GREEK CIVILAZATION

COMPILED BY:
Archana C. sec A
Aakarsh K.

sec A

Priya K.

sec B

Nancy A.

sec B

CONTENTS:
Introduction
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Geaography
Rituals
Marriage and death
Social structure
Literature and theatre
Music and dance
Religion
Olympics
Life in Athens

10- Economy
11- Trade
12- Innovations
13- Architecture
14- Greek cities
15-Greek order
16-Public building
17-Government
Reference

INTRODUCTION
Greece is a country in southeastern Europe, known in Greek asHellas or Ellada, and consisting of a
mainland and an archipelago of islands. Greece is the birthplace of
Western philosophy(Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle), literature (Homer andHesiod), mathematics
(Pythagoras and Euclid), history (Herodotus), drama (Sophocles, Euripedes, and Aristophanes),
the Olympic Games, and democracy. The concept of an atomic universe was first posited in Greece
through the work of Democritus and Leucippus. The process of today's scientific method was first
introduced through the work of Thales of Miletus and those who followed him. The
Latin alphabet also comes from Greece, having been introduced to the region by the Phoenicians in
the 8th century BCE, and early work in physics and engineering was pioneered by Archimedes, of the
Greek colony of Syracuse, among others.
Mainland Greece is a large peninsula surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean Sea (branching
into the Ionian Sea in the west and the Aegean Sea in the east) which also comprises the islands
known as the Cyclades and the Dodecanese (including Rhodes), the Ionian islands (including Corcyra),
the isle of Crete, and the southern peninsula known as the Peloponnese.

GEOGRAPHY

The territory of Greece is mountainous, and as a result, ancient Greece consisted of many smaller
regions each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities, and identity. Regionalism and regional conflicts
were a prominent feature of ancient Greece. Cities tended to be located in valleys between
mountains, or on coastal plains, and dominated a certain area around them.
In the south lay the Peloponnese, itself consisting of the regions of Laconia (southeast), Messenia
(southwest), Elis (west), Achaia (north), Corinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), and Arcadia (center).
These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece, though with somewhat
different boundaries. Mainland Greece to the north, nowadays known as Central Greece, consisted
of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west, Locris, Doris, and Phocis in the center, while in the east
lay Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris. Northeast lay Thessaly, while Epirus lay to the northwest. Epirus
stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the
north, and consisted of Chaonia (north), Molossia (center), and Thesprotia (south). In the northeast
corner was Macedonia, originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions, such as Elimeia, Pieria,
and Orestis. Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon, the Argead kings of Macedon started to
expand into Upper Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae
and the Elmiotae and to the West, beyond the Axius river, into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, and
Almopia, regions settled by Thracian tribes. To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples
such as the Paeonians due north, the Thraciansto the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the
Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest. Chalcidice was settled early on by
southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world, while from the late 2nd
millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean,
in Anatolia.

The peninsula of ancient Greece had a Mediterranean climate. Its summers were hot and dry.
Temperatures averaged about 75 F (24 C) in summer. The Mediterranean waters and a
northwesterly breeze, known as the Etesian, kept temperatures at a comfortable level. In the winter,
temperatures again were influenced by the surrounding water. Typically temperatures did not go
below 40 F (4.4 C) with the exceptions in the high mountains. In the mountains, snow was typical
during the wet winter months. The average yearly rainfall ranged from twenty to fifty inches, with the
majority coming during the winter months. Greece typically experienced a large amount of sunny days
during the year.

RITUALS
BIRTH
Before the birth
The babys gender was predicted by the shape of the pregnant womans belly: if the belly was rather
edged, the baby would be a boy.
In the past, boys were preferred to girls because people needed extra hands to work in the fields, but
also because boys would continue the family name.
Birth process
With the onset of birth, midwives were summoned, and the birthing mother was laid down on a bed.
The room was checked to ensure that no knots were present, because ancient Greeks believed knots
had maleficent powers and could prevent or delay birth. When labor began the mother was moved to

a birthing stool, which she crouched over. The midwives massaged her belly, and one rested below the
mother to catch the baby. Once born, the baby and mother were cleansed, as birth blood was
considered unlucky. A sign was made on the baby's forehead to protect it from the "evil eye," a
superstitious belief that a victim, in this case a vulnerable baby, could be cursed by the malevolent
gaze from the eye of an envious individual.
After the birth
In the past, it was believed that the new mother was the source of jealousy and must avoid the evil
eye. Therefore, she was never seen in public for forty days. After this period, she would take her baby
to the church, the baby was blessed by the priest, and they could both start going out.
On the eighth day after the birth, the Fates visit the newborn and determine their future. This belief
had its roots in Greek mythology.
The babys clothes were never washed and air-dried at night because they would attract the bad
spirits.
Before Christening, the babys hair was never cut. This tradition is still followed by the parents who
want to have their baby baptized. The baby is also never called by his or her name before the baptism.
The name of the baby is still a big issue. Even nowadays, most babies are named after their grandparents. If the first baby is a boy, he gets the name of his grandfathers from his fathers side.
Although breastfeeding is not a taboo, most Greek women avoid to do that in public because people
feel uncomfortable.

MARRIAGE
Marriages in ancient Greece were arranged by the parents of the intended bride and groom. A
financial arrangement was made between the families in the form of a dowry. Girls married between
the ages of fourteen to eighteen, while typically men married in their twenties or even thirties.
Spartan men continued to live in the barracks, even after the wedding, until they reached the age of
thirty when they could move home with their wives.
The marriage ceremony in Ancient Greece was made up of three different phases. First, the young girl
who was given in marriage was separated from her childhood household called the oikos. Then she
would transition to the home of her husband and his family. The last phase of the ceremony would be
the shift of her new role as wife to her husband and daughter to her husbands parents. The focus of
all the festivities and ceremonies was the bride and her transition to her new household and her new
master. As a child, her father was master, but now her husband was her new master or kyrios.
Priests did not direct weddings in ancient Greece. Instead, a set of rituals was followed, after which
the couple would live together. The rituals started with baths. The groom then would go to the brides
house in a chariot or a cart. A feast may be held at the brides fathers house, after which the groom
would take his bride back to his parents house. They were greeted at the door by the grooms parents
and led to the hearth. There they were showered with nuts and fruit. The couple then retired to their
bedroom. For the wife to be fully accepted into the grooms family, a child had to be conceived from
their union.
Divorces were easily arranged. The man would have to pay back, in cash, the remaining dowry money
to his wifes parents. Divorces were granted on many grounds; for example, if the wife could not bear
children. When a wife committed adultery, divorce was legally required.
Greek men did not discuss with others their wives or other female relatives. They dared not even give
their names outside their close family circle. They did not want to attract unwanted attention from
unrelated males.

DEATH
Ancient Greek burial practices were highly regulated and the Greek funerary ritual consisted of three
parts: the prothesis, the ekphora and the perideipnon. The funeral allowed for the surviving relatives
to show the depth of their familial pride and the strength of their kinship ties. It also provided an
opportunity for families to display their wealth and prove their status by staging elaborate funerals
and mourning in a public fashion. Ultimately, the ancient Greek funeral can reveal much about the
Greeks' attitudes towards things like the importance of family and the nature of the afterlife.
The Prothesis
The prothesis refers to the laying out and display of the body. First, the deceased's closest relative
closed the eyes and mouth, sometimes placing a coin either between the teeth or on the mouth as
payment for Charon to take him across the River Styx. Next, the body was washed, usually by female
relatives. It was then dressed in the type of clothing that befitted the deceased's status in life. For
example, if a person was recently married, he or she wore wedding attire in death. If the deceased
was a soldier, he was buried in his armor. After the body was properly dressed, it was placed on a bed
and displayed so that loved ones could come and pay their final respects.
Formal Mourning
The formal mourning period thus began during the prothesis. In general, there was a distinction
between the way men and women mourned. Men typically did not show emotion and behaved in a
formal and detached manner. In artistic representations of the prothesis, the male head of the family
often waited to greet guests some distance from the body. The female relatives, in contrast, stood
near the body, wailing and gesturing wildly, including pulling at their hair. The chief mourner was the
mother or the wife of the deceased. She stood near the head and often held it in her hands in grief.
The Ekphora
Following the prothesis, the body was then transferred to the place of interment in a funerary
procession called the ekphora. The procession took place at night and included multiple stops at
intersections so that the mourners could attract a large amount of public attention (and therefore
honor for the deceased). Initially, these mourners were family members but later they were replaced
by professional mourners and performers, including musicians and singers. Once at the grave, both
inhumation and cremation were practiced with varying levels of popularity, depending on the time
period and the geographic location. Unfortunately, very little is known about the actual interment, as
it is rarely represented in art or literature of the ancient period.
The Perideipnon and Beyond
The interment was followed by a funerary banquet called the perideipnon. Typically performed in the
home of the deceased, the perideipnon was similar to any other banquet except for the fact that it
was held in honor of the dead. Unlike later Roman tradition, the Greeks did not imagine the dead
partaking in the feast either with them or in the afterlife; rather, the feast was meant simply as
commemoration. After the funeral, offerings were made at the tomb on the third, ninth and 30th days
after death, on the one-year anniversary and during certain universal festivals. As with the funeral, the
type and structure of these offerings were highly regulated. Offerings included the sacrifice of animals,
the donation of food and valuables and a reprise of mourning by female family members.

Social Structure
Greece in the Archaic Period was made up from independent states, called Polis, or city state. The
polis of Athens - 2,500 sq. kilometres of territory. While other Polis are 250 sq. kilometres. Greek
Society was mainly broken up between free people and Slaves, who were owned by the free people.
Slaves were used as servants and labourers, without any legal rights. Although many slaves lived
closely with their owners, few were skilled craftsmen and even fewer were paid.
As Athenian society evolved, free men were divided between Citizens and Metics. A citizen
was born with Athenian parents and were the most powerful group that could take part in the
government of the Polis. After compulsory service in the army they were expected to be
government officials and take part in Jury Service.
A metic was of foreign birth that had migrated to Athens, to either trade or practice a craft. A
metic had to pay taxes and sometimes required to serve in the army. However, they could
never achieve full rights of a Citizen, neither could they own houses or land and were not
allowed to speak in law courts.
The social classes applied to men only, as women all took their social and legal status from
their husband or their male partner. Women in ancient Greece were not permitted to take
part in public life.

In Athens, the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth. People could change
classes if they made more money. In Sparta, all male citizens were given the title of equal if they
finished their education.

CLASSES
Although the male citizen had by far the best position in Greek society, the aristocrats were
often split into powerful family factions or clans who controlled all of the important political
positions in the polis. Their wealth came from having property and even more importantly, the
best land, i.e.: the most fertile and the closest to the protection offered by the city walls.
A poorer, second class of citizens existed too. These were men who had land but perhaps less
productive plots and situated further from the city, their property was less well-protected

than the prime land nearer the city proper. As city populations grew and inheritances became
ever more divided amongst siblings, this secondary class grew significantly.
A third group were the middle, business class. Engaged in manufacturing, trade, and
commerce, these were the nouveau riche. However, the aristoi jealously guarded their
privileges and political monopoly by ensuring only landowners could rise into positions of real
power. However, there was some movement between classes.
Although the male citizen had by far the best position in Greek society, there were different classes
within this group. Top of the social tree were the best people, the aristoi. Possessing more money
than everyone else, this class could provide themselves with armour, weapons, and a horse when on
military campaign. The aristocrats were often split into powerful family factions or clans who
controlled all of the important political positions in the polis. Their wealth came from having property
and even more importantly, the best land, i.e.: the most fertile and the closest to the protection
offered by the city walls.
A poorer, second class of citizens existed too. These were men who had land but perhaps less
productive plots and situated further from the city, their property was less well-protected than the
prime land nearer the city proper. The land might be so far away that the owners had to live on it
rather than travel back and forth from the city. These citizens were called the periokoi (dwellersround-about) or even worse dusty-feet and they collected together for protection in small village
communities, subordinate to the neighbouring city. As city populations grew and inheritances became
ever more divided amongst siblings, this secondary class grew significantly.
A third group were the middle, business class. Engaged in manufacturing, trade, and commerce, these
were the nouveau riche. However, the aristoi jealously guarded their privileges and political monopoly
by ensuring only landowners could rise into positions of real power. However, there was some
movement between classes. Some could rise through accumulating wealth and influence, others could
go down a class by becoming bankrupt (which could lead to a loss of citizenship or even being
enslaved). Ill-health, losing out on an inheritance, political upheavals, or war could also result in the
best getting their feet a little dusty.
WOMEN
Female citizens had few rights in comparison to male citizens. Unable to vote, own land, or inherit, a
womans place was in the home and her purpose in life was the rearing of children. Contact with nonfamily males was discouraged and women occupied their time with indoor activities such as woolwork and weaving. Spartan women were treated somewhat differently than in other states, for
example, they had to do physical training (nude) like men, were permitted to own land, and could
drink wine.
Women citizens had to marry as a virgin and marriage was usually organised by the father, who chose
the husband and accepted from him a dowry. If a woman had no father, then her interests (marriage
prospects and property management) were looked after by a guardian (kurios), perhaps an uncle or
other male relative. Married at the typical age of thirteen or fourteen, love had little to do with the
matching of husband and wife. Of course, love may have developed between the couple but the best
that might be hoped for was philia - a general friendship/love sentiment; eros, the love of desire, was
to be found elsewhere, at least for the male. Marriages could be ended on three grounds. The first
and most common was repudiation by the husband (apopempsis orekpempsis). No reason was
necessary, only the return of the dowry was expected. The second termination cause was the wife
leaving the family home (apoleipsis) and in this case the womans new guardian was required to act as

her legal representative. This was, however, a rare occurrence and the womans reputation in society
was damaged as a result. The third ground for termination was when the brides father asked for his
daughter back (aphairesis), probably to offer her to another man with a more attractive dowry. This
last option was only possible, however, if the wife had not had children. If a woman was left a widow,
she was required to marry a close male relative in order to ensure property stayed within the family.
Women, of course, were also present in the various other non-citizen classes. The group for which we
have most information is that of sex-workers. Women were here divided into two categories. The first
and perhaps most common was the brothel prostitute (porn). The second, was the higher-class
prostitute (hetaira). These latter women were educated in music and culture and often formed lasting
relationships with married men. It was also this class of women that entertained men (in every sense)
at the celebrated symposium.
EDUCATION:
For most of Greek history, education was private, except in Sparta. During the Hellenistic period, some
city-states established public schools. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. Boys learned how
to read, write and quote literature. They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and
were trained as athletes for military service. Girls also learned to read, write and do simple arithmetic
so they could manage the household. They almost never received education after childhood. Boys
went to school at the age of seven, or went to the barracks, if they lived in Sparta. The three types of
teachings were:
Grammatistes for arithmetic, kitharistes for music and dancing, and Paedotribae for sports.
Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a paidagogos, a
household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day. When the boy
became 12 years old the schooling started to include sports such as wrestling, running, and throwing
discus and javelin. The schooling ended at age 18, followed by military training in the army usually for
one or two years.
A small number of boys continued their education after childhood, as in the Spartan agoge. A crucial
part of a wealthy teenager's education was a mentorship with an elder, which in a few places and
times may have included pederasty. The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called
Paideia.

LITERATURE AND THEATRE

Ancient Greek society - emphasis upon literature. Many authors consider the western literary
tradition to have begun with the epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, which remain giants in
the literary canon for their skilful and vivid depictions of war and peace, honour and disgrace,
love and hatred. Notable among later Greek poets was Sappho, who defined, in many
ways, lyric poetry as a genre.
A playwright named Aeschylus changed Western literature forever when he introduced the
ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting. In doing so, he essentially invented
"drama": his Oresteia trilogy of plays is seen as his crowning achievement. Other refiners of
playwriting were Sophocles and Euripides. Sophocles is credited with skilfully
developing irony as a literary technique, most famously in his play Oedipus the King. Euripides,
conversely, used plays to challenge societal norms and moresa hallmark of much of Western
literature for the next 2,300 years and beyondand his works such as Medea, The
Bacchae and The Trojan Women are still notable for their ability to challenge our perceptions

of propriety, gender, and war. Aristophanes, a comic playwright, defines and shapes the idea
of comedy almost as Aeschylus had shaped tragedy as an art formAristophanes' most
famous plays include the lysistrata and The Frogs.
Philosophy entered literature in the dialogues of Plato, who converted the give and take of
Socratic questioning into written form. Aristotle, Plato's student, wrote dozens of works on
many scientific disciplines, but his greatest contribution to literature was likely his Poetics,
which lays out his understanding of drama, and thereby establishes the first criteria for literary
criticism.

MUSIC and DANCE:

Music was present almost universally in Greek society, from marriages and funerals to religious
ceremonies, theatre, folk music and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. There are significant
fragments of actual Greek musical notation as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music.
Greek art depicts musical instruments and dance. The word music derives from the name of
the Muses,
the
daughters
of Zeus who
were
patron
goddesses
of
the
arts.

RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY

Greek Mythology consists of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning Their gods and
heroes, the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their religious Practices. The main
gods were the twelve Olympians, Zeus, his wife Hera, Poseidon, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Aphrodite,
Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Demeter and Hades.

OLYMPICS
The Greeks invented athletic contests and held them in honour of their gods. The Isthmos game were
staged every two years at the Isthmos of Corinth. The Pythian Games took place every four years near
Delphi. The most famous games held at Olympia, South- West of Greece, which took place every four
years. The ancient Olympics seem to have begun in the early 700 BC, in honour of Zeus. No women
were allowed to watch the games and only Greek nationals could participate.
1st Day: The first day of the festival was devoted to sacrifices.

 On the Middle Day of the festival 100 oxen were sacrificed in honour of a God. Athletes also
often prayed and made small sacrifices themselves. 2nd Day the first was stadium, the oldest
event of the Games, where runners sprinted for 1 stade, the length of the stadium (192m).
The other races were a 2-stade race (384 m.), and a long-distance run which ranged from 7 to
24 stades (1,344 m. to 4,608 m.).The fourth type of race involved runners wearing full amour,
which was 2-4 stade race (384 m. to 768 m.), used to build up speed and stamina for military
purposes.
Other days on other days, wrestling, boxing, and the pancratium, a combination of the two,
were held. In wrestling, the aim was to throw the opponent to the ground three times, on
either his hip, back or shoulder.
After the horse-racing came the pentathlon, a series of five events: sprinting, long-jumping,
javelin-hurling, discus-throwing, and wrestling.

LIFE IN ATHENS
Athens had a great culture. They welcomed visitors and writers and the theatre developed. Education
was important. After the Persian wars new buildings were built such as the Parthenon, the temple of
Athena on the acropolis. Women didnt have much freedom. Education was very important in Athens.

Boys went to school to learn to read and write. They also learnt sports. Girls were not allowed to go to
school or learn to play sports.

ECONOMY
The history of the Greek civilization was marked by economic developments second only in magnitude
to the Commercial and Industrial Revolutions of the modern era.
Several important causes can be distinguished:
(1) the opening up of a vast area of trade from the Indus River to the Nile as a result of the Alexandrian conquests;
(2) the rise in prices as a consequence of the release of the enormous Persian hoard of gold and silver into the
channels of circulation, resulting in an increase in investment and speculation; and
(3) the promotion of trade and industry by governments as a means of augmenting the revenues of the state.

The net result of these factors was the growth of a system of large-scale production, trade, and
finance, with the state as the principal capitalist and entrepreneur. Agriculture was as profoundly
affected by the new developments as any other branch of the economic life.
The most striking phenomena were the concentration of holdings of land and the degradation of
the agricultural population.
The rulers of Egypt and the Seleucid Empire promoted and regulated industry and trade. The Ptolemies
established factories and shops in nearly every village and town to be owned and operated by the
government for its own financial benefit.
An interesting result of social and economic conditions in the Hellenistic Age was the growth of
metropolitan cities. Despite the fact that a majority of the people still dwelt in the country, there was
an increasing tendency for men to become dissatisfied with the dullness of rural living and to flock
into the cities.
In Greece, as in other Mediterranean countries, cotton industry has played an important role in
industrial development; it has been one of the driving forces of industrialization.

TRADE
Trade was a fundamental aspect of the ancient Greek world and following territorial expansion, an
increase in population movements, and innovations in transport, goods could be bought, sold, and
exchanged in one part of the Mediterranean which had their origin in a completely different and far
distant region.
Greece's main exports were olive oil, wine, pottery, and metalwork. They brought into the city pork,
cheese, perfumes, glass, barley, wheat, rugs, and ivory. They traded these objects from places like
Sicily, Arabia, Egypt, Carthage, and Ethiopia.
Fine Greek pottery was also in great demand abroad and examples have been found as far afield as
the Atlantic coast of Africa. Other Greek exports included wine, especially from Aegean islands like
Mende and Kos, bronzework, olives and olive oil (transported, like wine, in amphorae), emery
from Delos, hides from Euboea, marble from Athens and Naxos, and ruddle (a type of waterproofing
material for ships) from Keos.
The goods available at the market places (agorai) of major urban centres which were imported from
outside Greece included wheat and slaves from Egypt, grain from the Black Sea (especially
via Byzantium), salt fish from the Black Sea, wood (especially for shipbuilding) from Macedonia and
Thrace, papyrus, textiles, luxury food such as spices (e.g.: pepper), glass, and metals such as iron,
copper, tin, gold and silver.

INNOVATIONS
The ancient Greece has a number of inventions and discoveries attributed to them. Even though, the
fact remains, most of their discoveries were corrected in subsequent generations. Their findings in the
area of astronomy, geography and mathematics, pioneered the age of science. The Greek interest in

scientific specification of physical world can be seen as further back in the history in the 6th century
BC.

Aristotle gave the idea of earth being a globe. He also classified animals and if often referred to as
father of zoology. Theophrastus was the first botanist, we know of in written history. The
pythagoreans not only made the earliest of advances in philosophy and geometry, they also proposed
the heliocentric hypothesis with the earth revolving around sun and not the other way around as
believed at that time.
Archimedes discovered that submerging a solid object will displace an amount of liquid that matches
the objects weight. The Greeks had so much so influence in the early concepts of science, that most
symbols often used in physics and higher math equations are derived from Greek alphabet.

WATER MILL

ODOMETER

CARTOGRAPHY

OLYMPICS

ALARM CLOCK

BASIS OF GEOMETRY

ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of Ancient Greece is the
architecture produced by the Greek-speaking
people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished on
the
Greek mainland and Peloponnesus, the Aegean
Islands, and in colonies in Asia Minor and Italy for a
period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works
dating from around 600 BC.
Greek architects provided some of the finest and most distinctive buildings in the entire Ancient World
and some of their structures, such as temples, theatres, and stadia, which become staple features of
towns and cities from antiquity onwards.
Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure
and decoration. This is particularly so in the case of temples where each building appears to have been
conceived as a sculptural entity within the landscape, most often raised on high ground so that the
elegance of its proportions and the effects of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles.
In addition, the Greeks concern with simplicity, proportion, perspective, and harmony in their
buildings greatly influenced architects in the Roman world and provided the foundation for the
classical architectural orders which dominated the western world from the Renaissance to the present
day.

There is a clear division between the architecture of the preceding Mycenaean culture and Minoan
cultures and that of the Ancient Greeks, the techniques and an understanding of their style being lost
when these civilizations fell.

Mycenaean art is marked by its circular structures and tapered domes with flat-bedded, cantilevered
courses. This architectural form did not carry over into the architecture of Ancient Greece, but
reappeared about 400 BC in the interior of large monumental tombs such as the Lion Tomb at Cnidos
(c. 350 BC).
Little is known of Mycenaean wooden or domestic architecture and any continuing traditions that may
have flowed into the early buildings of the Dorian people.
The Minoan architecture of Crete, was of trabeated form like that of Ancient Greece. It employed
wooden columns with capitals, but the columns were of very different form to Doric columns, being
narrow at the base and splaying upward.
The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to have developed independently. As Minoan
architecture, Ancient Greek domestic architecture was also centred on open spaces or courtyards
surrounded by colonnades. This form was adapted to the construction of hypostyle halls within the
larger temples.
The evolution that occurred in architecture was towards public building, first and foremost the
temple, rather than towards grand domestic architecture such as had evolved in Crete.

GREEK CITIES
The Greeks had begun to lay out cities in a grid-like pattern before the start of the Classical period in
the early 5th century BC, with streets regularly intersecting at right angles. Yet the Greeks credited the
invention of the right-angled plan to Ionian architect Hippodamus.
The Hippodamian city plan called for a
rectangular grid. At the time this was
rare, because in case of a strike or
invasion of the city, infiltrators could
easily find their way in and around a
rectangular grid, whereas a city of
curves, twists, dead ends, and
unorganized streets is much harder for a
stranger to navigate, thus serving as a
protective measure.

His plans of Greek cities were characterised by order and regularity in contrast to the intricacy and
confusion common to cities of that period, even Athens. He is seen as the originator of the idea that a
town plan might formally embody and clarify a rational social order.
Public space was to be clustered together in the center of the city. Shrines, theatres, government
buildings, market space, and the agora (a central space where athletic, political, artistic, and spiritual
activity took place) were all to be close together in the center of the city, enclosed by the grid of city
streets. Sites for public space were allotted in advance, whereas prior to the Hippodamian plan, site
allotment seemed to be done at random.
Hippodamus was a pioneer of urban planning and he devised an
ideal city to be inhabited by 10,000 men (free male citizens), while
the overall population including the correspondent women,
children and slaves would reach 50,000 people. He studied the
functional problems of cities and linked them to the state
administration system. As a result he divided the citizens into
three classes (soldiers, artisans and 'husbandmen'), with the land
also divided into three (sacred, public and private).
He laid out the Piraeus (the port of Athens, for Pericles), with wide streets radiating from the
central Agora, and built the city of Rhodes in the form of a theatre. In 440 BC he planned the new city
of Thurium (later Thurii), in Magna, with streets crossing at right angles. His principles were later
adopted in many important cities, such as Halicarnassus, Alexandria and Antioch.

PIRAEUS
Planned in 460 BC, Piraeus served as the harbour town of Athens. Piraeus landscape was a difficult
one to work with due to hills and harbours, but despite the challenging landscape, Hippodamus stuck
with his grid of straight, wide streets that ran parallel to each other, even in places where the citys
natural features did not lend themselves to such a design.
The agora (central spot of the city) of Piraeus was named Hippodameia, after the citys planner. It is
possible that Piraeus had two agoras, which was unusual, but like many of the specifics of the Piraeus
plan, this is mostly speculation and remains unknown.

OLYNTHUS
The city of Olynthus was divided into three main sections that were all built at different times and
considered independent of one another the South Hill, the North Hill, and the Villa Section.
The North Hill was built in 432 BC and follows a Hippodamian plan. We cannot be sure if Hippodamus
himself directly participated in designing as he was almost 70 years of age. Regardless, North Hill was
laid out on a Hippodamian grid of straight, wide streets. At the south end of the North Hill was the
agora, which covered nearly four city blocks. The agora was surrounded by several other public
buildings and an area of commerce which ran along a central avenue of the city.

The agora was highly accessible to both North and South Hill residents, as well as foreigners passing
through Olynthus. The public land was surrounded by private homes, creating a separation between
public and private land, as per the Hippodamian plan.

THE HOUSE
The Greek word for the family or household, oikos, is also the name for the house. Houses followed
several different types. It is probable that many of the earliest houses were simple structures of two
rooms, with an open porch or "pronaos" above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment. This form
is thought to have contributed to temple architecture.
The Urban Planning Study for Piraeus (451 BC), which is considered to be a work of Hippodamus,
formed the planning standards of that era and was used in many cities of the classical epoch.
According to this study, neighbourhoods of around 2,400 m2 blocks were constructed where small
groups of 2-floor houses were built. The houses were lined up with walls separating them while the
main facets were towards the south.
The construction of many houses employed walls of sun dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled
with fibrous material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of stone which
protected the more vulnerable elements from damp. The roofs were probably of thatch with eaves
which overhung the permeable walls.
Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were built of stone and plastered. The roofing material for
substantial house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors and demonstrated the Classical
style.

The House of Masks, Delos, 3rd cent. BC

The House of Masks

The mosaic floor of a house at Delos

The construction of many houses employed walls of sun dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled
with fibrous material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of stone which
protected the more vulnerable elements from damp. The roofs were probably of thatch with eaves
which overhung the permeable walls. Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were built of stone
and plastered. The roofing material for substantial house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic
floors and demonstrated the Classical style.
Many houses centred on a wide passage or "pasta" which ran the length of the house and opened at
one side onto a small courtyard which admitted light and air. Larger houses had a fully developed
peristyle courtyard at the centre, with the rooms arranged around it. Some houses had an upper floor
which appears to have been reserved for the use of the women of the family.
City houses were built with adjoining walls and were divided into small blocks by narrow streets.
Shops were sometimes located in the rooms towards the street. City houses were inward-facing, with
major openings looking onto the central courtyard, rather than the street.

PASTAS HOUSE
Typical houses in Olynthus during 5th and 4th centuries BC and the 2nd century houses on Delos had
the small rooms of the home arranged in a rectangle plan around a colonnaded interior courtyard.

Houses usually were centred on a courtyard that would have

been the scene for various ritual activities; the courtyard also
provided natural light for the often small houses.
The houses excavated in the southwest part of the Athenian
Agora had walls of mud brick that rested on stone socles and
tiled roofs, with floors of beaten clay.

PROTAS HOUSE
A second house plan was found in Priene which also focused on
an interior courtyard but it had much different floor plan.
Instead of a collection of small rooms, the primary living area
consisted of a large rectangular hall that lead to a columned
porch. Opening off the sides of the courtyard were small rooms
for servants, storage, and cooking.

THE GREEK ORDERS

Stylistically, Ancient Greek architecture is divided into three orders: the Doric order, the Ionic order
and the Corinthian order, the names reflecting their origins. While the three orders are most easily
recognizable by their capitals, the orders also governed the form, proportions, details and
relationships of the columns, entablature, pediment and the stylobate. The different orders were
applied to the whole range of buildings and monuments.
The Doric order developed on mainland Greece and spread to Italy. It was firmly established and welldefined in its characteristics by the time of the building of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, c. 600 BC.
The Ionic order co-existed with the Doric, being favoured by the Greek cites of Ionia, in Asia Minor and
the Aegean Islands. It did not reach a clearly defined form until the mid 5th century BC. The early Ionic
temples of Asia Minor were particularly ambitious in scale, such as the Temple of Artemis at
Ephesus. The Corinthian order was a highly decorative variant not developed until the Hellenistic
period and retaining many characteristics of the Ionic. It was popularised by the Romans.

DORIC:

Doric columns are the heaviest in appearance

The capital is plain.
The shaft is thick though it loses some of its mass over time.

There is no base.

IONIC:

These have greater elegance.

The capital has distinctive volutes.
The shaft is thinner than its Doric equivalent.
A base is apparent.

CORINTHIAN:

This is also a tall, elegant form.

The capital has distinctive acanthus leaf decoration.
A base is also employed.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS
TEMPLE
The rectangular temple is the most common and best-known form of Greek public architecture. They
did not serve the same function as a modern church, since the altar stood under the open sky in
the temenos or sacred precinct, often directly before the temple.
Temples served as the location of a cult image and as a storage
place or strong room for the treasury associated with the cult
of the god in question, and as a place for devotees of the god
to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and
weapons.
Some Greek temples appear to have been oriented
astronomically. The temple was generally part of a religious
precinct known as the acropolis. According to Aristotle, '"the
site should be a spot seen far and wide, which gives good
elevation to virtue and towers over the neighbourhood".
During the Archaic period the tenets of the Doric order of
architecture in the Greek mainland became firmly established,
leading to a wave of monumental temple building during the
sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E.
Temples from Ionia tended to differ from the norm, usually
having a double colonnade (dipteral).
Greek city-states invested substantial resources in temple.
The fullest, and most famous, expression of Classical Greek
temple architecture is the Periclean Parthenon of Athensa
Doric order structure, the Parthenon represents the maturity
of the Greek classical form.

Many temples also carried architectural sculpture arranged to tell a

narrative. Pediments, friezes,
and metopes all carried
sculpture, often in the round or
in high relief and always richly
decorated (with paint and
bronze additions), which retold
stories from Greek mythology
or great episodes in that
particular citys history.

Greek temples are often categorized in terms of their ground plan and the way in which the columns
are arranged.

THOLOS

In ancient Greek architecture, tholos is a circular building with a conical or vaulted roof and with or
without a peristyle, or surrounding colonnade.

In the Mycenaean period, tholoi were large

ceremonial tombs, sometimes built into the sides of hills; they were beehive-shaped and covered by a
corbeled arch. The foundations were a series of concentric walls with doors and partitions that made a
subterranean labyrinth.

STOA
Stoa is a Greek architectural term that describes a covered walkway or colonnade that was usually
designed for public use.
Early examples, often employing the Doric order, were usually composed of a single level, although
later examples (Hellenistic and Roman) came to be two-story freestanding structures.
Greek city planners came to prefer the stoa as a device for framing the agora (public market place) of
a city or town. These later examples allowed interior space for shops or other rooms and often
incorporated the Ionic order for interior colonnades.
The South Stoa constructed as part of the sanctuary of Hera on the island of Samos (c. 700-550 B.C.E.)

numbers among the earliest examples of the stoa in Greek architecture.

In Athens the famous Stoa Poikile (Painted Stoa), c. fifth century B.C.E., housed paintings of famous
Greek military exploits including the battle of Marathon
The Stoa Basileios (Royal Stoa), c. fifth century B.C.E., was the seat of a chief civic official (archon
basileios).

THEATRE
The Greek theatre was a large, open-air structure used for dramatic performance.
Theatres often took advantage of hillsides and naturally sloping terrain and, in general, utilized the
panoramic landscape as the backdrop to the stage itself.
The Greek theatre is composed of the seating area (theatron), a circular space for the chorus to
perform (orchestra), and the stage (skene). Tiered seats in the theatron provided space for spectators.
Two side aisles (parados, pl. paradoi) provided access to the orchestra.

The Greek theatre inspired the Roman version of the theatre directly, although the Romans
introduced some modifications to the concept of theatre architecture. In many cases the Romans
converted pre-existing Greek theatres to conform to their own architectural ideals, as is evident in the
Theatre of Dionysos on the slopes of the Athenian

Acropolis. Since theatrical performances were often

linked to sacred festivals, it is not uncommon to find theatres associated directly with sanctuaries.

BOULEUTERION
The Bouleuterion was an important civic building in a
Greek city, as it was the meeting place of the boule
(citizen council) of the city. It was generally a covered,
rectilinear building with stepped seating surrounding a
central speakers well in which an altar was placed.
The city of Prine has a particularly well-preserved
example of this civic structure as does the city of
Miletus.These select representatives assembled to handle
public affairs and represent the citizenry of the polis (in
ancient Athens the boule was comprised of 500 members).
The Old Bouleuterion was built on the west side of the Agora below the Kolonos Agoraios around
450 bc. It was almost square and included an oblong antechamber and a main council chamber, a
large rectangular room with wooden benches arranged in rows along
the walls. The roof was supported by five columns. It is now better
known as the Metroon ("House of the Mother") since it was
repurposed as her temple after the construction of the New
Bouleuterion.

The New Bouleuterion was

built west of the old building in the late 5th century bc. It was smaller but more sophisticated, with an
amphitheater-like system of 12 levels of semicircular benches. Both the Old and New Bouleuteria used
the nearby Tholos.

PRYTANEION
A Prytaneion was seat of the Prytaneis (executive), and so the seat of government in ancient Greece.
The term is used to describe any of a range of ancient structures where officials met (normally relating
to the government of a city) but the term is also used to refer to the building where the officials and

winners of the Olympic Games met at Olympia. It normally stood in centre of the city, in the agora.
The building contained the holy fire of Hestia, the goddess of the hearth, and symbol of the life of the
city.

STADIUM
The Greek stadium (derived from stadion, a Greek measurement equivalent to c. 578 feet or 176
meters) was the location of foot races held as part of sacred games; these structures are often found
in the context of sanctuaries.
Long and narrow, with a horseshoe shape, the stadium occupied reasonably flat terrain. It was initially
constructed near natural embankments, stadia evolved into more sophisticated structures with rows
of stone or even marble steps for seating which had divisions for ease of access.
Conduits ran around the track to drain off excess rainfall and in Hellenistic times vaulted corridors
provided a dramatic entrance for athletes and judges. Famous examples include those at Nemea and
Olympia which had seating capacities of 30,000 and 45,000 spectators respectively.
The gymnasium (from the Greek term gymns meaning "naked") was a training center for athletes
who participated in public games. This facility tended to include areas for both training and storage.
The palaestra () was an exercise facility originally connected with the training of wrestlers.
These complexes were generally rectilinear in plan, with a colonnade framing a central, open space.

FORTIFICATIONS
Because of its geomorphology, the Acropolis has been a refuge since prehistoric times. The first, socalled 'Cyclopean' wall, was built along the top of the hill in the Mycenaean period, at approximately
1200 BC.
A curved enclosure wall, the co-called 'Pelargic' wall mentioned by Thucydides, was also built to the
northwest during this period.
This Mycenaean wall remained in use with minor repairs and changes until 480 BC, when it was
severely damaged by the Persians.
After the departure of the Persians, both the city of Athens and the Acropolis were given new walls.
The northern, or Themistoclean, wall was the first to be built
using material from the monuments destroyed by the
Persians. North of the Erechtheion one may notice the
unfinished marble drums of the Pre-Parthenon, while further
to the west are fragments from the entablature (cornices,
triglyphs and metopes) from the Old temple of Athena.
The southern, or Kimonean, wall was erected under Kimon
after the victory at Eurymedon in 467 BC. The wall's
construction necessitated the creation of a terrace along the
south edge of the hill. It, too, used building material
(epistyles) from the Old temple and the Pre-Parthenon. The
wall remained in use and was built up to approximately the
height of the Parthenon under Perikles.
After the Herulian invasion in the third century AD, another
wall was built west of the Propylaia. Of its two gates, only the
west one, the so-called Beul gate, stands to this day.
The Acropolis became a fortress once again and was used as
such until the nineteenth century. Another south wall with
two bastions, the so-called Koulas, demolished in the nineteenth century, and a second one located at
the present Belvedere, was built in the thirteenth century. The southeast corner of the fortification
wall was repaired one last time after the Second World War.

ALTER
Since blood sacrifice was a
key component of Greek
ritual practice, an altar was essential for these purposes.
The altar itself was originally an elevation above the ground made of earth or field stones. They came
to be permanent structures made of materials like stone or bone. Altars used for burning the animal
sacrifices would be in front of the temple.
While altars did not necessarily need to be architecturalized, they could be and, in some cases, they
assumed a monumental scale.
The third century B.C.E. Altar of Hieron II at Syracuse, Sicily, provides one such example. At c. 196
meters in length and c. 11 m in height the massive altar was reported to be capable of hosting the
simultaneous sacrifice of 450 bulls.

FOUNTAIN HOUSE
A fountain house or a building with a fountain at the center is a place where women collected water in
vases or jars. These spaces were close to civic spaces like the agora.
Gathering water was seen as a womans task and, as such, it offered the often isolated women a
chance to socialize with others while collecting water.

Fountain house scenes are common on ceramic water jars (hydriai), as is the case for a Black-figured
hydria.

ACROPOLIS
The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel located on a high rocky outcrop above the city
of Athens and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic
significance, the most famous being the Parthenon.

PARTHENON
Parthenon is a temple of the Doric
order with eight columns at the faade,
and seventeen columns at the flanks,
conforming to the established ratio of
9:4. This ratio governed the vertical and
horizontal proportions of the temple as
well as many other relationships of the
building like the spacing between the
columns and their height.
The cella was unusually large to accommodate the oversized statue of Athena, confining the front and
back porch to a much smaller than usual size. A line of six Doric columns supported the front and back
porch, while a colonnade of 23 smaller Doric columns surrounded the statue in a two-storied
arrangement. The placement of columns behind the statue was an unusual development since in
previous Doric temples they only appeared on the flanks, but the greater width and length of the
Parthenon allowed for a dramatic backdrop of double decked columns instead of a wall.
The back room sheltered Athenas treasure and four columns of the Ionic order supported its roof.
The introduction of elements of the Ionic order in a predominately Doric temple was more dramatic in
the development of a continuous freeze on the exterior wall of the cella. While the integration of
Doric and Ionic elements on the same temple was not a new development in Greek architecture, it
was rare, and bestowed on the Parthenon a delicate balance between austere and delicate visual
characteristics.

All temples in Greece were designed to be seen only

from the outside. The viewers never entered a temple and could only glimpse the interior statues
through the open doors. The Parthenon was conceived in a way that the aesthetic elements allow for
a smooth transition between the exterior and the interior that housed the chryselephantine statue of
Athena. A visitor to the Acropolis who entered from the Propylaia would be confronted by the
majestic proportion of the Parthenon in three quarters view, with full view of the west pediment and
the north colonnade. As the viewer moved closer, the details of the sculpted metopes would become
decipherable, and when in proximity to the base of the columns, parts of the frieze would become
evident in tantalizing colorful glimpses peering from the spaces between the columns.

PROPYLAEA
The Propylaia (Propylaea) were built as a monumental entrance to the Acropolis rock.
The Propylaia is a building of the Doric order with few Ionic columns supporting the roof of the central
wing. It is an impressive building that surrounds the natural entrance to the plateau, and one
approached it in ancient times through an inclining ramp that led visitors straight through the steps in
front of the Propylaia. Later, the Romans built a more dramatic ramp that guided the visitors up
towards the entrance of the Acropolis in a zigzag fashion.

The Propylaia is a building of the Doric order with few

Ionic columns supporting the roof of the central wing. It
was a complex structure to conceive and assemble, and
was clearly designed to make a lasting impression for the
approaching visitor. The main hall divided the building
into two wings, one to the east and one to the west. The east section of the Propylaia had an inner
wing, while the west wing, is on a slightly higher level than its east counterpart, and is built adjacent to
the small temple of Athena Nike which protrudes diagonally towards the main ascending ramp.
The visitor ascended a wide inclining ramp towards the central part of the Propylaia, and just below
the massive doors he was engulfed by the six massive Doric columns that flanked the door, and the six
smaller ones to the visitors periphery. To continue
he had to either scale the four marble steps directly
under the columns, or he could continue through
the narrowing ramp at the center. Once past the
steps, he would be walking inside the central hall
that was considerably narrower than the ramp, but
was lined on each side by three Ionic columns that
supported the massive weigh of the roof. The roof
was entirely made of large slabs of marble solely
supported by the columns, and to reduce its weight
decorative coffers (stepped, concave squares) were
cut into it, which were in turn painted vividly and decorated with ornamental floral motifs and star
patterns. At last, he would be confronted with a large central gate, which was flanked by two smaller
doors on each side.

ERECHTHEION
While the Parthenon was the most impressive temple
on the Acropolis, another building, the Erechtheion
was built to accommodate the religious rituals that
the old temple housed.
The Erechtheion is an intricate temple and contrasts
sharply with the neighbouring Parthenon. The temple
faces east and its entrance is lined with six long Ionic
columns. To the north and west the wall of the
temple drops dramatically to almost twice the
altitude of the front and south sides. The temple is
unusual in that it incorporates two porches
(prostaseis); one at the northwest corner which is
supported by tall Ionic columns, and one at the southwest corner which is supported by six massive female statues, the famous Caryatids.

The Erechtheion was built as a replacement for the Old Temple,and to house all the shrines and
rituals that once took place there.The temple however has undergone major rebuilding phases
through the centuries making its original interior make up a subject of conjecture. It was damaged first
in classical times, perhaps even before it was finished, by a major fire before it was subsequently
renovated. Later when it was converted into a Christian Basilica in the seventh century CE the interior
walls were removed and new ones were built. During the Ottoman Empire the temple was converted
to a harem and the north porch was walled up.
The Caryatids have become the temples signature feature, as they stand and seem to casually support
the weight of the porchs roof on their heads.

TEMPLE OF ATHENA NIKE

The southwest of the Acropolis plateau, right next to the Propylaia, has been an important location of
a sanctuary dating back to the Mycenaean era. It is a protruding tall mass of rock, strategically located
in a way that protects the south flank of the most vulnerable access point and gate to the citadel.
The Classical temple is considerably smaller than the other
temples of the Acropolis. It is the first building that greets
the visitors who approach the Propylaia and its elegant Ionic
features balance the dominating Doric character of the
Propylaia. It faces to the east and its entrance is lined with
four monolithic Ionic columns that support a shallow porch.
The west end is similarly treated with four Ionic columns
and a porch, but they preceded a blind wall. The inclusion of
a tetrastyle (four columns) at the back of the temple was
necessary for this side faced the entrance to the Acropolis.
The temple was designed by Kallikrates and is 11 feet tall
from the stylobate to the apex of its pediment. As was
customary in Attica (but not in Ionia) the temple was
decorated with a continuous frieze.

The temple's ratio of the column height to its length is 7:1 instead of the customary 9:1 of other Ionic
temples. The parapet of the Temple of Athena Nike surrounded the temple and acted as a guardrail to
protect people from falling off the steep bastion. It was elaborately decorated by relief
sculptures which were seen best by the visitors ascending the ramp towards the Propylaia. It depicted
not a coherent story like the Parthenon frieze, but instead it was decorated with a number of Nike
relief sculptures in various states of activity. The parapet was built after the temple was complete,
perhaps as late as 410 BCE.
Much later in its history in 1687, during Ottoman occupation the temple of Athena Nike was
dismantled when the Venetians besieged the Turks at the Acropolis. The Turks used the stones from

the temple to build a bastion next to the Propylaia. The Venetians finally forced the Turks to
surrender after eight days of intense bombardment, and the temple stones remained as part of the
bastion until the liberation of Greece.

CHALKOTHEKE & BRAURONEION

It was the building that housed the treasury of Athens. It contained the bronze (chalkos) and other
metal possession of the treasury, and was located adjacent to the south wall, a little to the southwest
of the Parthenon. Kimon built it about the same time as the Brauroneion.
Stoa dedicated to the goddess Artemis Brauronia. It was built next to the Chalkotheke, immediately to
the right as one enters through the Propylaia. Built around 430 BCE, the stoa faces north with one
wing to its west on the same orientation, and two westward facing wings to the east.

SANCTURIES
To the East of the Erechtheion, the Athenians built the open-air sanctuary of Zeus Polieus (Zeus the
City-Protector) around 500 BCE. It was a walled trapezoidal area with several entrances and a
pediment over its main entrance.
The walls contained an area for the annual ritual of Bouphonia during which the sacrifice of oxen took
place. It is believed that the east wing of the walled area was where the oxen were held. No building
foundations have been found, and the sanctuarys layout is deduced from the rock cuttings on the
site.
The foundations of the Pandion sanctuary were unearthed during excavations for the construction of
the Acropolis museum that now exists at the east corner of the Acropolis. The 40m x 17.5 m open-air
walled sanctuary was built around 450 BCE to probably serve the Pandion (all-Zeus) festival. It was
divided in two areas separated by a wall. The west area was used as a sanctuary and was built (or
reconstructed) during the building program Perikles, while the east part is dated to pre-Perikles era
and it is believed that it was utilized as a service area for the festival.

GOVERNMENT
800 BC
The majority of Greek states were governed by groups of rich landowners, called aristocrats; this word
is derived from 'aristoi', meaning best people. This was a system known as 'oligarchy' the rule by the
few.
750 BC
Athenian power in the Archaic Period was controlled by Aeropagus, or council. Their policies were
delivered through three magistrates called Archons.
500 BC
Democracy was introduced by an aristocrat, Cleisthenes. Who was from family of the Alcmaeonids in
508 BC, after 2 years of civil war, they used the help of Spartans to secure power.
The Greeks had a lot of different kinds of governments, because there were many different citystates in ancient Greece, and they each had their own government. In addition, people's ideas about
what made a good government changed over time.
Aristotle divided Greek governments into monarchies, oligarchies, tyrannies and democracies, and
most historians still use these same divisions.

MONARCHIES
In the Greek world monarchies were rare and were often only distinguishable from a tyranny when
the hereditary ruler was more benevolent and ruled in the genuine interest of his people. The most
famous monarchies were those in the states of Macedonia and Epeiros, where the ruler shared power
with an assembly, limited though these were in practice.
Although Sparta also possessed a citizen assembly, it is most famous for its system of two kings.
Not absolute monarchs, they did, however, hold great power when they led the Spartan army in times
of war. During peacetime the kings were kept in check by ephors (ephoroi) who were themselves
elected by the assembly.
Clearly, a degree of political consensus was necessary for this overlapping apparatus to function. The
kings were also members of the gerousia and were admitted from a young age, so that they must
have had a significant advantage over the other members who couldnt join until they were 60.
Spartan kings could, however, be put on trial and even exiled.

OLIGARCHY
An oligarchy is a system of political power controlled by a select group of individuals, sometimes small
in number but it could also include large groups. Oligarchies were perhaps the most common form
of city-state government and they often occurred when democracy went wrong.
Unfortunately, information concerning oligarchies in the Greek world is sparse. We know that in 411
BCE in Athens, the oligarchy of the 400 took power out of the hands of the Assembly and were
themselves superseded by a more moderate oligarchy of 5000.

In 404 BCE, following the defeat of the Athenian military forces in Sicily, there was an oligarchy of the
Thirty Tyrants in Athens which was a particularly brutal regime, noted for its summary
executions. Megara and Thebes were other states which had an oligarchic system.

TYRANNY
Tyrants were sole rulers of a state who had taken power in an unconstitutional manner, often
murdering their predecessor. However, Greek tyrants were not necessarily evil rulers (as the word
signifies today); they simply looked after their own interests. Syracuse in Sicily had a run of famous
tyrants.
For Athenians, tyranny became the exact opposite of democracy, a position that allowed the citizens
of Athens to feel a certain superiority.

DEMOCRACY
The word democracy derives from the Greek dmos which referred to the entire citizen body. The
assembly of Athens met at least once a month, perhaps two or three times, on the Pnyx hill in a
dedicated space which could accommodate 6000 citizens.
The assembly of Athens met at least once a month, perhaps two or three times, on the Pnyx hill in a
dedicated space which could accommodate 6000 citizens. Any male citizen 18 years or over could
speak (at least in theory) and vote in the assembly, usually with a simple show of hands. Attendance
was even paid for in certain periods, which was a measure to encourage citizens who lived far away
and couldnt afford the time-off to attend. Citizens probably accounted for 10-20% of
the polis population, and of these it has been estimated that only 3,000 or so people actively
participated in politics. Of this group, perhaps as few as 100 citizens - the wealthiest, most influential,
and the best speakers - dominated the political arena both in front of the assembly and behind the
scenes in private conspiratorial political meetings (xynomosiai) and groups (hetaireiai).
Critics of democracy, such as Thucydides and Aristophanes, also pointed out that the dmos could be
too easily swayed by a good orator or popular leaders (the demagogues) and get carried away with
their emotions. Perhaps the most famous bad decision from the Athenian democracy was the death
sentence given to the philosopher Socrates in 399 BCE.
Issues discussed in the assembly ranged from deciding magistracies to organising and maintaining
food supplies to debating military matters.
There was in Athens (and also Elis, Tegea, and Thasos) a smaller body, the boule , which decided or
prioritised the topics which were discussed in the assembly. In addition, in times of crisis and war, this
body could also take decisions without the assembly meeting. In other Greek states then, there were
also democratic assemblies, sometimes, though, with a minimum property stipulation for attendees
(as in the Boiotian federation 447-386 BCE). Some city-states also mixed democratic assemblies with a
monarchy (for example, Macedonia and Molossia).

ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY
Democracy in Ancient Greece was very direct. What this means is that all the citizens voted on all the
laws. Rather than vote for representatives, like we do, each citizen was expected to vote for every
law.
They did have officials to run the government, however. Most of these officials were chosen by a
lottery. So every citizen had a chance, regardless of their popularity or wealth, to become an official.
A few key positions were voted on, such as the treasurer and the 10 generals who ran the army (also
called the strategoi).
WHO COULD VOTE?
In order to vote, you had to be a citizen. However, not everyone who lived in Athens was a citizen.
Only men who had completed their military training were counted as citizens.

BODIES OF GOVERNMENT
There were three main bodies of the government: the Assembly, the Council of 500, and the Courts.
THE ASSEMBLY
It included all citizens who showed up to vote. Everyone who was a citizen could participate as part of
the assembly. The assembly would decide on new laws and important decisions, like whether or not to
go to war.
THE COUNCIL
It oversaw much of the day-to-day running of the government. The Council was determined by lottery.
If your name was chosen, then you would be on the council for one year.
THE COURTS
It handled lawsuits and trials. The courts had large juries to help make decisions. For private lawsuits
the jury was at least 201 people, for public lawsuits the jury was at least 501 people.
ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY WAS MADE UP OF THREE IMPORTANT INSTITUTIONS.
THE EKKLESIA
The first was the ekklesia, or Assembly, the sovereign governing body of Athens. Any member of the
demosany one of those 40,000 adult male citizenswas welcome to attend the meetings of the
ekklesia, which were held 40 times per year in a hillside auditorium west of the Acropolis called the
Pnyx. (Only about 5,000 men attended each session of the Assembly; the rest were serving in the army
or navy or working to support their families.) At the meetings, the ekklesia made decisions about war
and foreign policy, wrote and revised laws and approved or condemned the conduct of public officials.
(Ostracism, in which a citizen could be expelled from the Athenian city-state for 10 years, was among
the powers of the ekklesia.) The group made decisions by simple majority vote.
THE BOULE
The second important institution was the boule, or Council of Five Hundred. The boule was a group of
500 men, 50 from each of ten Athenian tribes, who served on the Council for one year. Unlike the
ekklesia, the boule met every day and did most of the hands-on work of governance. It supervised
government workers and was in charge of things like navy ships (triremes) and army horses. It dealt
with ambassadors and representatives from other city-states. Its main function was to decide what
matters would come before the ekklesia. In this way, the 500 members of the boule dictated how the
entire democracy would work.
Positions on the boule were chosen by lot and not by election. This was because, in theory, a random
lottery was more democratic than an election: pure chance, after all, could not be influenced by things
like money or popularity. The lottery system also prevented the establishment of a permanent class of
civil servants who might be tempted to use the government to advance or enrich themselves.
However, historians argue that selection to the boule was not always just a matter of chance. They
note that wealthy and influential peopleand their relativesserved on the Council much more
frequently than would be likely in a truly random lottery.
THE DIKASTERIA
The third important institution was the popular courts, or dikasteria. Every day, more than 500 jurors
were chosen by lot from a pool of male citizens older than 30. Of all the democratic
institutions, Aristotle argued that the dikasteria contributed most to the strength of democracy
because the jury had almost unlimited power. There were no police in Athens, so it was the demos
themselves who brought court cases, argued for the prosecution and the defense, and delivered
verdicts and sentences by majority rule. (There were also no rules about what kinds of cases could be
prosecuted or what could and could not be said at trial, and so Athenian citizens frequently used the
dikasteria to punish or embarrass their enemies.)

Jurors were paid a wage for their work, so that the job could be accessible to everyone and not just
the wealthy (but, since the wage was less than what the average worker earned in a day, the typical
juror was an elderly retiree). Since Athenians did not pay taxes, the money for these payments came
from customs duties, contributions from allies and taxes levied on the metoikoi. The one exception to
this rule was the leitourgia, or liturgy, which was a kind of tax that wealthy people volunteered to pay
to sponsor major civic undertakings such as the maintenance of a navy ship (this liturgy was called the
trierarchia) or the production of a play or choral performance at the citys annual festival.
Anyone could bring a charge against another person in ancient Greece. There was no prosecutor. But
there were rules
FIRST: You had to tell the person that you were going to start an action against them to be
heard in "court". You had to bring witnesses with you.
SECOND: You had to post a written notice near the courthouse that clearly stated the names
of both parties, the charges, and the date, time, and location of your first trip to court on this
action.
FIRST TIME IN COURT: The first trip gave both parties a chance to speak before a judge. If the
judge felt there was enough cause, that judge would assign a trial date. That trial date had to
be posted as well.
JURY SELECTION, TRIAL BY JURY: To be on a jury, one had to be a citizen. One had to be over
30 years of age and swear to be fair to both sides. Juries did get paid. Juries were selected
from volunteers. The number of jurors could be huge. Some trials had as many as 500 jurors
who had volunteered to judge a case. Only the jury could bring in a decision that someone
was guilty or innocent. The judge only kept order, but could not decide a trial outcome.
THE TRIAL: Both sides presented their case. Then the jurors voted. Majority ruled.
PUNISHMENT: Punishments varied. If found guilty, both sides, the person bringing the charge
and the person being charged, suggested a punishment. The jury could not choose a third
choice. They had to choose one suggestion or the other.

REFERENCE:
https://en.wikipedia.org
www.ancient.eu/greece/
www.sikyon.com/
www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/greek.htm
www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grarc/hd_grarc.htm