparticle'sabsence:accelerationsdueto
thechangeinquadrupolemomentofstarsystems,liketheHulseTaylorbinaryhaveremovedmuch
energy(almost2%oftheenergyofourownSun'soutput)asgravitationalwaves,whichwould
theoreticallytravelatthespeedoflight.
Twogravitoelectricallyinteractingparticleensembles,e.g.,twoplanetsorstarsmovingatconstant
velocitywithrespecttoeachother,eachfeelaforcetowardtheinstantaneouspositionoftheotherbody
withoutaspeedoflightdelaybecauseLorentzinvariancedemandsthatwhatamovingbodyinastatic
fieldseesandwhatamovingbodythatemitsthatfieldseesbesymmetrical.
Amovingbody'sseeingnoaberrationinastaticfieldemanatingfroma"motionlessbody"therefore
causesLorentzinvariancetorequirethatinthepreviouslymovingbody'sreferenceframethe(now
moving)emittingbody'sfieldlinesmustnotatadistanceberetardedoraberred.Movingchargedbodies
(includingbodiesthatemitstaticgravitationalfields)exhibitstaticfieldlinesthatbendnotwithdistance
andshownospeedoflightdelayeffects,asseenfrombodiesmovingwithregardtothem.
Inotherwords,sincethegravitoelectricfieldis,bydefinition,staticandcontinuous,itdoesnot
propagate.Ifsuchasourceofastaticfieldisaccelerated(forexamplestopped)withregardtoits
formerlyconstantvelocityframe,itsdistantfieldcontinuestobeupdatedasthoughthechargedbody
continuedwithconstantvelocity.Thiseffectcausesthedistantfieldsofunacceleratedmovingchargesto
appeartobe"updated"instantlyfortheirconstantvelocitymotion,asseenfromdistantpositions,inthe
framewherethesourceobjectismovingatconstantvelocity.However,asdiscussed,thisisaneffect
whichcanberemovedatanytime,bytransitioningtoanewreferenceframeinwhichthedistant
chargedbodyisnowatrest.
Thestaticandcontinuousgravitoelectriccomponentofagravitationalfieldisnotagravitomagnetic
component(gravitationalradiation)seePetrovclassification.Thegravitoelectricfieldisastaticfield
andthereforecannotsuperluminallytransmitquantized(discrete)information,i.e.,itcouldnotconstitute

awellorderedseriesofimpulsescarryingawelldefinedmeaning(thisisthesameforgravityand
electromagnetism).

Aberrationoffielddirectioningeneralrelativity,foraweaklyacceleratedobserver
Thefinitespeedofgravitationalinteractioningeneralrelativitydoesnotleadtothesortsofproblems
withtheaberrationofgravitythatNewtonwasoriginallyconcernedwith,becausethereisnosuch
aberrationinstaticfieldeffects.BecausetheaccelerationoftheEarthwithregardtotheSunissmall
(meaning,toagoodapproximation,thetwobodiescanberegardedastravelinginstraightlinespast
eachotherwithunchangingvelocity)theorbitalresultscalculatedbygeneralrelativityarethesameas
thoseofNewtoniangravitywithinstantaneousactionatadistance,becausetheyaremodelledbythe
behaviorofastaticfieldwithconstantvelocityrelativemotion,andnoaberrationfortheforces
involved.[16]Althoughthecalculationsareconsiderablymorecomplicated,onecanshowthatastatic
fieldingeneralrelativitydoesnotsufferfromaberrationproblemsasseenbyanunacceleratedobserver
(oraweaklyacceleratedobserver,suchastheEarth).Analogously,the"staticterm"inthe
electromagneticLinardWiechertpotentialtheoryofthefieldsfromamovingcharge,doesnotsuffer
fromeitheraberrationorpositionalretardation.Onlythetermcorrespondingtoaccelerationand
electromagneticemissionintheLinardWiechertpotentialshowsadirectiontowardthetimeretarded
positionoftheemitter.
Itisinfactnotveryeasytoconstructaselfconsistentgravitytheoryinwhichgravitationalinteraction
propagatesataspeedotherthanthespeedoflight,whichcomplicatesdiscussionofthispossibility.[17]

Formulaicconventions
Ingeneralrelativitythemetrictensorsymbolizesthegravitationalpotential,andChristoffelsymbolsof
thespacetimemanifoldsymbolizethegravitationalforcefield.Thetidalgravitationalfieldisassociated
withthecurvatureofspacetime.

Possibleexperimentalmeasurements
Thespeedofgravity(morecorrectly,thespeedofgravitationalwaves)canbecalculatedfrom
observationsoftheorbitaldecayrateofbinarypulsarsPSR1913+16(theHulseTaylorbinarysystem
notedabove)andPSRB1534+12.Theorbitsofthesebinarypulsarsaredecayingduetolossofenergy
intheformofgravitationalradiation.Therateofthisenergyloss("gravitationaldamping")canbe
measured,andsinceitdependsonthespeedofgravity,comparingthemeasuredvaluestotheoryshows
thatthespeedofgravityisequaltothespeedoflighttowithin1%.[18]However,accordingtoPPN
formalismsetting,measuringthespeedofgravitybycomparingtheoreticalresultswithexperimental
resultswilldependonthetheoryuseofatheoryotherthanthatofgeneralrelativitycouldinprinciple
showadifferentspeed,althoughtheexistenceofgravitationaldampingatallimpliesthatthespeed
cannotbeinfinite.
InSeptember2002,SergeiKopeikinandEdwardFomalontannouncedthattheyhadmadeanindirect
measurementofthespeedofgravity,usingtheirdatafromVLBImeasurementoftheretardedposition
ofJupiteronitsorbitduringJupiter'stransitacrossthelineofsightofthebrightradiosourcequasar
QSOJ0842+1835.KopeikinandFomalontconcludedthatthespeedofgravityisbetween0.8and1.2
timesthespeedoflight,whichwouldbefullyconsistentwiththetheoreticalpredictionofgeneral
relativitythatthespeedofgravityisexactlythesameasthespeedoflight.[19]

Severalphysicists,includingCliffordM.WillandSteveCarlip,havecriticizedtheseclaimsonthe
groundsthattheyhaveallegedlymisinterpretedtheresultsoftheirmeasurements.Notably,priortothe
actualtransit,HidekiAsadainapapertotheAstrophysicalJournalLetterstheorizedthattheproposed
experimentwasessentiallyaroundaboutconfirmationofthespeedoflightinsteadofthespeedof
gravity.[20]However,KopeikinandFomalontcontinuetovigorouslyarguetheircaseandthemeansof
presentingtheirresultatthepressconferenceofAASthatwasofferedafterthepeerreviewofthe
resultsoftheJovianexperimenthadbeendonebytheexpertsoftheAASscientificorganizing
committee.InlaterpublicationbyKopeikinandFomalont,whichusesabimetricformalismthatsplits
thespacetimenullconeintwooneforgravityandanotheroneforlight,theauthorsclaimedthat
Asada'sclaimwastheoreticallyunsound.[21]Thetwonullconesoverlapingeneralrelativity,which
makestrackingthespeedofgravityeffectsdifficultandrequiresaspecialmathematicaltechniqueof
gravitationalretardedpotentials,whichwasworkedoutbyKopeikinandcoauthors[22][23]butwasnever
properlyemployedbyAsadaand/ortheothercritics.
StuartSamuelalsosuggestedthattheexperimentdidnotactuallymeasurethespeedofgravitybecause
theeffectsweretoosmalltohavebeenmeasured.[24]AresponsebyKopeikinandFomalontchallenges
thisopinion.[25]
Itisimportanttounderstandthatnoneoftheparticipantsinthiscontroversyareclaimingthatgeneral
relativityis"wrong".Rather,thedebateconcernswhetherornotKopeikinandFomalonthavereally
providedyetanotherverificationofoneofitsfundamentalpredictions.Acomprehensivereviewofthe
definitionofthespeedofgravityanditsmeasurementwithhighprecisionastrometricandother
techniquesappearsinthetextbookRelativisticCelestialMechanicsintheSolarSystem.[26]

References
1. Hartle,JB(2003).Gravity:AnIntroductiontoEinstein'sGeneralRelativity.AddisonWesley.p.332.
ISBN9810227493.
2. Taylor,EdwinF.andWheeler,JohnArchibald,SpacetimePhysics,2ndedition,1991,p.12.
3. U.LeVerrier,LettredeM.LeVerrierM.FayesurlathoriedeMercureetsurlemouvementduprihlie
decetteplante(http://www.archive.org/stream/comptesrendusheb49acad#page/379),C.R.Acad.Sci.49
(1859),379383.
4. Laplace,P.S.:(1805)"ATreatiseinCelestialMechanics",VolumeIV,BookX,ChapterVII,translatedby
N.Bowditch(Chelsea,NewYork,1966)
5. Zenneck,J.(1903)."Gravitation".EncyklopdiedermathematischenWissenschaftenmitEinschlussihrer
Anwendungen(inGerman)5:2567.doi:10.1007/9783663160168_2.
6. Roseveare,N.T(1982).Mercury'sperihelion,fromLeverriertoEinstein.Oxford:UniversityPress.ISBN0
198581742.
7. Gerber,P.(1898)."DierumlicheundzeitlicheAusbreitungderGravitation".Zeitschriftfrmathematische
Physik(inGerman)43:93104.
8. Zenneck,pp.4951
9. "Gerber'sGravity".Mathpages.Retrieved2Dec2010.
10. Lorentz,H.A.(1900)."ConsiderationsonGravitation".Proc.Acad.Amsterdam2:559574.
11. Poincar,H.(1908)."Ladynamiquedel'lectron"(PDF).Revuegnraledessciencespuresetappliques19:
386402.ReprintedinPoincar,Oeuvres,tomeIX,S.551586andin"ScienceandMethod"(1908)
12. Poincar,Henri(1904)."L'tatactueletl'avenirdelaphysiquemathmatique".BulletindesSciences
Mathmatiques28(2):302324..EnglishtranslationinPoincar,Henri(1905)."ThePrinciplesof
MathematicalPhysics".InRogers,HowardJ.Congressofartsandscience,universalexposition,St.Louis,
19041.BostonandNewYork:Houghton,MifflinandCompany.pp.604622.Reprintedin"Thevalueof
science",Ch.79.
13. Poincar,H.(1906)."Surladynamiquedel'lectron"(PDF).RendicontidelCircoloMatematicodiPalermo
(inFrench)21(1):129176.doi:10.1007/BF03013466.SeealsotheEnglishTranslation

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

24.
25.
26.

(http://henripoincarepapers.univlorraine.fr/chp/hppdf/hp1906rpen.pdf).
Walter,Scott(2007).Renn,J.,ed."Breakinginthe4vectors:thefourdimensionalmovementingravitation,
19051910"(PDF).TheGenesisofGeneralRelativity(Berlin:Springer)3:193252.
Will,Clifford&Gibbons,Gary."OntheMultipleDeathsofWhitehead'sTheoryofGravity
(http://arxiv.org/abs/grqc/0611006)",tobesubmittedtoStudiesInHistoryAndPhilosophyOfModern
Physics(2006).
Carlip,S.(2000)."AberrationandtheSpeedofGravity".Phys.Lett.A267(23):8187.arXiv:gr
qc/9909087.Bibcode:2000PhLA..267...81C.doi:10.1016/S03759601(00)001018.
*Carlip,S.(2004)."ModelDependenceofShapiroTimeDelayandthe"SpeedofGravity/SpeedofLight"
Controversy".Class.Quant.Grav.21:38033812.arXiv:grqc/0403060.
C.Will(2001)."Theconfrontationbetweengeneralrelativityandexperiment".LivingRev.Relativity4:4.
arXiv:grqc/0103036.Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....4W.
EdFomalont&SergeiKopeikin(2003)."TheMeasurementoftheLightDeflectionfromJupiter:
ExperimentalResults".TheAstrophysicalJournal598(1):704711.arXiv:astroph/0302294.
Bibcode:2003ApJ...598..704F.doi:10.1086/378785.
HidekiAsada(2002)."LightConeEffectandtheShapiroTimeDelay".TheAstrophysicalJournalLetters
574(1):L69.arXiv:astroph/0206266.Bibcode:2002ApJ...574L..69A.doi:10.1086/342369.
KopeikinS.M.&FomalontE.B.(2006)."AberrationandtheFundamentalSpeedofGravityintheJovian
DeflectionExperiment".FoundationsofPhysics36(8):12441285.arXiv:astroph/0311063.
Bibcode:2006FoPh...36.1244K.doi:10.1007/s1070100690597.
KopeikinS.M.&SchaeferG.(1999)."Lorentzcovarianttheoryoflightpropagationingravitationalfieldsof
arbitrarymovingbodies".PhysicalReviewD60(12):id.124002[44pages].arXiv:grqc/9902030.
Bibcode:1999PhRvD..60l4002K.doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.60.124002.
KopeikinS.M.&MashhoonB.(2002)."Gravitomagneticeffectsinthepropagationofelectromagneticwaves
invariablegravitationalfieldsofarbitrarymovingandspinningbodies".PhysicalReviewD65(6):id.
064025[20pages].arXiv:grqc/0110101.Bibcode:2002PhRvD..65f4025K.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.65.064025.
http://www.lbl.gov/ScienceArticles/Archive/Physspeedofgravity.html
Kopeikin,Sergei&Fomalont,Edward(2006)."Onthespeedofgravityandrelativisticv/ccorrectionstothe
Shapirotimedelay".PhysicsLettersA355(3):163166.arXiv:grqc/0310065.
Bibcode:2006PhLA..355..163K.doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2006.02.028.
S.Kopeikin,M.EfroimskyandG.Kaplan[1](http://www.wiley
vch.de/publish/en/books/forthcomingTitles/PH00/3527408568/authorinformation/?
sID=p2qlnooj68su7htl8qrrc2qjt3)RelativisticCelestialMechanicsintheSolarSystem,WileyVCH,2011.
XXXII,860Pages,65Fig.,6Tab.
Kopeikin,SergeiM.(2001)."TestingRelativisticEffectofPropagationofGravitybyVeryLongBaseline
Interferometry".Astrophys.J.556(1):L1L6.arXiv:grqc/0105060.Bibcode:2001ApJ...556L...1K.
doi:10.1086/322872.
Asada,Hidecki(2002)."TheLightconeEffectontheShapiroTimeDelay".Astrophys.J.574(1):L69.
arXiv:astroph/0206266.Bibcode:2002ApJ...574L..69A.doi:10.1086/342369.
Will,CliffordM.(2003)."PropagationSpeedofGravityandtheRelativisticTimeDelay".Astrophys.J.590
(2):683690.arXiv:astroph/0301145.Bibcode:2003ApJ...590..683W.doi:10.1086/375164.
Fomalont,E.B.&Kopeikin,SergeiM.(2003)."TheMeasurementoftheLightDeflectionfromJupiter:
ExperimentalResults".Astrophys.J.598(1):704711.arXiv:astroph/0302294.
Bibcode:2003ApJ...598..704F.doi:10.1086/378785.
Kopeikin,SergeiM.(Feb21,2003)."TheMeasurementoftheLightDeflectionfromJupiter:Theoretical
Interpretation".arXiv:astroph/0302462.
Kopeikin,SergeiM.(2003)."ThePostNewtonianTreatmentoftheVLBIExperimentonSeptember8,
2002".Phys.Lett.A312(34):147157.arXiv:grqc/0212121.Bibcode:2003PhLA..312..147K.
doi:10.1016/S03759601(03)006133.
Faber,JoshuaA.(Mar14,2003)."Thespeedofgravityhasnotbeenmeasuredfromtimedelays".

arXiv:astroph/0303346.
Kopeikin,SergeiM.(2004)."TheSpeedofGravityinGeneralRelativityandTheoreticalInterpretationofthe
JovianDeflectionExperiment".ClassicalandQuantumGravity21(13):32513286.arXiv:grqc/0310059.
Bibcode:2004CQGra..21.3251K.doi:10.1088/02649381/21/13/010.
Samuel,Stuart(2003)."OntheSpeedofGravityandthev/cCorrectionstotheShapiroTimeDelay".Phys.
Rev.Lett.90(23):231101.arXiv:astroph/0304006.Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90w1101S.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.231101.PMID12857246.
Kopeikin,Sergei&Fomalont,Edward(2006)."Onthespeedofgravityandrelativisticv/ccorrectionstothe
Shapirotimedelay".PhysicsLettersA355(3):163166.arXiv:grqc/0310065.
Bibcode:2006PhLA..355..163K.doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2006.02.028.
Hideki,Asada(Aug20,2003)."Commentson"MeasuringtheGravitySpeedbyVLBI" ".arXiv:astro
ph/0308343.
Kopeikin,Sergei&Fomalont,Edward(2006)."AberrationandtheFundamentalSpeedofGravityinthe
JovianDeflectionExperiment".FoundationsofPhysics36(8):12441285.arXiv:astroph/0311063.
Bibcode:2006FoPh...36.1244K.doi:10.1007/s1070100690597.
Carlip,Steven(2004)."ModelDependenceofShapiroTimeDelayandthe"SpeedofGravity/SpeedofLight"
Controversy".Class.Quant.Grav.21(15):38033812.arXiv:grqc/0403060.
Bibcode:2004CQGra..21.3803C.doi:10.1088/02649381/21/15/011.
Kopeikin,SergeiM.(2005)."Commenton'ModeldependenceofShapirotimedelayandthe"speedof
gravity/speedoflight"controversy".Class.Quant.Grav.22(23):51815186.arXiv:grqc/0510048.
Bibcode:2005CQGra..22.5181K.doi:10.1088/02649381/22/23/N01.
PascualSnchez,J.F.(2004)."Speedofgravityandgravitomagnetism".Int.J.Mod.Phys.D13(10):2345
2350.arXiv:grqc/0405123.Bibcode:2004IJMPD..13.2345P.doi:10.1142/S0218271804006425.
Kopeikin,Sergei(2006)."Gravitomagnetismandthespeedofgravity".Int.J.Mod.Phys.D15(3):305320.
arXiv:grqc/0507001.Bibcode:2006IJMPD..15..305K.doi:10.1142/S0218271806007663.
Samuel,Stuart(2004)."OntheSpeedofGravityandtheJupiter/QuasarMeasurement".Int.J.Mod.Phys.D
13(9):17531770.arXiv:astroph/0412401.Bibcode:2004IJMPD..13.1753S.
doi:10.1142/S0218271804005900.
Kopeikin,Sergei(2006)."CommentsonthepaperbyS.Samuel"Onthespeedofgravityandthe
Jupiter/Quasarmeasurement" ".Int.J.Mod.Phys.D15(2):273288.arXiv:grqc/0501001.
Bibcode:2006IJMPD..15..273K.doi:10.1142/S021827180600853X.
Kopeikin,Sergei&Fomalont,Edward(2007)."Gravimagnetism,Causality,andAberrationofGravityinthe
GravitationalLightRayDeflectionExperiments".GeneralRelativityandGravitation39(10):15831624.
arXiv:grqc/0510077.Bibcode:2007GReGr..39.1583K.doi:10.1007/s1071400704836.
Kopeikin,Sergei&Fomalont,Edward(2008)."Radiointerferometrictestsofgeneralrelativity"."AGiant
Step:fromMillitoMicroarcsecondAstrometry",ProceedingsoftheInternationalAstronomicalUnion,
IAUSymposium248(S248):383386.Bibcode:2008IAUS..248..383F.doi:10.1017/S1743921308019613.
Zhu,Yin(2011)."MeasurementoftheSpeedofGravity".arXiv:1108.3761.

Externallinks
DoesGravityTravelattheSpeedofLight?
(http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/GR/grav_speed.html)inThePhysicsFAQ(also
here(http://www.faqs.org/faqs/astronomy/faq/part4/section6.html)).

MeasuringtheSpeedofGravity(http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath451/kmath451.htm)at
MathPages
HazelMuir,Firstspeedofgravitymeasurementrevealed
(http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3232firstspeedofgravitymeasurementrevealed.html),
aNewScientistarticleonKopeikin'soriginalannouncement.
CliffordM.Will,HastheSpeedofGravityBeenMeasured?
(http://wugrav.wustl.edu/people/CMW/SpeedofGravity.html).
KevinCarlson,MUphysicistdefendsEinstein'stheoryand'speedofgravity'measurement
(http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=23705).
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speed_of_gravity&oldid=695046403"
Categories: Effectsofgravitation Historyofphysics
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon13December2015,at11:43.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionalterms
mayapply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.