Gender Representation in English Language Textbooks Taught in

Egyptian Schools
Rana K. El Kholy
Ain Shams University, Cairo
Abstract
This paper investigates gender representation in English language textbooks published
by the Egyptian Ministry of Education and used in primary and preparatory stages in
both public and private schools in Egypt. To reveal whether there is gender imbalance
in these textbooks, two methods of data analysis were employed: content analysis and
critical discourse analysis as proposed by feminist stylistics. The study was conducted
in two phases: the first phase examined seven criteria, while the second one looked at
five categories. The findings showed gender imbalance as males were overrepresented
in most of the categories while females were stereotypically depicted and
marginalized. Throughout the textbooks, men were shown as more powerful and more
dominant than women who were looked down upon and were illustrated as inferior to
men. This underrepresentation of women is considered a reflection of the inequality
between men and women that continues to thrive in the Egyptian society.
Keywords: Gender Representation, Education, Textbooks, Content Analysis, Critical
Discourse Analysis.

Introduction
Education plays a very important role in shaping the minds of children and
young adults. Educational materials, such as textbooks, affect the development of
attitudes students carry into adult life and therefore, the values and societal roles
suggested in instructional materials [should] be positive ones, and [should] be as free
as possible from bias, stereotypes, and career-role restriction (Holt, Rinehart &
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Winston 1975, qtd. in Britton & Lumpkin, 1977, p. 41). Educational materials not
only give information, but also unconsciously foster positive or negative attitudes in
learners about many aspects in life. These aspects include race, religion, sex,
occupations, life expectations and life chances (Ginn & Company 1973, qtd. in
Britton & Lumpkin, 1977). Certain messages embedded in some texts may influence
the reader and thus, it is important to analy[z]e texts carefully in terms of the
systematic language choices which have been made... to become aware of the way
that language choices may serve the interests of some people to the detriment of
others (Mills, 1995, pp.1-2).

Theoretical Background
Pingel (2010) displayed various methods that can be used for analyzing
educational subject-oriented text. One of these methods is the didactic analysis which
deals with the methodological approach to the topic and exploring the pedagogy
behind the text (p.31). In addition, space analysis measures the text to determine
how much space is allotted to a country or topic. Another method is the hermeneutic
analysis which reveals underlying assumptions that cannot be measured. Moreover,
other methods were devised to examine the text itself. For instance, content analysis
investigates the message conveyed by the text and whether it sufficiently covers the
topic in question. Furthermore, discourse analysis investigates what the author
regards as important, what he or she feels needs to be explained and what he or she
takes for granted (p.71). It attempts to find out which topics are supported by visuals,
which are summarized, and which are excluded or included in the text.
As it is the purpose of this study to examine the language used in educational
materials, the last two approaches, which emphasize different aspects of language use,
were found to be most appropriate for the aim of this study.
2

1. Content Analysis
Content analysis has been described as the systematic study of texts and other
cultural products or nonliving data forms (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2007, p.227). By
using content analysis, researchers study a set of objects systematically by
counting them or interpreting the themes contained in them (Reinharz, 1992, p.146).
This methodology was developed in 1931 by Alfred R Lindesmith and later
gained popularity in the 1960s by Glaser who referred to it as The Constant
Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis in an article of the same title (1965).
Glaser and Strauss (1967) referred to it as Grounded Theory in their adaptation of it.
For them, discovery and theory development were more essential than logical
deductive reasoning which depends on previous theoretical frameworks. These two
features of the method characterized it with certain distinctive strategies. First, data
collection and analysis proceed simultaneously. Therefore, grounded theorists need to
work with solid, rich data because they intend to construct theory from the data itself.
Second, it is the data rather than the preconceived logically deduced theoretical
frameworks that shapes both processes and products of research. Thus, there is no
reliance on the literature to shape the grounded theorists ideas since they believe that
they should develop their own analyses independently. (Charmaz, 1994)
According to Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2007), the appeal of content analysis for
feminist researchers is multifaceted. It may be used by feminist researchers to
examine the extent to which womens issues or feminist perspectives are explored in a
particular medium. Feminist researchers employ content analysis to identify patterns
in authorship, subject matter, methods and interpretation. Findings for such studies are
then used to generate or test hypotheses relevant to feminist theory and concerns, or to
press for social change (Reinharz, 1992, P.155).

2. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

The beginnings of Critical discourse analysis (CDA) date back to the late 1980s
when it emerged as a programmatic development in European discourse studies led by
Norman Fairclough, Ruth Wodak, Teun van Dijk, and others. Since then, it has
become one of the most influential and visible branches of discourse analysis (Jan
Blommaert and Chris Bulcaen, 2000).
Because the aim of CDA is to explore the connection between language choices
within a text and the social and cultural context in which this text functions, the focus
according to Dijk is on investigating the way social power abuse, dominance, and
inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in social and political
context (Schiffrin, Tannen & Hamilton , 2001, p. 352). It attempts to stipulate which
aspects of the social context might influence which aspects of the language.
CDA is a type of critical linguistic work that relies on Systemic Functional
Grammar of Halliday (Halliday, 1994) for its analytical framework. Hallidays
Systemic Function Grammar provides a systematic way of describing and analyzing
the links between grammatical choices and socio-cultural context.
Since CDA focuses on how language as a cultural tool mediates relationships of
power and privilege in social interactions, education researchers have turned to it as a
way to describe, interpret, and explain important educational problems, such as
gender inequality.

Review of Related Research

1. Earlier Studies Conducted on English Language Textbooks
Different studies have been conducted around the world to examine gender
representation in school textbooks. Many of these studies employed a content analysis

method examining gender imbalance and stereotyping in texts as well as illustrations.

One of the earlier studies on English language textbooks was conducted by Sano, Iida
and Hardy (2002) who analyzed gender representation in the five series of English
textbooks most commonly used in Japanese junior high schools. They carried out a
quantitative analysis to try to detect any gender imbalance. Their research suggested
that these textbooks contained gender-biased implicit messages despite the fact that
no explicit linguistic features were articulated. No gender-biased language, such as
chairman, was detected in the textbooks. Nevertheless, gender bias could be noted in
gender-based choice and use of verbs, which revealed that male characters played
major roles while female characters filled subordinate ones.
Similarly, zdoru, Aksoy, Erdoan and Gk (2006) examined the presentation
of gender roles in two Turkish elementary school textbooks via a content analysis
method. The study showed that there were major gender differences in terms of social
values, roles, and relations both in school atmosphere and family environment. For
example, most of the female characters were seen in jobs related to housework and
child-raising, whereas men characters had a wider range and higher level job
opportunities than females.
In another study of content analysis of Turkish schoolbooks conducted by
Sivasligil (2006), gender ideology was investigated as depicted through female and
male representations in 6th, 7th, and 8th grade English course books. In addition to
conducting a content analysis, the researcher applied discourse analysis to the data
and the results were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The findings of
this study were conflicting. Whereas almost all the categories used in the content
analysis revealed gender imbalance in the portrayal of gender roles, the results
obtained from the discourse analysis of the verbal behaviors of the characters in the

course books showed a balanced gender representation. In other words, female

characters were underrepresented in contrast to male characters in terms of frequency
of appearance, amount of talk, representation of family and social roles, distribution
of household responsibilities, and leisure activities. On the other hand, both men and
women equally performed depowering and empowering strategies in conversations
whether uni-gender or cross-gender.
In a similar and more recent study, Ram (2008) examined gender biases in
primary school textbooks used in public sector schools in Pakistan. Ram conducted a
content analysis of textbook illustrations and the results indicated that they reflected
gender biases as found in Pakistan. Female representation (30.1%) was considerably
lower as compared to male images (69.9%) and women were presented in stereotyped
roles. For example, the occupational role of women was restricted to traditional
women professions, such as nurse, and household work was typically shown to be a
female-only domain.
Likewise, the aim of the study conducted by Johansson and Malmsj (2009),
which made use of English language textbooks, was to investigate if there was any
over-representation of female and male characters. They conducted a quantitative
study of dialogues and speaking exercises in four EFL textbook series used in
secondary schools in Sweden. The findings of their investigation showed that two of
the textbook series over-represented male characters, while the other two overrepresented female characters. The earlier were published before the latter, and the
findings were interpreted by the researchers as a kind of overcompensation.

2. Earlier Studies Conducted on Other Types of Textbooks

In addition to the aforementioned studies that focused mainly on English
language textbooks, gender representation has also been content analyzed in History
school textbooks and roughly the same results were reached. For instance, CookeSawyer (1998) examined gender bias and sex role stereotyping in three grade seven
History textbooks. The researcher analyzed all aspects of content including
illustrations, language, type of history and suggested activities and exercises. The
studys findings showed that gender bias and sex role stereotyping were still evident
in the textbooks used at that time in classrooms. The illustrations of men were higher
in number and fewer references were made to females than to males. In general, sex
role stereotypes were still persistent.
Chick (2006) evaluated elementary, middle school, and high school K-12
American History textbooks for gender balance. These textbooks were assessed for
the number of male and female historical figures in text content and illustrations using
content analysis procedures. Notably the percentage of males was found to be more
than females at all levels in both content and illustrations.

3. Studies Conducted on Language Textbooks in the Arab World

To the researchers knowledge, however, very few studies have attempted an
investigation of gender representation in school textbooks in the Arab world. One of
these studies was conducted by Abu Nasr, Lorfing, and Mikati (1983) who issued a
report divided into two parts. The first part was A Study of Sex Role Stereotype in
Arabic Readers examining seventy-nine Arabic readers and revealing that the
traditional outlook towards women in the Arab world was derived from marriage and
motherhood. In the second part entitled A Guide for the Identification and

Elimination of Sexism in Arabic Textbooks, detailed procedures for recording data

both qualitatively and quantitatively were given. In addition, a collection of samples
of original and revised text and illustrations were provided in the guide. This guides
main concern was to spread awareness regarding the issue of sexism in textbooks and
to provide guidelines for its identification and elimination.
In a more recent study, Osman (2006) investigated some of the specific ways in
which sexist attitudes and values are conveyed through the use of language in English
as a Foreign Language (EFL) textbooks in Egypt. The study was limited to only two
textbooks; one in the primary stage and another in the secondary stage. With reference
to both sexes, the two books were content-analyzed in terms of four criteria, namely,
names, firstness, occupational roles, and illustrations. The findings showed that in
every category of this study, except in illustrations in the primary stage book, sexism
continued to flourish.
Hamdans (2010) study examined gender bias in English language school
textbooks used in public schools in Jordan. A content analysis of the discourse of the
textbooks was carried out; exploring the authors treatment of jobs attributed to men
and women. While males were demonstrated as practicing a variety of jobs, females
were limited to traditional jobs, such as teachers and nurses. Therefore, the results of
this study illustrated a tendency toward gender asymmetry in Jordanian EFL texts.

4. The Need for the Present Study

In view of the above, it is clear that gender representation has attracted
increasing attention over the last decade. The studies conducted in this area attempted
to investigate and analyze gender imbalance and stereotyping in school textbooks of
different subjects, especially language. The aim was to unveil any gender inequality in

order to spread awareness of this issue and to try to identify and purge any gender
disproportion in these textbooks. Nevertheless, to the researchers knowledge, in the
Egyptian context only one study (see Literature Review) has examined gender
representation in the English language textbooks taught in public and private schools.
This is a gap in literature that the present study attempted to fill up. Moreover, the fact
that the study examines textbooks taught in schools to young learners which are likely
to deeply influence them and cultivate in them the assumptions and beliefs of the
society in which they are taught brings to the front the importance of this study.
Furthermore, the importance of this study stems from the fact that it is the first to be
conducted on a large scale in the Egyptian context. Unlike Osman (2006) whose study
was limited to only two textbooks, one in the primary stage and another in the
secondary stage, the present study covered a wider range of textbooks; three
textbooks in the primary stage and the three preparatory stage textbooks. In addition
to that, Osman only employed content analysis to study four categories in the
textbooks, while in this study, both a content analysis and a critical linguistic analysis
methods are used to examine fourteen categories. Besides, this study is crucial for its
implications on teaching. It is important for teachers and educators to be aware of any
gender imbalance in the textbooks they are teaching, because if any imbalance is
detected, these textbooks should be reviewed and revised.

Rationale for the Study

The main aim of the present study is to investigate gender representation in
English language textbooks used in the primary and preparatory stages, and published
by the Egyptian Ministry of Education. Moreover, this study aspires to reveal whether

there is any gender imbalance in these textbooks as a reflection of the gender

inequality apparent in the Egyptian society.

Method
Sample
Six English language textbooks which are obligatory in all schools in Egypt
were analyzed in this study. These textbooks were taught in the academic year of
2010/2011. Three of them were taught in the fourth, fifth, and sixth years in Primary
schools, while the other three were taught in the Preparatory stage. They were
downloaded from the Ministry of Educations online website: http://www.emoe.org/.
The researcher employed the content and critical discourse analysis methods to
investigate gender representation in the texts and illustrations and to understand the
links between the language choices in the texts and the socio-cultural context.

Research Questions
The main research question that this study attempted to answer was: Are both
genders represented equally in English language textbooks taught in Egyptian
schools?
To answer this question, the study was carried out in two phases: the first using
a content analysis method and the second employing a critical linguistic analysis
method proposed by feminist stylistics.
First, the content analysis helped in finding answers to the following sub-questions:
1. What is the ratio of female compared to male characters and the range of jobs and
of domestic roles that are related to each gender in the selected textbooks?

10

2. What are the adjectives used to describe men and women characters and what is
the frequency of women appearing first when men and women appear together in
binary male and female terms?
3. What is the visual representation of women compared to that of men? i.e., what is
the ratio of illustrations that depict women characters as opposed to that of men
and what is the ratio of illustrations that depict mixed gender?
Second, the critical linguistic analysis approach allowed the researcher to answer the
following research sub-questions:
1.

What is the frequency of assigning the Actor role to women as opposed to men in
material processes and how often does the Actor materialize with a Goal?

2.

What is the frequency of assigning the Senser role in mental processes, the
Possessor role in relational processes, and the Sayer, Receiver, and Target roles
in verbal processes to women as opposed to men?

Data Analysis
Two types of analysis were carried out. First, a systematic quantitative content
analysis was performed with reference to seven criteria, namely, names, mentions,
social roles, domestic roles, adjectives, binary terms, and illustrations. Secondly, a
critical discourse analysis was performed making use of Hallidays Systemic
Functional Grammar. This type of analysis was conducted on five stages: the
frequency of assigning the Actor role to males and females, whether these actors
materialised with a goal, and the frequencies of assigning the Senser role, the
Possessor roles, and the Sayer, Receiver and Target roles to females and males.
Each criterion was thoroughly reviewed throughout each of the textbooks. The
number of occurrences of representation in each criterion whether denoting to females

11

or males in all textbooks was counted, tallied, and summed. The names, for example,
referring to females or males were counted.

Results
The findings of the study were presented in two tables. Table 1 shows the
relationship between gender and the first seven criteria examined in the first phase of
the study in both the primary and preparatory stages:
Table 1
Results of Content Analysis of Textbooks of Both Stages

Criteria
Names
Mentions
Social Roles
Domestic
Roles
Adjectives
Binary
Terms
Illustrations

Primary Stage
Preparatory Stage
Male
Female
Both
Male
Female
Both
130/235
105/235
279/503
224/503
N/A
N/A
55%
45%
55%
45%
398/623
225/623
1611/2560 949/2560
N/A
N/A
64%
36%
63%
37%
16/23
4/23
3/23
41/54
9/54
4/54
70%
17%
13%
76%
17%
7%
0/7
0/7
7/7
1/8
1/8
6/8
0%
0%
100%
13%
13%
74%
1/2
1/2
0/2
47/86
37/86
2/86
50%
50%
0%
55%
43%
2%
0
0
5/7
2/7
N/A
N/A
0%
0%
71%
29%
323/739
138/739 278/739 574/1368 474/1368 320/1368
44%
19%
37%
42%
35%
23%

Indications of the percentages of females to males were as follows:

Considering names, it is noteworthy that males slightly exceeded females in
both the primary and preparatory stages. As for mentions, male mentions were almost
twice as much as female mentions in both stages.

12

The social roles associated with females were extremely limited compared to
those of males in both stages. Furthermore, the range of social roles shared by both
genders was very limited, especially in the preparatory stage.
Males and females were equally assigned the same domestic roles in the
primary stage and the most frequently mentioned domestic role was that of parental
relations: father/dad and mother/mum. As for the preparatory stage, females and
males were also equally represented in this category except for two roles: cousin for
females and great grandfather for males.
As for the use of adjectives, only two adjectives were mentioned in the primary
stage; one was associated with a male and another with a female. In the preparatory
stage, males slightly exceeded females in regards to the association with adjectives,
while only two adjectives were common in both genders.
There were no binary male and female terms in the primary stage. However, the
frequency of males appearing first in binary terms in the preparatory stage surpassed
the frequency of females coming before males in these terms to a great extent.
As shown in Table 1, the percentages of illustrations representing males in the
primary and preparatory stages were almost the same. The number of female
illustrations in the primary stage was much lesser than in the preparatory stage. As for
the illustrations depicting both genders, the percentage of such illustrations was higher
in the primary stage than in the preparatory one.

Table 2 shows the relationship between gender and the second five criteria
examined in the second phase of the study in both the primary and preparatory stages:

13

Table 2
Results of Critical Discourse Analysis of Textbooks of Both Stages

Criteria
Actor Role
Materialized
with a Goal
Senser Role
Possessor
Role
Sayer Role
Receiver
Role
Target Role

Male
43/88
49%
81/124
65%
13/18
72%
7/14
50%
1/2
50%
0
0%
0
0%

Primary Stage
Female
35/88
40%
39/124
32%
5/18
28%
7/14
50%
1/2
50%
0
0%
0
0%

Both
10/88
11%
4/124
3%
0/18
0%
0/14
0%
0/2
0%
0
0%
0
0%

Preparatory Stage
Male
Female
Both
206/339
103/339
30/339
61%
30%
9%
373/615
215/615
27/615
61%
35%
4%
45/69
22/69
2/69
65%
32%
3%
23/51
19/51
9/51
45%
37%
18%
192/293
97/293
4/293
66%
33%
1%
73/112
35/112
4/112
65%
31%
4%
3/7
4/7
0/7
43%
57%
0%

Indications of the percentages of females to males were as follows:

In regards to the Actor role, it is evident that gender imbalance becomes more
acute as we move from primary to preparatory textbooks in favor of males. On the
other hand, the percentage of females assigned the same role decreases in the
preparatory stage in contrast to the primary one. As for the percentage of both
genders sharing the same actor role, it did not change much in both stages.
Table 2 shows how males, when assigned the Actor role, were represented as
materializing with a goal in almost double the instances of females. Both genders
materializing with a goal shared almost the same percentage in both stages.
The percentages of males being assigned the Senser role were exceedingly
higher than the percentages of females in the primary and preparatory stages. There
were no instances of both genders sharing the Senser role in the primary stage unlike
the preparatory stage in which a very small percentage was assigned to both genders.
14

Half of the Possessor roles were assigned to males and the other half were
assigned to females and none were shared between both genders in the primary stage.
However, in the preparatory stage, males were assigned the Possessor role more than
females and a smaller percentage was assigned to both genders.
Half of the Sayer roles were assigned to males while the other half were
assigned to females and none were shared between both genders in the primary stage.
The percentage of males being assigned the Sayer role was double that of females
with only a very small the percentage of instances where assigned to females and
males together in the preparatory stage.
No occurrences of the Receiver role were found in the primary stage. However,
in the preparatory stage, the instances of assigning the Receiver role to males were
more than double the instance of assigning the same role to females with only a small
percentage of instances being shared by both genders.
As for the Target role, no occurrences were found in the primary stage. In the
preparatory stage, the higher frequency of occurrence was of the Target roles when
assigned to females with no instances of both genders sharing the Target role.

Discussion and Conclusion

In light of the foregoing data presentation, the analysis provided clear credence
to the view that there was imbalance in the representation of gender in these
textbooks. The study reached the conclusion that in most of the categories of this
study, there was evidence of inequality between men and women in English language
materials published by the Egyptian Ministry of Education and taught in both private
and public schools in Egypt.

15

In the first phase of analysis, it is evident that males were overrepresented in

most of the criteria in both primary and preparatory stages. First, male names, such as
Ahmed, exceeded female ones, such as Soha in number in both stages. The same
conclusion was reached in Osmans (2006) study of Egyptian textbook s in which
male names exceeded those of females. This might be a reflection of the Egyptian
belief in lower-classes that female names should not be mentioned in public, because
in some instances in the textbooks there were female characters that were not given
any names. For example, in a story in Units 7 and 8 in Preparatory 3 textbook, the
boys name was mentioned, Bassam, whereas his grandmothers name was never
mentioned and she was referred to as Bassams grandmother.
Second, the frequency of male mentions was almost double that of females in
both stages. This can be considered an indication of how men were represented as the
more active participant in society. Surpassing women in mentions depicted men as
more powerful and more involved in all aspects of life while women were mentioned
in fewer instances portraying them as less visible than men.
Third, in both stages, men were represented in a greater number of social roles
than women who were mostly assigned stereotypical social roles, such as sales
assistant / shop assistant, nurse, teacher, and secretary. Limiting women to
such stereotypical professions is probably a reflection of how women are usually seen
as fitting to play certain social roles. They were usually assigned social roles that have
to do with their maternal and nurturing abilities, such as nurse and teacher, or that
make them subordinate to men, such as secretary, because they were thought to be
less capable than men and of a more fragile nature. This finding coincided with that
reached in zdoru, Aksoy, Erdoan and Gks (2006) study that men had a wider
range and higher level job opportunities than females. Similarly, Osman (2006)

16

reached the conclusion that occupations associated with females were extremely
limited compared to those of males and one of the most frequently mentioned
occupations for females was secretary. Furthermore, in Rams (2008) study, women
were also presented in stereotyped social roles, such as nurse. Hamdans (2010)
study showed males as practicing a variety of jobs while females were limited to
traditional jobs, such as teachers and nurses.
Fourth, men and women shared the same domestic roles in the primary stage
while in the preparatory stage they shared almost all the domestic roles. This might be
considered a point in favor of women; putting them in an equal stance with men.
Fifth, women and men shared an equal status in regards to being assigned
adjectives in the primary stage. However, in the preparatory stage, males dominated
in this category because they were modified with adjectives that had positive or
negative connotations more than women. An adjective is a describing word which
gives more information about the noun it qualifies. Thus, it is believed that because
men were considered of a higher value than women, they were qualified by an
adjective to give further information about them. On the other hand, women might
have been considered of less significance and were, therefore, less frequently
qualified by an adjective. Moreover, positive and negative adjectives that were
assigned to men and women could be considered stereotypical of males and females.
For example, men were frequently described as safe, good, and lazy, while
women were frequently described as kind, hardworking, and tired.
Sixth, no instances of binary male and female terms were mentioned in the
primary stage. However, in the preparatory stage, males appeared first in a wider
range of binary terms in which they were mentioned together with females. Some
examples of binary terms in which males appeared first were father and mother,

17

grandfather and grandmother, and uncle and aunt. Hence, men were often
revealed in the ascendancy over women as the latter were always shown as followers
and in lesser instances as the ones followed. Thus, a possible explanation of why
women often came after men whenever mentioned together might be that women in
the Egyptian culture are looked down upon and denigrated.
Seventh, illustrations were dominated by males as well in both stages. The
number of illustrations depicting men outnumbered those presenting women and both
genders. This was evidence of the power and dominance given to men as they were
present in most of the pages of the textbooks. Moreover, it is noteworthy to point out
that the number of mixed gender illustration was higher in the primary stage than in
the preparatory stage. In Osmans (2006) study, the findings were not consistent in the
primary stage textbook and the secondary stage one. In the former, there was an
unprecedented progress of female over male representation, while in the latter,
females were underrepresented. Ram (2008) detected the overrepresentation of male
illustrations as a reflection of gender biases as found in Pakistan. This might be
evidence for the influence of Islam on these textbooks, because the Islamic religion is
against the frequent contact between men and women. Unlike primary stage learners,
preparatory stage learners are considered young adults who should start lessening
their contact with members of the opposite sex, according to Islamic beliefs. This
might be a possible account for why the illustrations representing mixed gender were
fewer in the preparatory stage than in the primary one.
In the second phase of analysis, gender imbalance was detected in favor of men
in almost all the categories in the primary and preparatory stages. In the first two
categories of analysis, men dominated in both primary and preparatory stages. For
example, in Magdy worked, Magdy is assigned the Actor role, and in Magdy

18

helped him, Magdy is not only assigned the Actor role, but is also materializing
with a goal him. Hence, men were more often depicted as the ones in control; the
doers, and as the ones with an impact on another person or object. Thus, being
assigned the Actor role and materializing with a goal ascertained how men were seen
and represented as more powerful.
As for the Senser role, men were also overrepresented in this category. An
example of a male assigned the Senser role in a mental process is he thought.
Although women were predicted to surpass in this category, it was men who were
more frequently mentioned in mental processes that have to do with feelings and
senses. This might be explained as a reflection of the Egyptian society in which
women are most often not welcomed to express their feelings in public.
In regards to the Possessor role, men and women were equally assigned this role
in the primary stage. However, in the preparatory stage, males were more frequently
assigned the Possessor role than females and than when both were assigned it, such as
in the following relational process: He had lots of money. This represented men as
more powerful than women; possessing things that women do not.
Although men and women were equally assigned the Sayer role in the primary
stage, males dominated in this category in the preparatory stage. An example of a
verbal process in which a male is assigned the Sayer role is Terry in Terry asked
Ahmed. Contrary to common belief, men were shown to be speaking more than
women who are usually stereotyped as talkative. However, this could be considered
evidence of mens dominance as they held the floor as long as they wanted in most of
the excerpts that occurred in these textbooks.
Similarly, despite the fact that there were no instances of the Receiver role in
the primary stage, males surpassed females in this category in the preparatory stage,

19

such as Terry in Hesham asked Terry. Not only were men represented as hogging
the floor for long, they were also depicted as the listeners more than women. Hence,
men controlled both ends of most verbal exchanges; as addressers and addressees.
The Target role was the only category in which females surpassed men in this
study, such as she in Soha told Hesham that she. Women were assigned the role
of Target; the one spoken about. Therefore, even though women were overrepresented
in this category, it also considered evidence of male dominance. Because women are
intellectually, morally and socially inferior to men, they are less likely to talk about
men and it is more likely that they become the topic of mens conversation.
To sum up, overall gender imbalance was demonstrated in almost all the
fourteen categories of analysis in this study. Males dominated most of the criteria in
the textbooks analyzed showing women as subordinate and inferior to men. Thus, it is
recommended that these textbooks be revised to eliminate any gender bias and
stereotypes that might foster negative beliefs about gender inequality in learners.
It is hoped that this analysis of the language of textbooks will contribute to the
field of education and stimulate further research to be undertaken in this area. It
would be enlightening to conduct a comparative study that would analyze English
language textbooks taught in international school in Egypt in contrast with the
textbooks that were analyzed in this study. In addition, it would be interesting to study
the impact of this gender imbalance on learners of both genders from a
psycholinguistic perspective.

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