Mesopotamia in The Early History of Alchemy

MESOPOTAMIA IN THE EARLY HISTORY OF ALCHEMY
Author(s): A. Leo Oppenheim

Source: Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archologie orientale, 60e Volume, No. 1 (1966), pp. 29-45
Published by: Presses Universitaires de France
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29
[RA 60-1966]
MESOPOTAMIA
IN THE EARLY HISTORY

by A.
The
cuneiform
science
of this article
purpose
texts
hitherto
been
One of these is a fragment

K. 713),
Bab.
(Photograph
of Assurbanipal
library
and
2) with the generous
des
Vorderasiatischen
in the British
his
Assyrian
colored
and
(London,
was
1925),
of their -similarity
Dr.
G. R.
Berlin)1;
by R.
published
62. Both
to tablets
of
history
in Babylon
which was part of the

or rather
former,
here for the first time
Museen,
Pl.
fragmentary
of the
excavated
The
8167).
is published
(Staatliche
London,
tablet
of a tablet
K.
of Professor
permission
Chemistry
because
scrutiny
(K.
on a chapter
Babylonian
7942
and
upon.
and the other a fragment

itself is lost),
to two small
light
touched
of a Middle
Musums
Musum,
attention
throw
hardly
in Nineveh
(the fragment
photograph
Oppenheim
is to draw
in my opinion,
which,
has
which
Lo
OF ALCHEMY
containing
(Figs^f
Generaldirektor
Meier,
the latter
Campbell
(Fig.
3) is
in
Thompson
came
fragments
its
under
my
for making
prescriptions
glasses3.
In this article
I am including
for the convenience
photographs
of both
of the reader, the very adequate
and,
fragments
copy (Fig. 4) made
in addition,
by R. Campbell
Thompson4.
in transcription
and translitration,
I must
presenting these documents
the reader that they contain many new and technical terms which can hardly
since they belong to a text category
of which little is as yet known.
be understood
Before
caution
The
translations
1. I have
are therefore
to thank
Dr.
Franz
2. The text was incorporated

fur Herstellung
3. The
and
farbiger
results
Glassmaking
4. From
Revue
glasierter
of my study
in Ancient
Ft. Campbell
d'Assyriologie,
Koher
for drawing
by H. Zimmern
Ziegel,
by both
affected
of the texts
my attention
in his "Assyrische
in Umschrift
lexical
dificulties
chemisch-technische
ZA
36 (1925),
Rezepte,
insbesondere
p. 206.
glassmaking
are being
published
under
the title
of Ihe Ancient
Assyrians
(London,
1925),
pl. 6.
Mesopotamia.
Thompson,
The Chemistry
and
to this text.
und bersetzung",
concerning
and
reading
LX.

Glass
30
LEO
A.
in more than
are often tentative

of texts
The
of this type
for my
justification
second
of this
part
dealing
arranged
curious
with
Yet,
these
even
fragments
No.
1 (Bab.
K.
of a narrow
half
one-column
(2 1/2 inehes)
a colophon
and
empty
space,
in a rather
mechanical
way,
by an
columns
separated
in two
the importance
to attempt
will
1.
Fig.
gin
a la
an
; 18 Unes preserved
of 2 lines
on the reverse.
with
words
often
ku
gin
ts . bi
naga.sag
him-ma
10 gin
1/2
sr . sr
ni-bu--ti
K.
713
ul lu mi &'-p(
1/3 ma ll.kur.ra
4
Bab.
split
script
should
na4.babbar.dil.S<-p<
ga
i-na
sla
ta
10 (sila)
ga
gestin
pe-en-ti
ta-la-at-tak-ma
izi
la
izi
it-ta-an-pa-ah
it-ta-ari-pa-ah
ul ta-ki-il
sum-ma
evident
tablet
Translitration
a-na
become
translation.
in the
713)
in poetic
is found
and
other
texts.
The
arrangement
literary
which
is difficult
hand
to date
Attention
Babylonian
satisfactorily.
elaborate
and non-cursive
form of the sign c.n (lines
1, 3 and 4).
obv.
of the very existence
a provisional
article.
Text
Upper
enough
Description
8 lines,
one sense.
reason
seems
[RA 60
OPPENHEIM

on
the
obverse,
is
writing
middle.
This
The
in the
is a
be
typical
drawn
Middle
to
the
MESOPOTAMIA
1966]
10
THE
IN
EARLY
OF
HISTORY
alchemy
31
ta-ki-il
i-na
ab-ni
pu-ur
sa
+ kab
na4.sal
ta-tab-ba-ak
si-bi-su
i-na
li-si
ka-al
15
tu-ka-at-tam
te-pe-eh-hi
izx la ka-tir(!)-lm
ud-mi
[ta]-sar-ra-ap
[tu-se]-lam-ma
[...] a ba ri
break
rev.
break
5 ud-mi
[...a-n\a
[...t]a-ki-il
empty
of about
space
i-na
six
lines
tu-sal-bak
x-[s]af?)-tim
im.sahar.na4.kur.ra
i-na
ta-ba-a-tim
i-na
uq-ni-i
Golophon
ta-nam-di-ma
gaba.ri
For
ligible)
(a quantity
mix
milk, 4 shekels
(the
into
2. Literally
von
3. The
according
Soden,
one-half
(and)
charcoal
produce
. DINGIR
. raki
to Miguel
ZA
copied
Civil,
which
10 shekels
honey,
sila
of wine
cover
(Then),
of the present
of ta,
one
a flame
of
test
it3 is not
(the mixture)
pour
(it) with
or, if the second
dil
dough.
You
sign was lost in
as na4. babrar.dil.
tablet,
slu
You
opration.
you
lute
line unintel
(one
produce
it ; you
is to be read pappardillu,
by the scribe
in one
do not
it is reliable.
; you
stone
pappardillu-1
; if the coals
a flame
dilhi-pi
in the state
"coals
syntax
of mountain
of algamisu-stone
bowl
text has na4.babbar.

of the damaged
original
be read,
mina
of red alkali
1. The
120 and
LUGAL
of (crushed)
of) 5 shekels
one-third
; if the coals
a stone
should
. ses
du
on glowing2
mixture)
the break
k.dingir.ra11'
NIG.
dag.
you
reliable
na4.du8.si.a
libir.ra
.GAL
Translation
tu-sab-sal
ta-ra-sa-an-ma
i]zi
[(ana?)
a-x-x
[dil]
which
papparmin.
of glow(ing)",
cf. for the very rare nibtu
(Gilg.
V m 19), Schott
in 7.A 42,
53, 225.
is dificult
since
the subject
of lakil
is masculine
and
hence
cannot

be the fire or the coals.
32
A.
heat
it for a full day
alum
on a smokeless1
in vinegar.
and...
in the fire and

Babylon.
main
problem
parallel
ofered
text
BM
1209602,
favor
are
stones
text
and
can
(pappardillu
that
clearly
the
for dtails),
and
by line 2' which
shown
of two prescriptions
and
pappardillu-stone
On the basis
are of two
last
for making
a stone
line indicates
There
a test
existed
(see
below
natures
: the
: one involving
I am, hence,
: one for making

like
to interpret
as
the existence
considrations
looking
is
on the reverse
In addition,
solutions.
two recipes
the first line
a dus-stone.
distinct
of dyes in liquid
fact that
of the extant
since
by technological
I will here proceed
demands
of ingrdients
at least
three separate
1-5) ; second,
(lines
firing of the mixture
but it can safely
missing
other
The
lines
describes
to have
contained
originally
the
of the above
first recipe
of a number
third,
lines
nature.
ready
an artificial
the
dus;/-stone3.
the two recipes
as far
in view of their poor state of prservation.
as is possible
The
is supported
in the extant
that the tablet
which
7-10)
be assumed
glass
interprtation
the
like,
to line 10 of the obverse.
corresponds
of fire, the other that
the application
to assume
(lines
must
on the tablet
mentioned
processes
section
and
looks
it contains
Babylonian
an explanation
is, or rather
on the obverse
a parallel
from
suggest
the last
of pappardillu-stone
obtained
product
a section
furthermore
and
manufacture
it
on the reverse,
space
Middle
first and
demands
respectively)
the empty
as technological
in the
boil
and place
liquid
of whether
The factors which
as well
are mentioned
dusu
refer to the
only
the first possibility.
[...].
: An old original
Colophon
contemporary
perhaps
(break)
You
of Babylon.
size of the tablet,
of a philological
diffrent precious
lazuli-colored
is the question
this text
the
by
it in (liquid)
soak
stone.
king
(I),
out and...
(the mixture)
in lapis
a dusi-colored
The
recipes.
the
recipes
take
You
(the stone)
concerning
and
two
fire. You
of Nebuchadnezzar
one or two chemical
as
steep
(then you have)
Property
The
You
[RA 60
OPPENHEIM
it is (not ?) reliable.
for five days,
(break)...
LEO
(lines
be assumed
of the mixture
testing
A fourth and
11-17).
: first, combination
oprations
that the second
recipe
began
5-10)
(lines
final phase
seems
to be
in line 19
already
or 20.
1. The spelling
182 : 16 and passim.
2.
(1936),
Published
p. 87
ka-lir-iam
Also
is difcult
below
: one
3. There
by C. J. Gadd
and
R. Campbell
is still another
possibility
gem which
("red
could
alkali"),
the pappardillu-stone
explain,
parallel
Thompson,
"A
: the pappardillu-stone
(see
moreover,
was given
eventually
if, first, the stone used was of much less value
cannot
qatirlu,
to the glass
texts,
see simply
ZA
36,
Middle-Babylonian
Chemical
in Iraq
Text",
ff.
the core of the artificial

the binder
expects
p. 35, note 5.
(of the first line)
the color of the duS-stone.
than dus, and second,
form a glasslike
mixture
if it contained
as the carrier
Landsbf.rger
in ylS 16, p. 336)
the rptition
of the testing
does
opration
might
silicates
of the final glaze.
not favor
have
been
This would
the possibility
(latku-takil).

which,
What
used
make
to form
sense
combined
only
with
little we know
suggested
of
here which
1966]
IN
MESOPOTAMIA
are evidently
tues
as a binder
served
crushed
of the wine
function
10 shekels)
(weight
and
into
but the essential
consti
to be used
the latter
bead.
into a spcifi
Honey
out
point
either described
The
shape.
in line 4
the ingrdient
obscure,
I must
and
33
an imitation
powders
remains
line 23 which
the damaged
ALCHEMY
red alkali1,
minerai
alkali
be interpreted,
cannot
failed to understand
and
milk to be added2
and
OF
of difficult words
colorful
the minerai
to knead
HISTORY
pappardiliu-stone
to fuse the apparently
probably
EARLY
are a number
the ingrdients
Among
THE
that
again
I have
to be used
the stone
or referred in some way to the entire process.

The
testing
correct
relationship
thrown
on the glowing
between
binder
firing can
second
of our fragment
unrelated
on
of algamisu-stone.
this stone which
As I have
It must
before
was
contained
stone
which
5 days"
to
with a mordant
1. The "red
be
occurs
three
only
and
is preserved)
have
of the second
recipe
the application
to my knowledge
in its two
suggests
tested
was
presently)
after an empty
the material
was
this
test,
but one may
subjected
of the
The latter opration
that
if it passed
is preserved.
: the assembling
words
and,
to
the
improved
from experience.
known
on the reverse
of
but the presence
would
oprations
made
in a crucible
place
the last
takil)
as to what
(see
dyed
to facilitate
alkali"
if
of two apparently
placing
have
might
appear
for five days
is no indication
was
(lit.
in the
applied
[t]akil
the testing, and the final processing.
Of the test,
fired or soaked
There
suitable.
at least
in the five lines which
is left ("for
What
either
been
is unknown
out, only the end
have
the colophon.
takes
with the alkali,
together
as the craftsman
pointed
only is preserved
extant.
"stone"
(lost in the break),
ingrdients
for the scribe's
pappardillu-bedLd
silicates4,
already
likewise
word
takil
is to be changed
to have
test seems
the
is to be
it is considered
the mixture
for this spcification
reason
contains
a flame
the last
(only
A sample
ingrdients.
How
same
for ascertaining
probably
tablet.
imitation
The
of the artificial
quality
and
one
firing of the
and
been the reason
might have
recipes
The
alkali)
proceed.
The
is not stated.
and this method
was
(red
the test is negative

prescription
mixture
; if it produces
coals
(?)
the actual
and
"reliable")
of the
latku)
(Akk.
last
space
lines
are
to be tested
was
considered
suggest
treatment
that the
probably
of the dye.
only here.
In the glass
texts,
the source
for alkali
is ashes
from
certain
plants.
2. The quantity
of Pliny (Book XIV,

As to wine, the strange statement
of milk given here seems excessive.
it
is
the
than
the
Falernian
is
no
that
ranks
mind
:
wine
cornes
to
"There
;
one, too, among
only
higher
Chapter 8)
of a flame".
the wines that takes fire on the application
It is hardly
3. The signs are quite clearly written but the gap at the end of the line prevents understanding.
ku-ul-lu-mi.
4. This
suggested
is actually
in the CAD
the case
s. v. without
when
one accepts
the knowledge
the interprtation
of the reference
of the algamisu
here discussed.

stone
as steatite
as was
34
A.
The
compact
prescribes
the
and
brewing
fashion.
soaking
cannot
dsignation
"to
the
bath
word
with
suspended
glass
dye
in the
alum
above
recipe deals
had
of liquid
dyes
was
then know
whether
new
type
few
tablet
tradition
lines
dnot
the
been
liquid
dye
in
such
coated
emulsion
of crushed
according
to
preceeding
the
blue
pres
a blueish
is fired to attain
object
even
text
earlier
of an older
"break"
was
glass
presented
the
given
this
of a faence
or another
the repeated
processing
final firing. If, however,
the desired
understand
dus
some
; possibly
much
or only
purple
better
we would
because
a shade
to produce
before being
color
this process
by the dsignation
or orange
must
as the preceeding
be
taken
of being
worthy
a lustre.
variety
texts
that
proof
the
in my book)
of red-colored
attest
millennium
stated
the line in small
of the text. Obviously

a broken
tant
text was copied for prservation.
mentioned
which
and
tablet
was
therefore
The second
of contem
to the group
BM
and
subscript
"Property
the
technical
is, in fact,
out by the
of the
unique

and
120960
borne
at the end
probably
as the
to the reign
a strong and varied
in the subscript
glass.
B. C. Our fragment
characters
level
It is datable
tablet
has
represents
on the same
considered
B. C., and thus belongs

(the above
of our text
discussion
is even more interesting.
third of the second
above
as
with the manufacture
text as is expressly
written
been
meant
conjectural
the fragment
in the last
before
that
there is no direct reference
made
by a glaze,
We would
I, i. e. 1124-1103
glass text"
have
of the assumption
although
or carrier
covered
brownish
dealing
of Nebuchadnezzar
"Hittite
use the term rasnu,
having
on the basis
be senseless
glaze.
facts
established
In two respects,
and
to be
in this context
and
of "chemical"
contemporary
porary
and
(the
to the manipu
in this instance.
of the chemist
the
substance
of an
the
of a body
the final glaze
As unsatisfactory
been,
produced
it could
used,
is normally
dus-stone
the goal
word
would
is meant
what
a copy
was
with a thin translucent
if we knew
The
another
verbis. They
probably
is proposed
consisted
which
or a crystal
coated
and
After
of a stone or crystal,
with the coloring
composition
pebble
The next two lines refer
object.
tanning)
(colored)".
final section),
3 of the
interprtation
to it. If the object

by means
with
with
connection
glaze.
The
similar
it expressis
mixture
in
normally
first line
: the
last two lines refer again
The
consisting
liquid
2 and
(lines
cription
or greenish
lazuli
"lapis
is as follows
alum
by boiling
in connection
used
uqnu,
a
of an unspecifed
made
do not mention
again
used
labku,
in vinegar.
be read)
(normally
steep"
with
a
and
object
from
in a liquid,
lines
in an
of steps
refer to a number
dyeing
of these
My analysis
of a mordant
[RA 60
OPPENHEIM
the actual
(sulbuku
irrigation)
to the prparation
lated
describe
five lines which
extremely
LEO
first two
and
impor
(lit. 'palace')
1966]
MESOPOTAMIA
of Nebuchadnezzar,
had
been
learn
that
accumulation
technical
of
for craftsmen
in
kept
and
HISTORY
indicates
existed
scholarly
such
in Akkadian
as
the
date,
as certain
of that
and
it
were
history
35
was
copied
for and
From
this
ruler.
that
beside
contained
we
the customary
also
tablets
not to mention
with
peculiarities
evidence
Neo-Assyrian
fail to obtain
millennium
of Mesopotamia
technology
of alien origin. The only archeological
is the sudden
Near
and certain
mtal
East
alloys
the only witness
Text
Thin
twoora
composed
column
tablet
of Assurbanipal.
The
if one prsupposs
each
may
have
lines,
and
of two
flake
three
No.
between
contained
the
are
preserved.
AfO
16 (1952),
sections
1. For such
by
a collection
197-215.
This
2. See W. G. Lambert,
joint
a three
250
and
horizontal
"The
for the Akkadian,

and
text
Hittite
E.
Ebeling,
can be pointed
parallel
out.
tedly in the glass
the
and
fragment
a two
350
a new
for this encounter

ail over
containers
glass
of course,
dyed
stones,
glass has become
evidence,
lines.
The
two
corner
of either
a
right
of the tablets
of the library
of 60
columns
suggests
tablet.
columns
of which
Lower
texture
(22)
column
the
or
Accordingly,
are separated
by
vertical
the
end
of the
(one
at
very
80
lines
tablet
original
see
simply
Anneliese
"Bruchstticke
between
Kammenhuber,
VIOF
Assur",
1950
Rome,
Hippologica
einer mittelassyrischen
the 7th century
(see p. 32, note
I : A turning point in the history of Ancient
(Toronto,
1964), p. 3-13.
und kultische
Texte aus
In line 15 of the Iatter appears
texts
front with
8167)
reverse.
script,
of Nebuchadnezzar
Reign
von Wagenpferden",
Trainierung
5. A curious
unwritten
double
column)
"Die Bibliothek
kept at the court in Assur, see E. F. Weidneh,
Tiglathpilesers
of Nebuchadnezzar
king who ruled from 1115 to 1077 B. C., was a contemporary
in The Seed of Wisdom

religion",
E. Ebeling,
"Parfumrezepte
the
or
layout,
dividers
3. See
For
broad
we have
much
no
fragments,
typical
of lines
on
either
7942
2 (K.
in the
number
that some
events.
Description
suggest5.
perfumes,
do not leave
(see presently)
for these
evidence
Since
of the Kiln"),
C. the traditional,
very sophisticated
included.
Egypt
B.
"Door
of
collection
the impression
on a rather
clashed
of technically
appearance
the Ancient
have
texts
already
of horses
To the same
of the large
(the sris called
technology
must
the
perfumes3,
for the training
prototypes
one can hardly
half of the second
instructions
the new glass text in Hittite.
Assyrian
of these
certain
the instructions
for the library of Assurbanipal
the above
first fixed in writing
for making
120960,
the Middle
furthermore,
in the second
sierung
ALCHEMY
the tablet
palace
texts2,
literary
glass text BM
linguistic
From
4.
that
the
prescriptions
and in Hittite4,
glass texts copied
tamian
OF
in Babylon1,
of Mesopotamian
mentioned
repeatedly
time
EARLY
instructions.
In this period
period
collection
collection
royal
THE
of Babylon"
king
of a
part
IN
Hethilica
Vorschriftensammlung
(=
Or. NS
I",
I.
Mesopo
17,
1948).
(Wiesbaden,
1961)
fur die Akklimati
7 (1951).
glass
texts
the phrase
and
islu
the fragment
la qaliriu
from Babylon
"smokeless
1).

here presented
flre" which
recurs repea
36
a.
leo
[RA 60
oppenheim
K.7944+
*-''-Vv.
8,67^f|
^Tf^BRr
W>^
ikfe^ #T^5 r4|

A,
tmTTf^Er^
v%
'"%$m
' m*%
io.;i
^ $k..
-y.
^
m ^
iww
^r|
icwEWKqK
*r t=4
is.'-
I'k
k.
7942
TTJM
<jng-^f-^
+! 8167
20.
o-spmimt^t ^ir ^
^
Hg
^wmjf
Transliteration
break
[x x ina
[KI
. a]
[pi]-su-ti
5
[e]GIR.bi
i-na
ina
i]zi
. dID
. LU
lu-sa-ad
egir.[bi
. RU . GU
siR-as
IGI
i-n[a
. 4 . gal
lu-ba-ri-e
izi
. la
sa-mu-ti
tu-sa-ad
tes.bi
na4
. [
[
t[u-sa-am-ma-ah
or -ba-al-lal]

V', :
^f|
*r f=#
*rn*=|
1966]
ana
sub-ma
2 gin
e n-ma
la ta-mi-is
[x]-at-ku
10
im.gid.da
a-na
i-ga-ma-ru
ina
20
37
la tu-[kal-la-am]
sub(?)]1
urudu.hi.[a
zid . [da]
ut-tab-[bab]
s i-na
sA 1 ma.na
AN.NA
i-sa-ad
alchemy
s 1 ma.na
i. gis
k.babbar
GIN
OF
in-nap-pa-a[h]
ik-kap-par-ma
a-na
HISTORY
i-bal-la-[al]
i-na
ip-pat-ti-iq-ma
ziq-pat
EARLY
bi-il-[lu-ka\
k.babbar
a-di
the
mam-ma
a-na
6 GIN UD.KA.bar
15
IN
MESOPOTAMIA
k.babbab
urudu
GIN
mi-si-i
nu
su-
[x xj
1/2 [ma.na...]
[im.gid.da]
ip-pat-ti-[iq-ma]
zd.da
.gis
in-nap-[pa-ah]
ut-tab-[ba-ab)
ik-kap-par
K.BABBAR
K.BABBAB
ziq-pat
SU-
[NU...]
of column
end
Translation
:
You
(break)
stretch white
melt [...] on the fire. Afterwards

in [...]. Afterwards
[curtains]
[both melted
ingrdients].
... Do not be careless
(with)
sulphur
one fourth of a shekel
melt [...] on the fire. (Then)
You
in red garments.
rai. [You...]
[you...]
[you do...]
[...] you
of [...] mine
you mix in one process
throw (this) into water and you will take out (of it) [...].
You
; do not [show]
to these instructions)
(with respect
(the procdure)
to anyone.
throw
[You
copper
2 shekels
(?)]
of bronze.
6 shekels
(also)
Once it is cast (in molds)

011 and
flour (placed
ziqiptu)
of silver.
one
Into
This
mina
of [im.gid.da
2 shekels
of im.gid.da
(kind
will turn
of unrefined
(lit. mix)
to flare up with a flame through
rubbed
of) silver
of refined
mixt[ure]
[Your]
it will be made
on it). When
into one mina
minerai
and
[can]not
polished
these
(objects)
into
(?)
silver.
(the use of)

are ziqpu
(or
[be detected].
(go) one-half [mina of ...], 1 shekel of tin,

It melts ; it will be cast [and] made to flare up
copper
material].
is very little space for the sign ru which does not fit too well into the sentence structure. The two
the first as
line 9 to 10, and 16-17 are dificult to interpret. It seems that one should understand
2 shekels
or "[Throw]
for each mina of mixed copper [also] 6 shekels of bronze"
shekels of im.gJd.da
1. There
parallel
passages
either : "2
of iM.GiD.DA
copper
into one mina of mixed
1/2 [mina
syntactically
of..., also]
1 shekel
copper
[also]
6 shekels
of tin, 2 shekels
of bronze"
of iM.GiD.iiA."
and the second

Both
as,,for
alternatives
unsatisfactory.

each mina
of refined
for the first phrase
are
38
A.
in a flame
polished
(these
use
(the
through
objects
oil
of)
ziqpu
are)
LEO
[RA 60
OPPENHEIM
and
(placed
on
of silver.
This
flour
(or ziqiptu)
When
it).
rubbed
of) silver
(kind
and
[cannot
be detected].
We
are again
the text should
confronted
be divided
of deciding
by the problem
for a correct
is set of by dividing
lines and since the preceding
to 21, I assume
the scribe
that
observations.
use
topic,
identical
technical
a number
furthermore,
the
First,
a diffrent topic.
bi) which recurs occasionally
which
does not occur in sections
dificult to ascertain
because
the parallel
2 and
sections
the mixture
each
of copper,
: "This
I shall
adduce
A dificulty
or ziqiptu
out
purpose
possible
doubts
is that the product
remains
This may
mean
1. Misplaced
a finished
and missing
division
are e. g. the texts

is written
taken
it after
is clearly
stated
ballu
kaspi
11)
is to
in the last line of
(is or can)not
[...]"
and
the
The
mtal
of the
(in line
unknown)3
text obviously
the
ingrdients
of the opration
is to deceive
This
"chemist".
from outside
inter
Mesopotamia
AMT
is in both instances
either that the word
that were sold as silver objects;
3. I-iterally
is very
discuss
qualified
from the texts
by parallels
polished,
the formula
person
; we shall
(reading
from base
The
and
however,
by
"afterwards"
of the first section
by the context.
alloy
dnots
Such
of) silver
(kind
in the plural)
2.
and set apart
presently.
which
of silver.
term is, however,
fam.
any
ana
a minerai
and
a silver-like
is to allay
is fully borne
recur in
phrases
two sections
phrase
to be required
of alchemistic
of copper"
prtation
seems
of producing
final formula
the
which
proposed
a method
content
same
contain,
They
and
use of the phrase
in these
The
bronze
It says
"leukosis
and
directness.
of the two sections.
describes
the
texts2, and the use of the second
described
This
I have
materials.
of prservation
16
3.
"silver".
restoration
with
by other style features
state
the texts call
yield what
16-21)
lines
can be supported
deal
of the terms
2 and 3. The topical
with outspoken
is repeated
tells us that
None
in mdical
of its bad
sections
the same
nearly
passages.
of the oprations
purpose
third
(lines
closely
line after line 8 in
This emendation
of style are the repeated
The features
(egir.
and
and
and
which, in turn, is characterized
the first section
The
second
terms,
of parallel
section1.
parallel
a dividing
sections
many
last section
lines (9-15)
to draw
forgotten
the first from the second
order to separate
by several
has
The
understanding.
how
into
product,
lines
can also
66,
1 : 5 and
perhaps
or that
be observed
8 ; AMT
(appearing
objects
the word
in the glass
23.
cast
10 : 2 and
texts
called
ziqpu
in both instances
in a mold
dnots
(patqu)
an ingotlike
from Nineveh.
3 ; KAR
198 : 17 and 21. There,
KGin-iii.
im. gid. da means
'"long clay"
which could
describe
a minerai
showingnodules
crvstals.

or elongated
1966]
form in which
The
2 and
sections
chemical
of unrefined
refined
traded.
3 are largely
which
OF
(lit. mixed)
tin, and
called
essential
coloring
into an alloy
in the second
to assume
amount
a small
cannot
first recipe,
not my main
this
of the two recipes
each
Technologically,
and
of the metals
and
castings
with oil and flour ; and 3) the cleaning
casting
here is mainly
Of interest
of rduction
and
"to
imitation
to the
make
thus
wipe
the use of oil and

the
and
clean"
ubbubu
three
and polishing
make
from the library

in the
and
of Assurbanipal.
is missing
extant
likely to produce
more
casting
shine")
to keep
adds
a secret.
(sir
is
red
garments
us
is to spread
clothe
himself in
of the
solely
mixing
(summuhu
The
pale.
polishing
the finishing
touches
melting
or
tarsu,
of two
bullulu
; the
in this chemical
contained
; the dsignation
are preserved
the
the chemist
line 3)
(line
a curtain
5).
The
last
(suddu
verb
is broken
does
irregularity
of a white
remainder
in lines
batches
line
with a command
is still another
There
the chemist
to
castings.
conditions
at the end of line 7, and the only ingrdient

Moreover,
but addresses
the prescription
8 lines
Only
in a break
is sulphur.
text
to the prescription
directly
of the still hot
silver.
of the fmished product

mentioned
is a technical
of the cooled-off
We turn at this point to the first of the three sections

text
effect.
: 1) the melting,
steps
; 2) the treatment
flour, most
"to
mixture
of a nickel
desired
This, however,
describes
of the
surface
the
the
article.
the minerai
mixing,
contained
ingrdient
to have
expected
of
use the minerai
to think in this connection
be
of
the use
the name
the copper-bronze
changed
in the present
concern
and
however,
recipes,
in some form seems a much more likely possibility.

and
to be in the use
seems
of an ingrdient
that
which
agent
It is dificult
silver.
resembling
in the
Both
of prescriptions
in collections
(2 shekels)
recipe.
has
i. e.
whitening
such
because
(kuppuru
permits
less explicit
much
being
diffrence
bronze
quantity
One
basic
The
tin, and
a small
im.gxd.da.
(or ore)
problem
the dsignation
the second
parallel,
in pairs.
copper,
is lost in a break,
Arsenic
39
ALCHEMY
Philologically,
often be observed
can
appear
recipes
copper,
which
HISTORY
EARLY
customarily
the first, a feature
when
ore
was
silver
THE
in this dilemma1.
no dcision
than
IN
mesopotamia
6),
The
6).
pertain
to be careful
in the text
material,
of the
1 and
off, line
not
and
text
and
tells
of their
molten
subs
for
could be related to zaqiplu which dnots (see CAD Z s. v.) a standard
1. The word ziqiptu (pl. ziqpti)
royal and cultic use, hence, in our case, a small replica of such an object ; and ziqpu (pl. also possibly ziqpti) could
of reading the sign ziq as zi(h)
to me the possibility
dnot a picket or lance-shaped
ingot. Miss Reiner suggested
86
in
the meanings "mold for mtal
and to connect it with ze'pa (CAD
and hence the word as zi'pKu)
Z, p.
f.)
objects"
(see below
(mng.
2) and
"cast
n. 31) but also date
coin"
(mng.
4).
This
would
not onlv
fit the context
and
the purpose
it.

of the recipe
40
A.
into
is then poured
tance
What
is the above-mentioned
careless
out.
taken
which
do not occur
The
breaks
text
off at
the chemist
Do not [show]
point1.
intriguing
: "Do
directly
not be
to anyone
(the procdure)
else in the cuneiform
anywhere
this
and
so interesting
prescription
addresses
to these instructions)2.
to secrecy
[RA 60
OPPENHEIM
mutilated
passage
(with respect
References
and
water
this severely
makes
LEO
!"
with
texts dealing
in the present instance

the dviation
crafts3. Perhaps
hence a specific trade secret rather

indicates that it represents a "shop tradition"
of a technical nature. However,
since the very
than a scribal collection of instructions
written
instructions
nature
and
the
The
curtain
on "red
for a specific
with the glass
is to be erected.
which
In mdical
at the patient
Only in certain
cuit rituals
tions occur
concerning
to those
extent
the purpose
that
stress
1. The
with
translation
or instructions.
3. This statement
literature
The playful
a small
expresses
is made
expressly
that there exists
but inconsistent
a problem
be [la]-at-ku
a glass
use of certain
of a large
K.
of diversified
well proven"
to be read
destined
4.
Glass
For
and
an isolated
Glassmaking
and
in
scribes.
atypical
Note
the assertion
purposely
section
in this context
which
shows
or
underline
we may
damaged.
always
refers to ngligence
often found in popular

in the text BM 120960
the remarks
traces
made
of a similar
below
well
for the
If one could
read
it la
described.
towards
as well as in Assyrio
in such a way as to hide its secrets
sign values
I must
+ 8176,
instructions
could be read by any scribe of more than "primary"

'
of the text who ' 'deciphered'
most of the writing. The text actually
by learned
only
which
which has given rise to this misconception

as was done by the editors
to a certain
and thus refer to the process
of the verb mhi which
rare and artificial
standing
7942
tablet
its first sign is badly
i. e. "tested,
to contradict
physician.
do instruc
that either the nature
fragment
number
text written
or
in this respect.
fraction
the meaning
no ritual
correspond
but should
parallel,
way
of the
because
not mean
magie
they are consis
abound,
which
to put
of a furnace
show
glass
of high priestly
does
extraordinary
discussion
on line 8 poses
the world would
commands
logical
in any
a considrable
2. The proposed
spcifie
was
is quite
only
first word
of course,
This,
acts
The
and not at the acting
persons
it represents
(which is not likely),
medica
of vestments
terminating
flled
short rituals
change
the
was
assume
for making
texts where
of
but not real
at the "conscration"
the ritual
the fact that our section

Before
aims solely
involve
ritual
the chemist
with a ritual.
begin
which
in our text.
of such
and request
which
reason,
of the drawing
there is an apparent
Again,
and the materia
for the same
5) speak
instructions
actual
tently directed
(3 and
we cannot
secrecy.
remains,
opration
from Nineveh
however,
The
acts whatsoever4.
magie
damaged
is unknown,
required
section
lines
opration.
texts
in that introduction,
involved
to have
(but unknown)
for another
garments"
parallelism
The
explanation.
seem
of the same
feature
unusual
second
in this section
described
which
circumstances
without
a white
of the opration
purpose
understand
likewise
for spcifi
from outsiders.
(see also, p. 32, n. 2)

exactlv
ducation
belongs
to a category
p. 42, note 2.
conscration
Mesopotamia.

ritual,
see my book
1966]
MESOPOTAMIA
chemist.
The
loss of these
of Mesopotamian
with
dealing
reader is bound
odd
fragments
of cuneiform
and
so damaged
that
here is my answer
Two
well
X
dating
known
of Leiden,
from about
discussed
These
and
Hellenistic
In
papyri
from Egypt
fact,
certain
with three main
; and,
the Leyden
ordered
purple
Greek
7th centu
of both sources
Stockholm
metals,
precious
to give
dyes
in these
ranges
and
of the Leiden
stones
is
alchemy
in them.
color and polish is to resemble
changing)
and
in the first part of this
by comparing
of imitating
dealing
of Egypt,
in the 13th and
discussed
150 recipes
in
likely
in 290 A. D. by the
find expression
the topical
recur
most
that the claim
of chemistry
country
in cuneiform
of ail manuscripts
papyri
which
Holmiensis1
of prescriptions
instructions
of clay tablets
which
: methods
producing
of many
papyri
i. e. gold,
silver,
these metals
the appearance
them
shades.
and some of those of the Stockholm
papyrus
a number
in Egypt
allegedly
two large
the
instructions,
Graecus
Papyrus
in Mesopotamia
already
alloys whose
lastly,
silver,
traditions
phrases
(or otherwise
obscure.
chemical
destruction
as the mother
101 and
topics
related
originating
on these
by the fragments
by making
of coloring
stones
and
of gold
characteristic
terms
technical
rather
A. D., contain
the systematic
technological
respectively
electron,
both
I will try to demonstrate
This
with
manuscripts
closely
papyri,
are attested
ries B. G. as shown
The
two
It is mainly
the
remains
these
here presented
incomprhensible
degree both types of chemical
pre-Hellenistic,
based.
article.
very
to have survived
Diocletian.
Emperor
the
and
the making
with alchemy,
Greek
early
the end of the third century
above.
with
along
to an astonishing
- seem
Thebes
and
is demonstrated
glasses.
with
replete
for comparison
of Assyria
to ask why I have
of the procdure
the nature
And
which parallel
and
tablets
basis
of the king
of colored
the manufacture
41
ALCHEMY
of the tablet
The importance
of the library
in the collections
OF
HISTORY
robs us of an important
instructions
At this point, the patient
Papyrus
EARLY
and alien technologies.
by its inclusion
tablets
THE
IN
deal
and
; methods
of precious
of the recipes
Many
of
text deal with the first topic
of the former (after the Latin dition of C. Leemansin

1885), see Earle R. Caley,
vol. 3 (1926), pp. 1149-66 ; for the latter (after the
of Chemical Education,
German dition by Otto Lagercrantz,
Upsala
1913), see the same author in the same journal vol. 4 (1927), pp. 979
The Greek and Latin Literary Texts from Graeco-Roman
1002. For the text type as such, see R. A. Pack,
Egypi
1. For an English
"The
Leyden
Papyrus",
(2nd
dition,
Ann
Nos.
1999
this nature
Berlin,
listed
Arbor
1965),
in Catalogue
is much
p.
pp.
1997
David
des manuscrits
on these
der Alchemie
139 ff. For more
in Cahiers
109, No.
to Dr.
literature
und Ausbreitung
1920),
Chemistry",
in the Journal
ff. I owe this reference
100 A. D. There
Entstehung
translation
d'Histoire
recent
mondiale,
papyrus),
(Leyden
Pingree who has also
grecs, III
alchimiques
papyri.
(Berlin,
literature
IX
I found
1919),
pp.
1998
1-27,
p. 27. Some
(1924),
and
H.
"The
p. 41 f. especially
(Stockholm
my attention
most instructive
cf. A. G. Debus,
(1965),
and
drawn
and
Diels,
as
of
papyrus),
of these go back
original
Antike
signiflcance
note
as well
to two more papyri
6.

to about
E. O. von Lippmann,
Technik
and
(Leipzig
of Early
of the History
42
A.
most of the latter
with the last two.
the last two sections

fragment
(12th
of the Nineveh
papyri.
The
last
parallel
in Mesopotamia1.
With
topic
the papyri
of copper
speak
are dificult to identify.

a kind
that
deceive
even the artisans",
it cannot
even the artisans".

"silver
(7th century
"white
Such
and
in gold
and
speak
or "the mtal
silver
colors,
several
the Babylon
of the
will be equal
the recipes
in
minerais
which
the economic
silver of such
first quality
which
will
so much as to deceive
the two last lines of the
degree
: "This
no
imitating
to true...
of the
has
about
quite explicitly
will be...
of Assurbanipal
before,
substitutes)
purple
tin and
echo to a remarkable
phrases
established
B. G.) and
occur as e. g. "(alloy)
"this
out",
purple
copper"),
phrases
be found
Such
with
has been
to the first two topics
respectively
of the recipes
of the library
recipes"
fragment
of alloys
(also
Several
of these processes2.
purpose
to what
of wool
(dyeing
to the making
respect
According
B. G.) correspond
century
[RA 60
OPPENHEIM
LEO
of) silver
(kind
cannot
[be
detected]"3.
Equally
applied
in Egypt
charcoal
respectively
and
rities, and the methods

To illustrate
of
alum
and
of
earth
and
it will
A second
chemical
6th
reasons
tion 2 and
attention
the
for
and
lamellose
and
of dyeing
dyed
shingled
mina
every
more
than
will
between
pebbles
wool
20
make
the
to make
from the West
here the first recipe
:
for
of copper
and
cast.
alum,
(this)
I quote
R. Galey
use,
into
mix
in
Cast
skillfully,
of good,
drachmas
dyer's
vinegar
6 drachmas
each
however,
unfalsifed,
it imperishable.
cuneiform
and
them resemble
as we know
from texts
the
Greek
gem stones,
of the 14th and
that the Stockholm
of a recipe
dealing
fragment
stresses
secrecy in one point (section 101) and for obvious

an extraordinary
beautifu]
luster (translation
of
of an artificial purple dye. I would furthermore
with the manufacture
because
papyrus
the purple
of doublettes
(see above
has
of recipes
p. 39).
The
in the papyri
doublettes
which
parallels
are introduced
the doublette
in the papyri
in sec
by the word
(recipe).
3. The
economic
context
within
entirely
outside
located,
cannot
the end
of the first millennium
in and
of E.
established
imported
to the existence
3 of the Nineveh
"another"
for impu
the alloys serve in both instances
worked
retains
be
this a secret
: "Keep
at the beginning
like to draw
(beside
agent
solvents
C.
2. Let me also mention
Caley)"
can
as a reducing
as fluxes and
of the papyri,
in it not
Place
mixture
to have
seems
B.
and
Cappadocia
silver.
regular
whole
the techniques
appearance.
texts in the techniques
centuries
economic
and polishing
of
parallel
1. Mesopotamia
the
sait
Chios,
serve
in the translation
papyrus
to be
prove
which
the
silver,
proof
a silvery
salts
which
is well
Cyprian
copper,
let soak
for three
Then
days.
Plunge
and
flour), minerai
the tnor and the content
of the Stockholm
in comparing
encountered
as well as in Mesopotamia
of cleaning
of producing
purpose
are the similarities
important
: oil is used
around
remain
Greece
already
which
B. C. saw
for several
as a "technique"
alchemy
considration
an economic
centuries
of altering
even in a philological
development
swept
through
metals
investigation.
of far reaching
the neighboring
to one's
consquences.
rgions

advantage
The last centuries

Coinage
from Egypt
is
before
used
to Iran
1966]
MESOPOTAMIA
and of producing
such stones.
is left of two prescriptions

The
methods
same
is used
and vinegar
seem
Stockholm
ALCHEMY
to have
covers
are
are some
on
are held
the
of E.
The
what
a pappardillu-stone,
of instructions
groups
R.
to
by either
close
of stones
which
Caley),
; alum
of the artifcial
together
crucibles
for the dyeing
recipes
papyrus
gems.
to contain
p. .2) happens
dyes ; the material
colors,
luted
artifcial
of the dus-stone.
in certain
are boiled
with
one to make
in both
applied
43
of the Stockholm
70 deal
nature,
in the coloring
(in the translation
papyrus
about
of characteristic
stones
or tragacanth
; and the
Here
"hermetically".
OF
1, see above
(Text
a stone
; the stones
i. e. crushed
gems,
HISTORY
and
of very similar
the other to produce
and
EARLY
of gems
in Babylon
found
fragment
THE
More than 60 of the 115 recipes
with the dyeing
are concerned
small
IN
them
taken
honey
airtight
from the
the
illustrate
Greek
methods
so-called
in liquid
alum
and leave
it there for 3 days.
Then
remove
stone
topaz
in which
vessel
have
unadulterated
put it in a small
copper
you
placed
pure
with sharp
Put the cover
the vessel,
close
and gently
vinegar.
verdigris
along
upon
up the cover,
the vessel
with
olive
wood
for 6 hours,
a flre under
otherwise
the longer
the
keep
you maintain
will the stone
be only,
a gentle
and
as I say, with
flre. Cool
and
lift
flre, the better
deeper
will show
out.
Its condition
whether
it has become
emerald.
That
is to say, you will
the stone
Take
and
this
observe
that
and
the
or
from
product
will
you
Prparation
and place
and
it can
have
over
box-tree
be
an
of
it.
vessel
taken
of.
Let
it become
many
in the
Put
which
emerald
Put
the
stones
be
roasted
and
and beyond
vinegar
in
the
ashes.
a dish,
for
a time
the
upon
; use began
: Mix
emeralds
it upon
stones
alum
formed
stone
resembles
slowly
cooled,
however
so
the
beforehand
days
and
the
it under
leave
natural
that
; if not,
oil
it
is purifled
7 days.
On
cover
ones.
also
honey
the
has
in a small
Put
out
taking
film
a green
oil
breaks.
soon
put
and
it from
Let
dish
on
lay another
under
supervision.
stones.
to be made
1 part
of roasted
it cook
and place
Then
of diverse
such
the
it as
afterward
metals
copper
2 parts
in it.
(and)
crystal
lute
cover,
Then
remove
color
the
the
the
stones
joint
cover
with
as gold, silver and copper,
of verdigris
with
and
clay,
gradually
the dye as
linked
with
to each
let
and
pour
you
wish.
other in value
on systems of international
commerce
of increasing
that depended
Shifts in value affected
complexity.
not only merchants
and bankers but private persons of restricted means as well. This seems to have generated
"scientific"
remedies to improve the mtal of coins which may well
the desire to use, under certain conditions,
It is probably
itself through an intense concern with alchemy.
therefore not an accident
have expressed
that it
relations
is the later of the two clay tablets
of silver. After we hear from King

coins (possibly under western, Lydian, influence),
the cuneiform texts remain silent on this important topic. Our recipe from the library of Assurbanipal
(668-627 B. C.)
could therefore reflect a similar concern in coin metals. One should also mention in this context that the somewhat
Sennacherib
later
(721-705
economic
of the quality
were adulterated
composition
from Southern
documents
of silver used
On the other hand,

objects
6t gold
here discussed
B. G.) that the Assyrians
as a means
we know
(even
that deals
knew about
Mesopotamia
of payment
with the imitation
copper
(Sippar,
from as early as the second
when
moved
Babylon,
and stress carefully
from palace
Uruk,
half of the second
to palace)
Ur, etc.)
the percentage
are very much
of permissable
millennium
and that tests were made
received.

that
aware
admixtures.
gold
to establish
and
gold
the true
44
A.
I have
in the technologies
disparities
in purpose,
cations
than
rather
analogy
must
One
potamia
of the third
A.
across
the gap in rgion
With
the
already
not
the
since
that
traditions
chemical
13th
it is still dificult
The
lopments.
of such
in Egypt
The
and
novel
1. Pliny
XXXVI
(Book
mood
the
although
earlier
deve
treatises
technical
have
to light, and
not come
to be found. The extent
of
hidden2.
in my title : Mesopotamia
implied
even
Elder
practical
of the two
the date
before
intent
utilitarian
"tripling")
metals,
precious
expensive
chemistry
A.
D.)
Greek
refers
Near
Eastern
to
Near
which
papyri
I have
Greek
(the
East
texts
look like precious metals,

a fateful change.
In an
underwent
making
stones
alreadv
of the ancient
of augmenting
alloys
and on the wings of a new "theoretical"

(23-79
by the influence
about
brought
the
coloring
approach,
of stones
to
new technical
increase
their
value
67).
2. The relationship
evolved
therefore
transformation
that the great
and
"manufacturing"
entirely
at chemistry
remains
its history
only in the last third of the second
the contention
justify
fundamentally
of "doubling"
speak
began
and
southward,
to admit
be so rare as to be unlikely
would
to the Nile
or to discern
process,
collection
attempts
on the basically
philosophy
discussed.
slow
and
of
assembly
of Alchemy.
History
It is well known
place
earlier
I must
In conclusion
took
of its tablet
repertory
content
and
do therefore
the
technology
westward
basically
but
of the
I, in the
from the Euphrates
As the glass
of Mesopotamia
tradition
skills before this date
the chemist's
in the Early
was
static
gamut
The papyri
Egypt.
Hellenistic1
practiced
earlier.
this complex
to dtail
B. G. Possible
millennium
if not
B.C.
and
known
of diffusion
scribal
into the traditional
of Greek
were
century
the direction
suggests,
tablets
chemistry
"Egyptian"
present
or even
the
Nebuchadnezzar
before
and in Ptolemaic
the repertory
from the papyri.
of wool,
dyeing
Hence
remained
have
the clay tablets
in Babylonia
the same
roughly
of its craftsmen,
of the
is lost.
more
the fact that
but rather
separates
exception
before Assurbanipal,
empire
Assyrian
which
period
out
pointed
raft was
chemist's
and
from the end
in Greek
much
that
of Meso
literature
if we are fortunate
even
papyri
in mind
keep
and methods
art, the concerns
of the chemical
extensive
not be stressed
should
similarities
accidentai
we must
D.,
and
preserved,
two rather
is the gnral
coincidental.
of the chemical
fraction
has been
excepted)
at our disposai
century
are best considered
of dupli
number
in this paper
matters
and
the similarities
length
out a small
pointing
What
which
parallels
that only a small
texts
(the glass
enough
and methods.
specific
realize
to have
beyond
applied
ingrdients
at any
from discussing
rerained
purposely
[RA 60
OPPENHEIM
LEO
between
the ancient
mueh later is not the concern
chemistry
and that of India
and China
of this study.

where alchemy
1966]
methods
of economically
to accomplish
the alchemy
of the Alexandrinian
world
sustained
luxuriant
of chemical
interest
tradition.
millennium.
in experiments
for an
could
took
auspices
under
and
from
the
place
as well as in the
of a new
the pressure
itself
disengage
chemistry
superstructures
of the papyri
in the Islamic
Only
with philosophy
mystical
theoretical
from
the
spculations,
foundation.
that
to the history of chemistry and

The few fragments of clay tablets contribute
over as
that the pre-alchemistic
of science the realization
phase extended
ments
lennium
as the alchemistic.
intellectually
The
and
results
recorded
satisfying
former appears
as the latter, as well as scientifc
were made
B.
search
the same
and technology
knowledge
combined
in
oriented
Mystically
the chemistry
Under
of
course,
embark
"international"
the
of metals
and astrology
separates
45
and
long a period
on
which
of philosophical
overgrowth
ALCHEMY
of "atoms".
combinations
practices,
the subsquent
during
OF
HISTORY
for the "transmutation"
preferred
the shift in outlook
slow volution
EARLY
THE
and theurgic
magie
interprtations,
Christian
in a quest
were devised
the direction
and
IN
MESOPOTAMIA
and
kept
now
in character
as rich in variety
in the sense
from the middle
and
that experi
of the second
mil
G. onward.
Revue d'AssyrioIogie,
LX

as

Mesopotamia in The Early History of Alchemy

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MESOPOTAMIA IN THE EARLY HISTORY OF ALCHEMY

Author(s): A. Leo Oppenheim

This content downloaded from 71.172.216.131 on Sat, 1 Nov 2014 08:41:19 AM

IN THE EARLY HISTORY

One of these is a fragment

2) with the generous

which was part of the

here for the first time

and the other a fragment

for the convenience

of the reader, the very adequate

copy (Fig. 4) made

2. The text was incorporated

This content downloaded from 71.172.216.131 on Sat, 1 Nov 2014 08:41:19 AM

are often tentative

of the very existence

This content downloaded from 71.172.216.131 on Sat, 1 Nov 2014 08:41:19 AM

or, if the second

sign was lost in

text has na4.babbar.

cf. for the very rare nibtu

This content downloaded from 71.172.216.131 on Sat, 1 Nov 2014 08:41:19 AM

be the fire or the coals.

it for a full day

in the fire and

by line 2' which

: one for making

the first line

I will here proceed

firing of the mixture

but it can safely

the two recipes

in view of their poor state of prservation.

that the tablet

to line 10 of the obverse.

of fire, the other that

The factors which

the first possibility.

size of the tablet,

one or two chemical

(then you have)

for five days,

that the second

if, first, the stone used was of much less value

the core of the artificial

(of the first line)

the color of the duS-stone.

than dus, and second,

in ylS 16, p. 336)

of the final glaze.

This content downloaded from 71.172.216.131 on Sat, 1 Nov 2014 08:41:19 AM

but the essential

to fuse the apparently

or referred in some way to the entire process.

but one may

The latter opration

but the presence

for five days

the testing, and the final processing.

in the five lines which

out, only the end

with the alkali,

(lost in the break),